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Gametogenesis

Gametogenesis is the biological process by which diploid cells develop into mature haploid gametes through a series of mitotic divisions, meiotic reductions, and cellular differentiations, essential for sexual reproduction across eukaryotes including animals, plants, and other organisms.^[1] In animals, this involves primordial germ cells (PGCs) differentiating into spermatozoa in males and ova in females. The process halves the chromosome number from diploid (2n) to haploid (n) via meiosis, promoting genetic diversity through chromosomal recombination and independent assortment.^[2] Gametogenesis also occurs in plants, such as through microsporogenesis and megasporogenesis in angiosperms, with mechanisms adapted to their reproductive structures. In mammals, including humans, gametogenesis begins during embryonic development with the formation of PGCs around the third week of gestation and is completed in the gonads after puberty.^[1] The process encompasses two distinct but complementary pathways in animals: spermatogenesis in males and oogenesis in females. Spermatogenesis occurs continuously in the seminiferous tubules of the testes, starting at puberty and producing approximately 100-200 million spermatozoa per day per testicle through mitotic proliferation of spermatogonia, meiotic divisions yielding four spermatids per primary spermatocyte, and spermiogenesis, which transforms spermatids into motile spermatozoa over about 64-65 days in humans.^[3] Regulated by hormones such as follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and testosterone, as well as genetic factors like the SRY gene, this pathway supports lifelong fertility but results in only about 25% of germ cells maturing successfully, with the remainder undergoing apoptosis or malformation.^[3]^[4] In contrast, oogenesis takes place in the ovaries and begins prenatally, with oogonia undergoing mitotic divisions to form primary oocytes that arrest in prophase of meiosis I around birth, yielding a fixed pool of about 1-2 million oocytes at birth, which decreases to around 300,000-400,000 by puberty due to atresia; of these, only around 400 will ovulate over a woman's reproductive lifetime.^[2] Post-puberty, under hormonal influence from FSH and estrogen, a primary oocyte completes meiosis I to produce a secondary oocyte and a polar body; meiosis II then proceeds only upon fertilization, resulting in one mature ovum and a second polar body, thereby conserving cytoplasmic resources for embryonic development.^[1] This cyclical, discontinuous process contrasts sharply with spermatogenesis, emphasizing efficiency in resource allocation despite lower output.^[2] Both pathways involve epigenetic reprogramming, including DNA methylation changes and histone modifications, to erase parental imprints and establish gamete-specific patterns, ensuring proper gene expression in the zygote.^[1] Disruptions in gametogenesis, such as due to genetic mutations or environmental factors, can lead to infertility, highlighting its critical role in reproductive health and species propagation.^[1]

Definition and Overview

Definition

Gametogenesis is the biological process by which diploid germ cells, the precursors dedicated to reproduction, undergo cell division and differentiation to form mature haploid gametes, the specialized reproductive cells essential for sexual reproduction.^[1] Gametes, such as sperm and eggs, are haploid cells containing a single set of chromosomes (n), in contrast to the diploid (2n) state of most body cells, which possess paired chromosomes from both parents.^[5] This reduction from diploid to haploid is primarily mediated by meiosis, a specialized form of cell division that halves the chromosome number while promoting genetic diversity through mechanisms like crossing over.^[6] Germ cells originate from primordial germ cells that arise early in embryonic development and migrate to the gonads, where they proliferate and differentiate into gametes.^[7] The process ensures that gametes carry half the genetic material, facilitating the fusion of male and female gametes during fertilization to restore the diploid chromosome complement in the zygote.^[1] The foundational understanding of gametogenesis emerged in the 19th century, with key observations by researchers like Oscar Hertwig, who in 1876 described meiotic cell divisions generating gametes while studying sea urchin eggs.^[8] These early studies laid the groundwork for recognizing gametogenesis as a conserved mechanism across sexually reproducing organisms.^[9]

