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Hearing range

Hearing range refers to the spectrum of sound frequencies detectable by the auditory system of humans or other animals, typically measured in hertz (Hz) and varying widely across species to suit ecological and evolutionary demands. In humans, the standard audible range extends from approximately 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz (20 kHz), encompassing sounds from low rumbles to high-pitched whistles, though infants may perceive frequencies slightly higher than 20 kHz.^[1] This range enables the processing of speech, music, and environmental cues, with peak sensitivity between 2,000 and 5,000 Hz where human hearing is most acute.^[2] Individual and age-related variations significantly influence the human hearing range, particularly at the upper frequencies. The ability to hear high frequencies diminishes progressively with age due to presbycusis, a form of sensorineural hearing loss that primarily affects the cochlea's hair cells responsible for processing tones above 8,000 Hz, often resulting in significant hearing loss at frequencies above 8,000 Hz by age 60 or older.^[3] Factors such as noise exposure, genetics, and health conditions can further narrow this range, with the overall dynamic intensity range spanning about 130 decibels (dB) from the threshold of hearing at 0 dB to painful levels around 130 dB, concentrated in the mid-frequency band.^[2] These changes impact speech discrimination, as high-frequency consonants become harder to distinguish.^[3] Across animal species, hearing ranges exhibit remarkable diversity, reflecting adaptations for survival such as predation, communication, and navigation. Mammalian hearing ranges vary widely, with low-frequency limits often starting around 50–100 Hz in many species but extending lower in others, such as elephants, and diverging sharply in upper limits, from 12 kHz in elephants to over 200 kHz in some bats.^[4] For instance, domestic dogs perceive frequencies from about 67 Hz to 45 kHz, granting sensitivity to ultrasonic sounds used in training whistles and prey detection.^[5] Bats, key examples of specialized hearing, detect up to 200 kHz or more to facilitate echolocation, with constant-frequency calls in the 20–80 kHz range for precise obstacle avoidance.^[6] In contrast, elephants excel in infrasonic detection, hearing from 14 Hz to 12 kHz, which supports long-distance communication through low-frequency rumbles that travel kilometers.^[7] Primates show intermediate ranges, with humans at the lower end (upper limit ~17.6 kHz) compared to species like the lesser bushbaby (~65 kHz).^[8] Evolutionarily, mammalian hearing ranges have expanded from reptilian ancestors, with cochlear coiling and ossicle refinements enabling broader frequency discrimination for enhanced sound localization and social interaction.^[9] Laboratory animals like mice (1–90 kHz) and rats (500 Hz–60 kHz) illustrate this variability, informing biomedical research on auditory function.^[10] Understanding these ranges underscores the auditory system's role in behavior and highlights vulnerabilities to environmental noise across taxa.^[4]

Physiological and Measurement Basics

Physiology of Hearing

The auditory system comprises three main divisions: the outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear, each contributing to the capture, amplification, and transduction of sound waves into neural signals. The outer ear, consisting of the pinna and auditory canal, collects and funnels sound waves toward the eardrum (tympanic membrane). The middle ear, an air-filled cavity, contains the ossicles—malleus, incus, and stapes—which mechanically amplify vibrations from the eardrum and transmit them to the inner ear via the oval window, overcoming the impedance mismatch between air and fluid media. The inner ear houses the cochlea, a coiled, fluid-filled structure that performs frequency analysis through mechanical resonance.^[11]^[12]^[13] Within the cochlea, the basilar membrane—a flexible, tonotopically organized structure—vibrates in response to sound-induced fluid waves, with different frequencies peaking at specific locations along its length: high frequencies near the base and low frequencies at the apex. This tonotopy arises from the membrane's gradient in stiffness and mass, enabling spatial separation of frequencies. Stereocilia on inner and outer hair cells, embedded in the organ of Corti atop the basilar membrane, deflect with these vibrations, opening mechanically gated ion channels and generating receptor potentials that trigger neurotransmitter release. Inner hair cells primarily convey auditory information to the brain, while outer hair cells enhance sensitivity through electromotility, amplifying basilar membrane motion via the cochlear amplifier mechanism. Frequency discrimination thus relies on this place-specific activation of hair cells, where each population responds best to a narrow band of frequencies.^[12]^[14]^[15] Neural signals from hair cells synapse onto bipolar neurons of the spiral ganglion, whose axons form the auditory nerve (cranial nerve VIII), projecting to the cochlear nuclei in the brainstem. From there, ascending pathways bifurcate into ventral and dorsal streams: the ventral pathway, via the superior olivary complex and inferior colliculus, supports sound localization and temporal processing; the dorsal pathway, through the lateral lemniscus to the medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus, relays to the primary auditory cortex in the temporal lobe. Neurons along this pathway exhibit frequency tuning curves—V-shaped sensitivity profiles peaking at a characteristic frequency (CF)—which sharpen from periphery to cortex, allowing precise frequency resolution. Critical bands, the bandwidths of these tuning curves (typically 1-4% of CF), define the spectral resolution limits, as sounds within a band interfere via masking, reflecting the auditory system's filter-like processing.^[11]^[16]^[17] Auditory sensitivity varies with frequency, as captured by the audibility curve (or equal-loudness contour), which plots the minimum detectable sound pressure level (threshold) against frequency, showing peak sensitivity around 2-5 kHz due to middle ear resonance and cochlear tuning. Thresholds represent the just-noticeable intensity for pure tones, influenced by hair cell transduction efficiency and neural summation within critical bands. These limits stem from evolutionary adaptations: vertebrate hearing evolved from ancestral mechanosensory lateral line systems in aquatic environments, where otolith-based detection suited low-frequency water-borne vibrations (propagation speed ~1480 m/s, favoring long wavelengths). Transition to terrestrial tetrapods involved middle ear development for aerial sound (propagation speed ~343 m/s, attenuating high frequencies >20 kHz due to absorption and anatomical constraints like ossicle mass), constraining ranges to ~20 Hz-20 kHz in many mammals while optimizing for conspecific communication and predation cues.^[18]^[19]^[20]