Biological Significance

Gametogenesis plays a central role in sexual reproduction by producing haploid gametes—specialized reproductive cells such as sperm and eggs—that unite during fertilization to form a diploid zygote, thereby restoring the full chromosome complement and initiating embryonic development.^[10] This process ensures the continuation of the species while introducing genetic variation through meiotic recombination, where genetic material from homologous chromosomes is exchanged, creating novel combinations in offspring.^[11] Without gametogenesis, sexual reproduction would be impossible, as it provides the haploid cells necessary for syngamy, the fusion of gametes that combines genetic contributions from two parents.^[12] The evolutionary significance of gametogenesis lies in its promotion of genetic diversity, which enhances adaptability and survival in changing environments. By generating variability through meiosis, gametogenesis supplies the raw material for natural selection, allowing populations to evolve more rapidly compared to asexual reproduction, where offspring are genetically identical clones lacking such recombination-driven novelty.^[13] This diversity reduces the risk of extinction from environmental pressures or pathogens, as seen in the long-term success of sexually reproducing organisms across diverse taxa.^[14] The emergence of gametogenesis marked a pivotal evolutionary breakthrough, enabling complex multicellular life forms by facilitating genetic reshuffling that breaks down unfavorable gene linkages and fosters beneficial ones.^[15] In terms of inheritance, gametogenesis maintains genomic stability across generations via reduction division during meiosis, halving the chromosome number from diploid to haploid to prevent exponential increases in genetic material with each reproductive cycle.^[5] This mechanism ensures that fertilization consistently yields a diploid zygote with the species-typical chromosome count, preserving the integrity of the hereditary blueprint while allowing for variation.^[16] Disruptions in this process can lead to aneuploidy and developmental disorders, underscoring its critical function in balanced inheritance.^[1]

General Mechanisms

Role of Meiosis

Meiosis serves as the cornerstone of gametogenesis, enabling the production of haploid gametes from diploid precursor cells through a specialized form of cell division that halves the chromosome number while promoting genetic diversity.^[17] This process ensures that upon fertilization, the resulting zygote restores the diploid state, maintaining species stability across generations.^[1] Unlike somatic cell division, meiosis involves two successive divisions—meiosis I and meiosis II—without an intervening DNA replication phase, culminating in four haploid daughter cells from a single diploid parent cell.^[17] Meiosis I, the reductional division, begins with prophase I, the longest stage, where chromosomes condense and homologous pairs undergo synapsis to form tetrads.^[1] During this phase, crossing over occurs at chiasmata, sites where non-sister chromatids exchange genetic material, facilitated by double-strand breaks and repair mechanisms involving proteins like SPO11 and DMC1.^[1] This is followed by metaphase I, in which tetrads align at the metaphase plate, and anaphase I, where homologous chromosomes separate to opposite poles.^[17] Telophase I sees the chromosomes decondense at the poles, leading to cytokinesis that yields two haploid cells, each with duplicated chromosomes (1n, 2c).^[17] Meiosis II then proceeds without DNA replication, resembling mitosis: in prophase II, chromosomes recondense; metaphase II aligns them individually; anaphase II separates sister chromatids; and telophase II with cytokinesis produces four haploid cells (1n, 1c).^[17] A primary function of meiosis in gametogenesis is to generate genetic diversity through recombination and independent assortment.^[17] Synapsis during prophase I pairs maternal and paternal homologs via the synaptonemal complex, enabling precise crossing over that shuffles alleles and creates novel combinations.^[1] Chiasmata stabilize these pairs until anaphase I, ensuring accurate segregation while the random orientation of tetrads at the metaphase plate—independent assortment—yields exponentially varied gametes, with humans capable of over 8 million unique combinations per parent.^[17] These mechanisms collectively enhance adaptability by mixing genetic material, far beyond what mitosis achieves.^[1] In contrast to mitosis, which produces two genetically identical diploid cells through one division, meiosis's dual divisions reduce the chromosome number from diploid ($2n) to haploid (n) gametes, with no S-phase between meiosis I and II to prevent over-duplication.^[17] This reduction is critical: $2n \to n, allowing fertilization to form a $2n zygote without doubling the genome each generation.^[1] Mitosis maintains chromosome integrity for growth and repair, whereas meiosis's emphasis on halving and variation supports reproductive evolution.^[17]