Measurement Techniques

Measurement techniques for assessing hearing range encompass a variety of psychophysical and electrophysiological approaches designed to determine auditory thresholds across frequencies and intensities. These methods have evolved significantly since the early 20th century, with foundational work by Georg von Békésy in the 1940s introducing automated audiometry that allowed for continuous tracking of thresholds through listener-controlled attenuation of pure tones.^[21] Von Békésy's innovations, including self-recording devices based on the method of adjustment, shifted audiometry from manual discrete testing to more efficient, continuous procedures, laying the groundwork for modern automated systems.^[22] By the late 20th century, digital signal processing integrated into audiometers enabled precise frequency sweeps and adaptive testing protocols, enhancing accuracy and reducing test duration through real-time signal analysis and automated threshold estimation.^[23] Psychophysical methods rely on the subject's active response to auditory stimuli to establish thresholds, making them subjective but valuable for detailed behavioral assessment. Pure-tone audiometry, a cornerstone technique, involves presenting discrete pure tones at varying frequencies and intensities via headphones or speakers, with the subject indicating detection, typically by raising a hand or pressing a button; thresholds are determined using ascending-descending paradigms like the Hughson-Westlake method to minimize response bias.^[24] In non-human animals, behavioral conditioning adapts this approach through operant training, where subjects learn to perform a specific action—such as pressing a lever or moving to a location—upon detecting a tone, often reinforced with food or water rewards to measure absolute thresholds reliably.^[25] These conditioned response paradigms allow for psychoacoustic testing in species incapable of verbal feedback, though they require extensive training sessions to achieve consistent performance.^[26] Electrophysiological techniques provide objective measures by recording neural or cochlear responses, bypassing the need for behavioral cooperation and proving essential for infants, sedated animals, or uncooperative subjects. Auditory brainstem response (ABR) testing elicits electrical potentials from the auditory nerve and brainstem following brief click or tone-burst stimuli, with thresholds inferred from the presence and amplitude of waveform peaks like Wave V; it is particularly useful for estimating frequency-specific sensitivity when combined with tone-pip or notched-noise masking.^[27] Otoacoustic emissions (OAE) detect sounds generated by outer hair cells in the cochlea in response to acoustic stimuli, such as transient evoked OAEs from clicks or distortion-product OAEs from paired tones, serving as an indicator of cochlear health and approximate threshold levels without requiring subject response.^[28] These methods complement psychophysical approaches by offering rapid, non-invasive insights into peripheral auditory function. Audiograms are constructed by plotting hearing thresholds— the minimum sound levels detectable at discrete frequencies—against frequency on a logarithmic scale, typically spanning 250 Hz to 8 kHz for standard assessments, to visualize sensitivity profiles.^[29] The minimum audible field (MAF) represents a standardized reference for free-field thresholds, defined as the sound pressure level at which a tone becomes just detectable in an anechoic environment with the listener facing the source, often used to calibrate sound fields and account for binaural listening advantages over earphone-based minimum audible pressure measures.^[30] This graphical representation facilitates comparison across tests and subjects, emphasizing conceptual patterns like U-shaped sensitivity curves rather than exhaustive data points. Cross-species application of these techniques introduces specific challenges that can influence threshold accuracy. Anesthesia, commonly used in electrophysiological testing of animals, depresses neural responses and may elevate ABR thresholds by altering synaptic transmission or cochlear blood flow, necessitating species-specific corrections or awake-state alternatives where feasible.^[31] Motivational biases in behavioral conditioning can lead to conservative or liberal responding, where animals under- or over-report detection due to fatigue, reward value, or task familiarity, requiring rigorous controls like randomized trial orders and bias assessments to ensure reliability.^[26] These factors underscore the need for tailored protocols to mitigate confounds in comparative studies.

Hearing in Humans

Typical Frequency Range

The typical frequency range of human hearing spans approximately 20 Hz to 20 kHz under standard conditions, encompassing the audible spectrum for most young adults with normal hearing.^[1] This range reflects the frequencies at which pure tones can be detected at or near the absolute threshold of hearing, though individual detection varies slightly based on testing conditions. Within this spectrum, human hearing exhibits peak sensitivity between 2 and 5 kHz, where the ear is most responsive to sounds of moderate intensity, aligning with the resonance properties of the outer ear canal and middle ear system.^[32] Sensitivity to sound varies across frequencies, as illustrated by equal-loudness contours, originally mapped by Fletcher and Munson in their seminal 1933 study. These contours, often referred to as Fletcher-Munson curves, demonstrate that the perceived loudness of a tone depends on both its frequency and intensity; for instance, low-frequency sounds below 500 Hz require higher sound pressure levels to match the perceived loudness of mid-range tones around 3-4 kHz.^[33] Later refinements, such as the ISO 226 standard, build on this work to show how sensitivity dips at the extremes of the audible range, with thresholds rising sharply below 100 Hz and above 10 kHz. The absolute threshold of hearing reaches its minimum—around 0 dB sound pressure level (SPL)—in the 1-4 kHz region, where even faint sounds on the order of 20 micropascals can be detected. Frequencies below 20 Hz (infrasound) and above 20 kHz (ultrasound) are generally inaudible to humans due to physiological limitations in the inner ear, particularly the mechanics of the basilar membrane. For infrasound, the middle ear's stiffness dominates impedance below about 200 Hz, severely attenuating transmission to the cochlea and preventing effective vibration of the basilar membrane.^[34] Ultrasound exceeds the tuning range of the basilar membrane's basal region, where stiffness and mass properties limit wave propagation and hair cell stimulation to frequencies up to roughly 20 kHz.^[35] The perceived audible range can extend slightly at higher SPLs, as louder sounds overcome threshold elevations at the frequency extremes, but this is constrained by the ear's nonlinear response. Sound pressure level (SPL) quantifies intensity relative to a reference and influences the effective hearing range, with the formula L = 20 \log_{10} \left( \frac{P}{P_0} \right), where L is the SPL in decibels, P is the measured sound pressure in pascals, and P_0 = 20 \times 10^{-6} Pa is the standard reference pressure approximating the absolute threshold at 1 kHz.^[36] At elevated SPLs, such as 80 dB or higher, frequencies near the range limits become perceptible, though discomfort or damage risk increases, underscoring the ear's adaptive yet vulnerable design.

Variations Across Lifespan and Populations

Human hearing capabilities evolve markedly from fetal development through adulthood, influenced by physiological maturation. Fetal hearing emerges around 20 weeks of gestation, with initial sensitivity to low-frequency sounds in the range of approximately 100-250 Hz, gradually expanding to include higher frequencies up to 1000-3000 Hz by the end of pregnancy.^[37] Newborn infants exhibit a broader auditory range than adults, detecting frequencies up to 20 kHz or higher, which progressively narrows to the typical adult spectrum of 20 Hz to 20 kHz by adolescence as the auditory system refines its processing.^[38] Age-related hearing loss, known as presbycusis, represents a primary source of variation in older populations, characterized by a gradual decline in sensitivity, particularly at high frequencies. This process begins subtly in the 20s with minor threshold elevations above 8 kHz, accelerating such that by age 60, the upper frequency limit often reduces to 8-12 kHz, affecting speech discrimination in noisy environments.^[3] Presbycusis impacts approximately two-thirds of individuals over 70, stemming from cumulative cochlear damage including hair cell loss and stiffening of the basilar membrane.^[39] Environmental exposures, especially chronic noise, induce significant deviations through noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL), which elevates thresholds primarily in the 3-6 kHz range. Occupational or recreational noise above 85 dB can cause permanent shifts of 10-20 dB in affected frequencies after prolonged exposure, while acute incidents lead to temporary threshold shifts (TTS) of up to 50 dB that may recover within hours to days if exposure ceases.^[40] TTS serves as an early warning, reflecting reversible synaptic fatigue in the cochlea, but repeated episodes contribute to irreversible NIHL.^[41] Genetic factors and population differences further modulate hearing range, with heritability accounting for 50-60% of variation in age-related impairment. Genome-wide association studies have identified over 50 loci influencing hearing loss risk, including mitochondrial DNA variants that may confer broader high-frequency sensitivity in certain ethnic groups, such as those of African descent compared to European populations.^[42] Sex-based disparities are notable, with males experiencing faster high-frequency decline due to greater noise exposure and hormonal influences, while pre-menopausal females often maintain superior sensitivity above 4 kHz.^[43] These variations underscore the interplay of genetics and lifestyle in shaping individual auditory profiles.^[44]