Germ Cell Development

Primordial germ cells (PGCs) originate during early embryonic development from the epiblast, a layer of pluripotent cells in the mammalian embryo, marking the initial commitment to the germline lineage.^[18] In humans, PGCs are specified around weeks 2-3 post-conception in the epiblast and become identifiable within the yolk sac endoderm by 3-4 weeks before migrating to the gonadal ridges.^[19] This origin ensures that germ cells retain the potential to give rise to gametes capable of supporting embryonic development.^[20] The specification of PGCs involves inductive signaling from extraembryonic tissues, particularly bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4) secreted by the extraembryonic ectoderm, which induces germ cell fate in the proximal epiblast.^[21] In mice, BMP4 acts in concert with BMP8b to activate key transcriptional regulators like BLIMP1 and PRDM14, which repress somatic gene expression and maintain the totipotent state of PGCs by preserving epigenetic plasticity.^[21] This process is conserved across vertebrates, where similar BMP signaling pathways ensure PGCs avoid differentiation into somatic lineages while upholding their unique developmental potential, though some non-mammalian species use inherited germ plasm for specification.^[22] Human PGC specification additionally requires SOX17, a transcription factor that stabilizes the germ cell identity and supports totipotency through chromatin remodeling.^[23] Following specification, PGCs migrate from their embryonic origin to the developing gonads through a process guided by chemotaxis, primarily mediated by the chemokine stromal cell-derived factor 1 (SDF-1) and its receptor CXCR4.^[18] In zebrafish and mice, SDF-1 gradients direct PGC motility, enabling active migration across tissues like the hindgut endoderm and mesoderm to colonize the genital ridges by embryonic day 10.5 in mice.^[19] This directed movement is essential for proper gonad formation, as disruptions in chemotactic signaling lead to ectopic PGC localization and infertility.^[18] Upon reaching the gonads, PGCs enter a proliferation phase characterized by mitotic divisions that expand the germ cell pool prior to meiotic entry.^[20] In female mammals, oogonia derived from PGCs undergo several rounds of mitosis during fetal development, increasing their numbers to approximately 5-7 million by mid-gestation before arresting in meiosis I.^[24] Male PGCs similarly proliferate mitotically in the fetal testis, establishing a reservoir of spermatogonia that supports lifelong gametogenesis.^[18] This pre-meiotic expansion is regulated by factors like KIT ligand signaling, ensuring sufficient germ cells for subsequent differentiation.^[21] The proliferation phase thus sets the stage for the transition to meiosis, where germ cells commit to reductional divisions.^[20]

Gametogenesis in Animals

Spermatogenesis

Spermatogenesis is the process of sperm cell production in male animals, occurring continuously from puberty onward within the seminiferous tubules of the testes.^[3] These tubules, lined by Sertoli cells and germ cells, provide the microenvironment essential for germ cell development, with the process typically spanning about 64 days in humans to yield mature spermatozoa.^[25] Unlike finite production in other systems, spermatogenesis in mammals maintains a steady output, supporting ongoing fertility through repeated cycles of cell division and differentiation.^[26] The process begins with diploid spermatogonia, stem cells located near the basement membrane of the seminiferous tubules, which undergo mitotic proliferation to either self-renew the stem cell pool or differentiate into primary spermatocytes.^[3] These primary spermatocytes, still diploid, then enter meiosis I to form haploid secondary spermatocytes, followed by meiosis II to produce four haploid round spermatids per original spermatogonium; this meiotic reduction ensures equal cytoplasmic division, contrasting with asymmetric divisions in other gametogenic processes.^[25] The spermatids, now committed to spermiogenesis, transform into spermatozoa without further division, involving extensive morphological changes.^[3] During spermiogenesis, round spermatids elongate and differentiate: the acrosome forms from Golgi-derived vesicles, creating a cap-like structure over the nucleus that contains enzymes vital for fertilization; a flagellum develops from the centriole, forming a microtubule-based axoneme surrounded by mitochondria for motility; and the nucleus condenses through chromatin remodeling, where histones are replaced by protamines to compact DNA and halt transcription.^[25] These changes, supported by Sertoli cells, culminate in spermiation, releasing mature sperm into the tubule lumen.^[3] Hormonal regulation drives this continuous production, primarily through follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland.^[26] FSH binds to receptors on Sertoli cells, promoting their proliferation and secretion of nutrients and factors like androgen-binding protein to maintain high local testosterone levels, thereby supporting germ cell survival and maturation.^[25] LH stimulates Leydig cells in the testicular interstitium to produce testosterone, which acts paracrine via androgen receptors on Sertoli cells to regulate meiosis completion, spermiogenesis, and the blood-testis barrier.^[26] This gonadotropin axis, initiated at puberty under hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing hormone influence, ensures sustained spermatogenesis throughout reproductive life.^[3] Ultimately, each spermatogonium yields four functional sperm, optimized for motility and genetic delivery.^[25]