Hearing in Mammals

Non-Human Primates

Non-human primates exhibit hearing ranges that parallel human capabilities in the low frequencies but extend higher, reflecting evolutionary adaptations for detecting arboreal vocalizations and environmental cues. For Old World monkeys such as the rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta), the typical audible range spans from approximately 10 Hz to 40 kHz, with behavioral audiograms confirming sensitivity up to 31.5 kHz and electrophysiological measures extending to nearly 40 kHz.^[45]^[46] In apes, like the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), the range extends from about 30 Hz to 30 kHz, surpassing the human upper limit of around 20 kHz.^[47]^[8] Sensitivity in non-human primates peaks in the 1-8 kHz range, optimized for detecting conspecific vocalizations, with audiograms showing U-shaped curves where thresholds drop below 10 dB SPL across several octaves in this band.^[48] This region aligns with the fundamental frequencies of primate calls, though their infrasound sensitivity (below 20 Hz) is generally lower than in humans, limiting detection of very low-frequency rumbles compared to human thresholds around 20 Hz.^[8] Anatomically, non-human primates share a coiled cochlea with humans, facilitating similar tonotopic organization, but possess a shorter basilar membrane—averaging 27 mm in macaques versus 32-35 mm in humans—which contributes to their extended high-frequency detection by altering the stiffness gradient at the cochlear base.^[49] Behavioral adaptations underscore these sensitivities, particularly in alarm call detection within the 2-10 kHz range, where species like vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) respond to predator-specific cues encoded in calls peaking around 1-5 kHz for aerial threats and slightly higher for terrestrial ones.^[50] Captive studies using auditory brainstem response (ABR) techniques reveal age-related declines in hearing among non-human primates, mirroring human presbycusis with progressive high-frequency loss correlated to outer hair cell degeneration, though the progression is slower relative to lifespan, with significant thresholds shifts appearing after 20 years in rhesus monkeys.^[51]^[52]

Cats

Domestic cats (Felis catus) possess a hearing frequency range spanning approximately 45 Hz to 64 kHz, significantly broader than the human range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz, enabling them to detect both infrasonic rumbles and ultrasonic frequencies beyond human perception.^[53]^[54] This extended capability is particularly adapted for hunting, with exceptional sensitivity in the 2–10 kHz band for detecting conspecific vocalizations such as meows and purrs, and heightened responsiveness up to around 60 kHz for capturing the ultrasonic distress squeaks of rodent prey, which often exceed 50 kHz.^[55]^[56] The cat's external ears, or pinnae, are highly mobile, controlled by over 30 muscles that allow independent rotation up to 180 degrees, facilitating precise sound localization across a full horizontal plane without head movement.^[57] This mobility enhances prey detection by funneling and amplifying incoming sounds, particularly high-frequency cues from small, hidden animals, contributing to the cat's effectiveness as a stealth hunter.^[58] Auditory thresholds in cats can reach as low as -10 dB SPL at optimal frequencies around 8 kHz, demonstrating superior sensitivity to faint sounds compared to humans, especially in the ultrasonic domain where human thresholds rise sharply above 20 kHz.^[59] This acuity is supported by specialized middle ear adaptations, including co-adapted tympanic membrane and malleus-incus complex structures that optimize vibration transmission for high-frequency sounds, allowing efficient amplification of weak ultrasonic signals critical for survival.^[60] Recent studies in the 2020s, utilizing behavioral methods such as conditioned avoidance responses, have confirmed these hearing parameters in domestic cats, with audiograms derived from head-fixed tasks showing consistent ranges across individuals.^[61] Minor breed variations exist, such as slightly broader upper limits in Siamese cats, potentially linked to their slender head morphology influencing pinna acoustics, though overall capabilities remain remarkably uniform among domestic breeds.^[54]

Dogs

Domestic dogs exhibit a hearing range that typically extends from approximately 67 Hz to 45 kHz, enabling them to perceive ultrasonic frequencies beyond human capabilities and supporting roles in detection, hunting, and social communication.^[62]^[5] Their audiogram reveals optimal sensitivity in the 3–12 kHz range, where they can detect human speech components and high-pitched whistles at intensities between -5 dB and -15 dB SPL, far surpassing human thresholds in this spectrum.^[62]^[53] The erectable and independently mobile pinnae of dogs enhance sound directionality and localization, allowing precise orientation toward faint auditory cues from multiple directions through interaural time and level differences amplified by ear movement.^[63]^[64] This anatomical adaptation contributes to their ability to identify sound sources with high accuracy, even at low sound pressure levels around -15 dB SPL within their peak sensitivity band.^[62] Variations in hearing occur across breeds, influenced by head size and morphology; smaller breeds with narrower heads demonstrate greater sensitivity to high frequencies, while larger breeds show slightly reduced high-frequency acuity but comparable low-frequency detection starting around 40–67 Hz.^[65]^[66] For instance, breeds like hounds, adapted for tracking, maintain effective low-frequency hearing down to about 40 Hz to perceive pack baying and environmental rumbles during hunts.^[53] In working contexts, such as search-and-rescue operations, dogs leverage their sensitivity to mid-to-high frequencies around 10 kHz to detect subtle vocalizations or signals from buried or hidden individuals, often at distances and intensities imperceptible to humans.^[67] Recent 2024 research employing electroencephalography and auditory brainstem response techniques has further validated that upper frequency thresholds vary with body and head size, with smaller breeds exhibiting higher limits compared to larger ones.^[68]^[69] These findings underscore the adaptive tuning of canine hearing for diverse ecological and domesticated roles.

Bats

Bats possess one of the widest hearing ranges among mammals, spanning from infrasonic frequencies as low as 10 Hz to ultrasonic frequencies exceeding 200 kHz, enabling precise echolocation in complete darkness.^[6] This extreme sensitivity supports navigation, prey detection, and social communication through the analysis of self-emitted sound echoes. For example, the big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus) demonstrates hearing from approximately 1 kHz to 120 kHz, with optimal sensitivity around 20 kHz where thresholds reach as low as 7 dB SPL.^[70] A key adaptation is Doppler shift compensation, where bats adjust the frequency of their outgoing pulses to counteract shifts in returning echoes caused by relative motion, maintaining echo frequencies within their most sensitive range for accurate target ranging.^[71] Echolocation in bats relies on brief ultrasonic pulses typically ranging from 20 to 100 kHz, which are detected and processed by specialized peripheral and central auditory structures.^[72] The cochlea is hypertrophied in echolocating species, featuring expanded basilar membrane regions tuned to ultrasonic frequencies, while the auditory cortex is disproportionately large, occupying up to 20% of the neocortex in some microbats to facilitate rapid echo decoding.^[73] These adaptations allow bats to discern fine temporal and spectral details in echoes, such as insect wingbeats, even amid clutter. Detection thresholds for self-generated echoes are exceptionally low, often below 10 dB SPL at peak frequencies, enabling the localization of small prey like moths at distances of 3–5 meters despite rapid signal attenuation.^[74] Species-specific variations further refine this system; constant-frequency (CF) bats, such as horseshoe bats (Rhinolophus spp.), emit long, narrowband pulses and possess cochlear regions hyper-tuned to specific harmonics around 80 kHz, optimizing Doppler shift compensation for flutter detection in prey.^[75] This specialization contrasts with frequency-modulated (FM) bats, which sweep across broader bands for spatial resolution. Research underscores distinctions between microbats (Yangochiroptera), which evolved broad ultrasonic hearing (up to 200 kHz) for active echolocation, and megabats (Yinpterochiroptera), which lack such high-frequency sensitivity and rely more on vision and olfaction, reflecting divergent evolutionary paths in chiropteran auditory adaptations.^[76]

Rodents

Rodents, such as mice and rats, possess hearing adapted for detecting high-frequency sounds essential for predator evasion and intraspecific communication in their environments. The house mouse (Mus musculus) exhibits an auditory range from approximately 1 kHz to 90 kHz, while the Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus) hears from about 250 Hz to 80 kHz.^[77]^[78] Sensitivity peaks in both species occur between 20 and 40 kHz, aligning with the frequencies of their ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) used for social interactions and alarm signaling.^[79]^[80] The rodent cochlea is notably short relative to body size compared to larger mammals, which facilitates precise tuning to high frequencies through the mechanics of the basilar membrane and outer hair cell amplification.^[81] This structure supports the detection of USVs, including the approximately 50 kHz calls emitted by rat and mouse pups to elicit maternal care and by adults during positive affective states.^[82] Behavioral audiometry reveals hearing thresholds as low as -5 dB SPL in quiet conditions for key frequencies, with females generally showing greater sensitivity than males, potentially due to estrogen-mediated protection against auditory decline.^[83]^[84] Mice are extensively used in hearing research owing to their genetic manipulability, enabling the creation of knockout models that disrupt specific genes and alter auditory range or sensitivity. For instance, large-scale screens of knockout strains have identified over 60 genes linked to hearing loss, providing insights into mechanisms like cochlear development and noise vulnerability.^[85] Recent 2024 studies on diversity outbred mice, which incorporate wild-derived genetics, indicate that wild strains may extend sensitivity up to 100 kHz, surpassing some laboratory strains limited to around 80 kHz due to selective breeding. This highlights the value of comparing strains to better model natural auditory adaptations.