Oogenesis

Oogenesis is the process of female gamete formation in animals, occurring primarily in the ovaries where germ cells develop within specialized structures called follicles. These follicles consist of the oocyte surrounded by supportive granulosa and thecal cells, which provide nutrients and regulatory signals essential for oocyte maturation. Unlike continuous gamete production in males, oogenesis in mammals is characterized by a finite number of oocytes established during fetal development, with the process involving prolonged arrest phases and asymmetric cell divisions to produce a single nutrient-rich ovum.^[24] The initial stage begins prenatally with oogonia, which are diploid germ cells derived from primordial germ cells that migrate to the developing ovary around the 4th to 6th week of gestation in humans. Oogonia undergo rapid mitotic proliferation, peaking at approximately 7 million cells by the 7th month of fetal life, but most undergo atresia, leaving about 1-2 million primary oocytes at birth. These primary oocytes, now enclosed in primordial follicles, enter meiosis I and arrest at the diplotene stage of prophase I, a meiotic arrest maintained by high levels of cyclic AMP (cAMP) until puberty. This arrest allows for the accumulation of cytoplasmic reserves, including mRNAs, proteins, and organelles, essential for early embryonic development post-fertilization.^[24]^[27] At puberty, hormonal signals initiate cyclic follicular development, where a cohort of primordial follicles is recruited monthly, but only one typically reaches maturity. Under the influence of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), primary oocytes resume meiosis I, undergoing DNA replication and homologous recombination while growing substantially in size, increasing in diameter from about 25 μm (primordial stage) to approximately 120 μm (mature stage), representing a volume increase of over 100-fold. The first meiotic division results in unequal cytokinesis, producing a large secondary oocyte that retains nearly all the cytoplasm and a small first polar body containing minimal resources. The secondary oocyte then arrests at metaphase II of meiosis II until fertilization triggers its completion, extruding a second polar body and forming the mature haploid ovum. This asymmetric division ensures that the functional gamete is provisioned with the necessary maternal factors for zygote viability.^[24]^[28] Hormonal regulation is critical, driven by the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis. FSH from the anterior pituitary stimulates granulosa cell proliferation and estrogen (primarily estradiol) production within the growing follicle, promoting further oocyte development. A mid-cycle surge in luteinizing hormone (LH) induces ovulation by triggering the resumption of meiosis I and rupture of the mature Graafian follicle, after which the ruptured follicle transforms into the corpus luteum, secreting progesterone to prepare the uterus for potential implantation. Estrogen and progesterone levels fluctuate in a 28-day cycle in humans, with only about 400 oocytes ovulated over a reproductive lifetime from the fixed neonatal pool, which declines to around 25,000 by menopause due to atresia.^[27]^[24] Ultimately, each oogonium yields one functional ovum and three non-viable polar bodies, optimizing resource allocation for the next generation while limiting the reproductive potential in mammals to this pre-established oocyte reserve.^[28]

Key Differences and Comparisons

Spermatogenesis and oogenesis, the processes of male and female gamete formation in animals, exhibit fundamental differences in timing and duration that reflect their roles in reproduction. Spermatogenesis initiates at puberty and proceeds continuously throughout the male's adult life, producing millions of sperm daily in humans, with a cycle lasting approximately 65 days.^[4] In contrast, oogenesis primarily occurs prenatally in mammals, where oogonia proliferate and enter meiosis to form primary oocytes that arrest in prophase I (diplotene stage) until puberty; meiosis resumes cyclically with ovulation, but the process can span months to years, and arrested oocytes may remain dormant for up to 50 years.^[24] This prenatal commitment in females limits the total number of viable oocytes to around 400 over a lifetime, emphasizing resource allocation for quality over ongoing production.^[24] A key distinction arises in the outcomes of meiotic cell divisions, driven by cytoplasmic partitioning. In spermatogenesis, both meiotic divisions involve equal cytokinesis, yielding four functional haploid spermatids that mature into motile sperm, each essentially a nucleus with minimal cytoplasm.^[4] Oogenesis, however, features unequal cytokinesis during meiosis, where the primary oocyte divides asymmetrically to produce one large ovum retaining most of the cytoplasm—rich in nutrients, organelles, and mRNAs essential for early embryonic development—and three smaller polar bodies that degenerate.^[24] This asymmetry ensures the ovum's provisioning capacity but results in only one viable gamete per cycle, contrasting the prolific output of spermatogenesis.^[4] These differences stem from evolutionary trade-offs rooted in anisogamy, the dimorphism between small, mobile male gametes and large, nutrient-laden female gametes. The production of numerous, inexpensive sperm prioritizes quantity and motility to enhance fertilization success in competitive environments, as modeled in foundational theories of gamete evolution.^[29] Conversely, eggs invest in quality through substantial cytoplasmic reserves to support zygotic development until implantation or external nourishment, a strategy that favors fewer but more robust offspring despite higher per-gamete costs.^[24] This divergence arose from disruptive selection on ancestral isogametes, where intermediate sizes were outcompeted by extremes optimized for fusion probability and zygote viability.^[29] Interspecies variations in gametogenesis further highlight adaptations to reproductive modes, particularly external versus internal fertilization. In externally fertilizing species like many fish, oogenesis lacks the prolonged prenatal arrest seen in mammals; instead, oogonial proliferation continues postnatally, enabling seasonal or continuous egg production without a fixed oocyte pool, which suits high-fecundity broadcasts in aquatic environments.^[30] Internal fertilizers, such as mammals, exhibit extended meiotic arrest and more complex sperm morphology, including longer flagella and midpieces (up to 18 times longer in some components), evolving faster to navigate reproductive tracts and counter sperm competition.^[31] These patterns underscore how fertilization ecology shapes gamete traits across vertebrates, balancing mobility, longevity, and investment.^[31]