Elephants

Elephants exhibit a hearing range of 14 Hz to 12 kHz in African elephants (Loxodonta africana), demonstrating extreme sensitivity to infrasound between 14 and 24 Hz, frequencies inaudible to humans whose lower limit is typically 20 Hz.^[86] This adaptation allows elephants to perceive low-frequency vibrations essential for communication across vast savanna landscapes. Their auditory system prioritizes infrasound, with peak sensitivity around 17-20 Hz, enabling detection of subtle environmental cues that travel long distances with minimal attenuation.^[87] The anatomy of the elephant ear supports this low-frequency specialization, featuring a large tympanic membrane and robust ossicles that efficiently amplify infrasonic signals for both aerial and seismic transmission.^[7] These structures facilitate the processing of powerful rumbles reaching up to 120 dB in intensity within the 14-35 Hz band, converting airborne sounds into vibrations that can also be sensed through the feet and trunk.^[88] Infrasound, defined as sound below 20 Hz, thus serves as a primary medium for elephant auditory perception, contrasting with higher-frequency hearing in smaller mammals.^[89] Playback studies provide behavioral evidence of elephants' ability to detect infrasonic calls as low as 10 Hz over distances exceeding several kilometers, as free-ranging African elephants in Etosha National Park responded directionally to simulated conspecific rumbles broadcast at varying ranges.^[90] These experiments highlight the practical range of their hearing in natural settings, where elephants orient toward, approach, or vocalize in reply to low-frequency stimuli. In social contexts, infrasound rumbles foster bonding within herds, with frequency modulation encoding emotional nuances; for instance, lower-pitched rumbles signal greetings or reassurance, varying in fundamental frequency and formants to convey context-specific affect like arousal or affiliation.^[91] This vocal flexibility strengthens group cohesion in fission-fusion societies, where such calls coordinate movements and maintain relationships over extended periods.^[92] Anthropogenic and natural habitat noise increasingly masks these signals, potentially disrupting long-range communication.^[93]

Marine Mammals

Marine mammals, particularly cetaceans such as dolphins and whales, have evolved specialized auditory systems to detect and process sounds in the underwater environment, where sound propagates efficiently over long distances but faces challenges from impedance mismatches between water and air-filled tissues. Unlike terrestrial mammals, marine species rely on adaptations like fat-filled lower jaws (mandibular fat pads) that channel acoustic energy to the middle ear, facilitating impedance matching and enabling the reception of underwater pressure waves primarily through bone conduction rather than the traditional tympanic membrane pathway. These structures allow for sensitive hearing that supports echolocation in odontocetes (toothed whales) and long-range communication in mysticetes (baleen whales), with auditory thresholds as low as approximately 35-45 dB re 1 μPa at optimal frequencies, permitting the detection of faint prey-generated sounds even in turbid waters where vision is limited.^[94]^[95]^[96] Odontocetes like bottlenose dolphins exhibit broad hearing ranges spanning 150 Hz to 160 kHz, enabling them to produce and detect high-frequency echolocation clicks peaking around 120-150 kHz for navigation and foraging in complex underwater habitats. In contrast, mysticete whales have hearing sensitivities tuned to lower frequencies, generally from 7 Hz to 35 kHz, which supports the propagation of low-frequency songs over vast oceanic distances. Specific species highlight these variations: beluga whales, adapted for Arctic environments, hear from about 1.2 kHz to 120 kHz, using this range for social communication in noisy ice-covered waters; humpback whales produce songs primarily in the infrasonic 20 Hz to 2 kHz band, which can travel hundreds of kilometers to mediate breeding behaviors. These capabilities parallel echolocation in bats but are optimized for aquatic acoustics, with broader low-frequency sensitivity to exploit water's sound transmission properties.^[97]^[97]^[98]^[99] Anthropogenic noise pollution, including shipping and seismic surveys, increasingly masks these natural sounds, with recent hydrophone-based studies indicating reductions in effective communication and detection ranges by 20-75% in affected areas, depending on noise intensity and species. For instance, elevated ambient noise can compress the detectable range of whale songs and dolphin clicks, forcing vocal adjustments or behavioral changes that impact foraging and social interactions. Such interference underscores the vulnerability of marine mammal auditory ecologies to human activities.^[100]^[101]

Hearing in Non-Mammalian Animals

Birds

Birds possess a hearing range that typically spans from approximately 50 Hz to 12 kHz, which is narrower than that of many mammals but optimized for aerial communication, predator detection, and prey localization.^[102] This range allows birds to detect conspecific vocalizations and environmental cues effectively, with peak sensitivity often concentrated between 1 and 4 kHz, aligning with the dominant frequencies of avian songs and calls.^[103] Unlike mammals, avian hearing emphasizes acute sound localization over broad frequency coverage, enabling precise orientation in three-dimensional space despite the absence of an outer ear pinna.^[104] In species like barn owls (Tyto alba), the hearing range extends from about 200 Hz to 12 kHz, with exceptional sensitivity that permits detection of subtle prey movements, such as rustling sounds at thresholds as low as -14 dB sound pressure level (SPL).^[105] Barn owls achieve this through asymmetrical ear structures, where the left ear opening is positioned higher and more vertically oriented than the right, generating interaural time differences (ITDs) and level differences that facilitate pinpointing sound sources in elevation as well as azimuth.^[106] These asymmetries, combined with neural adaptations in the auditory brainstem—such as specialized coincidence detector neurons in nucleus laminaris that process microsecond-scale ITDs—allow barn owls to localize prey with remarkable precision, even in complete darkness.^[107] Without a pinna, birds like owls rely on rapid head movements and the acoustic filtering properties of feathers to enhance directional cues.^[108] Songbirds exhibit heightened sensitivity in the 2–5 kHz range, which corresponds to the frequencies of their complex vocalizations used for territory defense and mate attraction.^[109] For instance, estrildid finches show best hearing between 2 and 6 kHz, enabling discrimination of subtle variations in song structure.^[110] Some species, such as pigeons (Columba livia), extend their upper limit to around 7–8 kHz and demonstrate remarkable low-frequency detection down to 0.5 Hz, potentially aiding navigation during migration by sensing infrasonic cues from distant weather patterns or ocean waves.^[111] Recent bioacoustic studies from 2024–2025 highlight how such low-frequency sensitivity in migratory birds, including pigeons, supports orientation over long distances by integrating infrasound with geomagnetic cues, though direct detection remains tied to broader low-end capabilities rather than specialized infrasonic hearing below 20 Hz.^[112]

Fish

Fish hearing primarily relies on inner ear otolith organs, such as the saccule and lagena, which detect water particle motion generated by sound waves rather than pressure variations.^[113] These calcium carbonate structures, denser than surrounding tissues, respond to acceleration and vibrations, enabling fish to perceive near-field sounds in aquatic environments.^[114] Unlike terrestrial animals, this particle-motion detection limits the typical hearing range of most fish species to low frequencies, generally from about 30 Hz to 1-2 kHz.^[115] In hearing specialists like the goldfish (Carassius auratus), the range extends to 100 Hz-4 kHz, with peak sensitivity around 500-800 Hz.^[116] Certain otophysan fish, such as carp (Cyprinus carpio), achieve broader sensitivity up to 13 kHz through the swim bladder's role in amplifying sound pressure, facilitated by the Weberian ossicles that connect the swim bladder to the inner ear.^[117] This ossicular chain enhances auditory sensitivity by transmitting vibrations from the gas-filled swim bladder to the otoliths, improving detection thresholds and extending the frequency bandwidth in these species.^[118] Auditory thresholds in fish typically range around 100 dB re 1 μPa at best frequencies, though specialists like goldfish exhibit lower values near 60 dB re 1 μPa.^[119] These capabilities support critical behaviors, including predator avoidance by detecting approaching threats through low-frequency cues and maintaining schooling cohesion via synchronized responses to group movements or alarm signals.^[120] Variations exist across taxa; for instance, sharks detect frequencies from 20 Hz to 1,000 Hz primarily through otolith-based inner ear mechanisms, aiding in locating struggling prey.^[121] In contrast, certain clupeid fish, such as American shad (Alosa sapidissima), possess specialized inner ear structures enabling ultrasound detection up to 180 kHz, likely for sensing bubble emissions from predatory attacks by piscivorous marine mammals.^[122] Recent 2024 studies using underwater acoustic arrays have demonstrated that anthropogenic noise, particularly in the low-frequency band below 1 kHz, masks fish communication signals, potentially disrupting social interactions and recruitment processes in species reliant on these frequencies.^[123]

Insects

Insects exhibit a remarkable diversity in hearing capabilities, with auditory ranges spanning from as low as 100 Hz to exceptionally high ultrasonic frequencies up to 300 kHz, enabling detection of environmental cues critical for survival and reproduction.^[124] This broad spectrum contrasts with human hearing limits and is particularly adapted for sensing airborne pressure waves in air, rather than particle motion in aquatic environments. Many insects, especially nocturnal species, possess specialized tympanal organs—thin, eardrum-like membranes located on the legs, thorax, or abdomen—that vibrate in response to sound stimuli, transducing mechanical energy into neural signals.^[124] These organs are highly sensitive to ultrasound, with afferent nerve fibers generating action potentials at frequencies between 20 kHz and 100 kHz, allowing rapid processing of high-pitched sounds.^[125] A prime example of extreme ultrasonic hearing is found in the greater wax moth (Galleria mellonella), which detects frequencies from approximately 10 kHz to 300 kHz—the highest verified sensitivity among all animals.^[126] This capability evolved primarily to evade predation by echolocating bats, whose ultrasonic calls fall within 20-100 kHz; moths can perceive these signals at thresholds as low as 40-50 dB sound pressure level (SPL), facilitating evasive maneuvers or acoustic jamming behaviors where the insect emits interfering clicks to disrupt bat sonar.^[126] Moth ears feature specialized receptor cells with frequency-specific tuning, enabling broad ultrasound detection for predator avoidance and finer discrimination for localization. Hearing ranges vary significantly across insect orders to suit ecological roles. In crickets (Orthoptera), auditory sensitivity extends from 100 Hz to 100 kHz, encompassing low-frequency stridulation sounds produced for mating—typically 2-8 kHz carrier frequencies generated by rubbing forewings together—while also detecting ultrasonic bat calls for anti-predator responses.^[127] Mosquitoes (Diptera), in contrast, rely on lower-frequency hearing tuned to 300-600 Hz for detecting conspecific wingbeat tones during mating swarms, with antennal Johnston's organs serving as mechanoreceptors sensitive to near-field vibrations at thresholds around 31 dB SPL.^[128] These adaptations underscore how insect hearing prioritizes survival against aerial predators and intraspecific communication, with ultrasonic bias prominent in many Lepidoptera and Orthoptera species.^[129]