Gametogenesis in Plants

In Angiosperms

In angiosperms, gametogenesis occurs within the reproductive structures of flowers, producing haploid male and female gametophytes essential for sexual reproduction. Microgametogenesis takes place in the anthers, where diploid microspore mother cells undergo meiosis to form tetrads of haploid microspores, which then develop into pollen grains containing generative and tube cells.^[32] Megagametogenesis occurs in the ovules, where a diploid megaspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to produce a functional megaspore that divides mitotically to form the embryo sac.^[33] This process culminates in double fertilization, a hallmark of angiosperms, where the pollen tube delivers two sperm cells: one fuses with the egg cell to form the zygote, and the other fuses with the central cell to initiate endosperm development.^[34] Microgametogenesis begins with microspore mother cells in the anther's locules undergoing meiosis, typically yielding four haploid microspores arranged in a tetrad.^[35] These microspores are released from the tetrad and undergo asymmetric mitosis to form a bicellular pollen grain, consisting of a large vegetative (tube) cell and a smaller generative cell.^[32] In many species, the generative cell divides again during pollen maturation or transit, producing two sperm cells, resulting in tricellular pollen. This process ensures the delivery of male gametes via pollen tubes to the ovule, with the haploid nature of pollen allowing for gametophytic selection that can influence genetic diversity and adaptation.^[36] Megagametogenesis starts with the megaspore mother cell in the ovule's nucellus undergoing meiosis, producing a linear tetrad of four haploid megaspores, of which typically only the chalazal-most one survives and functions.^[33] This functional megaspore undergoes three rounds of mitosis to form an eight-nucleate, seven-celled embryo sac, including the egg apparatus (egg cell and two synergids), a central cell with two polar nuclei, and three antipodal cells.^[33] The Polygonum-type embryo sac, predominant in over 70% of angiosperm species, exemplifies this 8-nucleate structure, providing the cellular framework for double fertilization and seed development.^[37] The haploid pollen's role in selection enhances evolutionary fitness by favoring competitive alleles during pollen tube growth and fertilization.^[36]

In Non-Flowering Plants and Protists

In non-flowering plants and protists, gametogenesis occurs within the context of an alternation of generations life cycle, where a multicellular haploid gametophyte phase produces gametes through mitosis, contrasting with the diploid sporophyte phase that undergoes meiosis to form spores.^[38] This cycle is often gametophyte-dominant in bryophytes and many algae, with the gametophyte being the prominent, independent stage, unlike the sporophyte-dominant pattern in angiosperms.^[39] Gametogenesis typically involves the development of gametangia—specialized structures for gamete production—facilitating sexual reproduction through fusion of gametes, which restores the diploid state.^[40] Gametangia are multicellular organs that enclose and protect developing gametes during their maturation. In bryophytes and ferns, antheridia produce biflagellate sperm, while archegonia house the egg; these structures form on the gametophyte, which is often a small, photosynthetic prothallus in ferns or a leafy structure in mosses.^[41] Sperm are released from antheridia and swim through water to fertilize eggs within archegonia, a process dependent on environmental moisture.^[42] In gymnosperms, such as conifers, male gametogenesis begins with microspores formed by meiosis in pollen cones, developing into pollen grains that contain the male gametophyte; female gametogenesis involves megaspores in ovules, which grow into a multicellular female gametophyte bearing archegonia with eggs.^[43] This process can span months to years, with pollen tubes delivering sperm to archegonia after pollination.^[44] Among algae and protists, gametogenesis varies from isogamy to oogamy, often using gametangia. In the green alga Chlamydomonas, isogamous gametes of equal size differentiate from vegetative cells under nitrogen starvation, fusing without specialized gametangia but involving mating-type-specific gene expression for gamete recognition.^[45] In contrast, Volvox exhibits oogamy, where large eggs develop in oogonia (female gametangia) and small sperm in antheridia, with genetic factors like the VSR1 transcription factor regulating gametic differentiation across volvocine algae.^[46] Fungi, though not plants, display analogous processes in sexual reproduction, where compatible hyphae differentiate into gametangia-like structures, such as spermatangia or progametangia, leading to plasmogamy—the cytoplasmic fusion without immediate nuclear fusion—followed by karyogamy.^[47] In zygomycetes, for example, hyphae form zygosporangia through plasmogamy, initiating meiosis to produce haploid spores.^[48] This highlights the diversity of gametogenesis in non-flowering lineages, emphasizing reliance on external water for gamete delivery in many cases.