References

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The Audible Spectrum - Neuroscience - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Humans can detect sounds in a frequency range from about 20 Hz to 20 kHz. (Human infants can actually hear frequencies slightly higher than 20 kHz.)
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Thus, the dynamic range of hearing covers approximately 130 dB in the frequency region in which the human auditory system is most sensitive (between 500 and ...
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Presbycusis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
The hallmark of presbycusis is the impaired ability to understand high-frequency components of speech (voiceless consonants, such as p, k, f, s, and ch).Introduction · Etiology · Evaluation · Complications
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Hearing-organ sizes in modern mammals vary more than tenfold, up to >70 mm (made possible by coiling), as do their upper frequency limits (from 12 to >200 kHz).
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[7]
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Evolution of the auditory system. Hearing in mammals is characterised by a greatly expanded hearing frequency range and enhanced frequency tuning. Comparative ...
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[13]
How Do We Hear? - NIDCD - NIH
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Hair cell transduction, tuning and synaptic transmission in the ...
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Chapter 13: Auditory System: Pathways and Reflexes
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Critical Bands and Masking – Introduction to Sensation and Perception
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[PDF] Auditory Development - University of Washington
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Age-related hearing loss (presbycusis) is the gradual loss of hearing in both ears. It's a common problem linked to aging.
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How Well Do Dogs and Other Animals Hear?
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[PDF] NMFS Summary of Marine Mammal Acoustic Thresholds
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All About Beluga Whales - Senses | United Parks & Resorts
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Automated classification of humpback whale calls in four regions ...
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[PDF] What Can Birds Hear? - UNL Digital Commons
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Sound reception - Auditory Perception, Bird Hearing, Acoustic Signals
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Comparative physiology of sound localization in four species of owls
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Auditory sensitivity and vocal acoustics in five species of estrildid ...
While hearing frequency range was not correlated with song frequency bandwidth, the frequency ... hearing; songbirds are most sensitive between 2 and 5 kHz and ...
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Auditory sensitivity and vocal acoustics in five species of estrildid ...
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Audiogram of the pigeon, as determined by conditioned suppression/...
At a level of 60 dB sound pressure level (re 20 μN/m(2)), their hearing range extends from 9.1 Hz to 7.2 kHz, with a best sensitivity of 2.6 dB at 2 kHz.
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Lowest frequency hearing – animal | Guinness World Records
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Structure–function relationships in fish otolith organs - ScienceDirect
The purpose of this paper is to provide a basic overview of fish hearing, with special emphasis on the function of the otolithic organs.
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How do fish detect sound? - Discovery of Sound in the Sea
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Fish hearing “specialization” – a re-evaluation - ScienceDirect.com
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Noise-induced stress response and hearing loss in goldfish ...
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[116]
Weber's apparatus - Guide to All Fishes
... ear cavity (labyrinth) in some bony fish (carp, catfish). ... Fish with it can hear sounds up to 13 kHz, while those without it can only hear up to 2.5 kHz.
[117]
Hearing capacities and morphology of the auditory system ... - Nature
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Hearing in Fishes under Noise Conditions - PMC - NIH
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(PDF) Why do fish school? - ResearchGate
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Hearing and Vibration Detection
Field and laboratory experiments have demonstrated that sharks can hear sounds with frequencies ranging from about 10 Hertz (cycles per second) to about 800 ...
[121]
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Anthropogenic noise disrupts acoustic cues for recruitment - PMC
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TYMPANAL HEARING IN INSECTS - Annual Reviews
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How Some Insects Detect and Avoid Being Eaten by Bats
Tympanal organs of most modern tympanate insects respond to a wide band of frequencies extending well into the ultrasonic range (above 20 kHz), as was ...
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We show that the greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella, is capable of hearing ultrasonic frequencies approaching 300 kHz; the highest frequency sensitivity of ...
[126]
Explaining the monoaural directional hearing of the moth Achroia ...
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Sound radiation and wing mechanics in stridulating field crickets ...
Jun 15, 2011 · Our findings show that, as they engage in stridulation, cricket wings work as coupled oscillators that together control the mechanical oscillations.
[128]
The Long and Short of Hearing in the Mosquito Aedes aegypti
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[129]
Ultrasonic hearing in moths - Taylor & Francis Online
Abstract. Many moths possess ultrasound-sensitive ears, directly resulted from bat predation. Moth ears display an abundant diversity due to their body ...