Advanced and Emerging Topics

In Vitro Gametogenesis

In vitro gametogenesis (IVG) refers to the laboratory-based production of gametes—sperm and eggs—outside the body, typically starting from pluripotent stem cells rather than natural germ cell precursors. This approach aims to recapitulate the complex processes of germ cell specification, meiosis, and maturation in controlled environments, offering alternatives to traditional reproductive technologies. IVG has advanced significantly since the early 2010s, primarily through the differentiation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) derived from somatic cells, such as skin fibroblasts, into functional gametes.^[49] Key techniques in IVG involve reprogramming somatic cells into iPSCs using transcription factors like Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, and c-Myc, followed by directed differentiation into primordial germ cell-like cells (PGCLCs). These PGCLCs are induced by activating pathways such as bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling and WNT signaling to mimic early embryonic germ cell formation, then co-cultured with gonadal somatic cells to support further development into mature gametes. For instance, in mouse models, iPSCs are first converted to epiblast-like cells and then to PGCLCs, which can be aggregated with gonadal cells to form reconstituted ovaries or testes that facilitate oogenesis or spermatogenesis. Complementing this, organoid cultures create three-dimensional structures resembling gonadal niches; human fetal gonadal ridge cells dissociated and cultured in Matrigel-based systems self-organize into gonad-like organoids that support germ cell proliferation and early differentiation, providing a platform to study human-specific dynamics.^[50]^[51]^[52] Milestones in IVG began with mouse models in the 2010s, where the first functional oocytes were generated from iPSCs in 2012, leading to healthy offspring upon fertilization and transfer. Full in vitro oogenesis, from PGCLCs to mature eggs capable of producing viable pups, was achieved by 2016 through stepwise culture in reconstituted ovarian organoids. For spermatogenesis, complete male germ cell development from mouse iPSCs to fertilization-competent sperm was reconstituted in vitro by 2021, enabling the birth of progeny. In humans, progress accelerated by 2025; iPSCs were successfully induced to initiate meiosis under defined conditions, including DNMT1 inhibition to promote epigenetic erasure, marking a critical step toward mature gametes. Additionally, partial embryo formation has been demonstrated, with iPSC-derived oogonia-like cells progressing to early oocyte stages, though full functionality remains elusive; in related somatic cell nuclear transfer approaches, functional human eggs from skin cells yielded fertilized embryos developing to the blastocyst stage in low yields.^[53]^[54] Applications of IVG extend to fertility treatments, enabling gamete production for individuals with infertility due to chemotherapy, genetic conditions, or same-sex partnerships, potentially bypassing the need for donor gametes. In conservation, IVG using iPSCs from endangered species could generate gametes for breeding programs, preserving genetic diversity without invasive collection from wild populations. It also serves as a tool for studying genetic disorders by modeling disease-specific gametogenesis in vitro, allowing analysis of mutations' impacts on meiosis and fertility.^[55]^[49] However, IVG raises significant ethical concerns, including the potential for unintended genetic or epigenetic alterations that could affect offspring health, questions of consent and identity when gametes are derived from non-reproductive cells (e.g., from children or deceased individuals), and broader societal implications for family structures and reproductive equity. Safety risks, such as incomplete genomic imprinting leading to developmental abnormalities, remain a major debate. As of 2025, regulations vary globally: research on IVG is permitted in many countries, but clinical applications are prohibited in jurisdictions like the United Kingdom under the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act, while the European Union considers it under the "morality clause" for funding, and the United States faces restrictions on federal funding for embryo-related work but allows private research. Ongoing international discussions aim to establish guidelines balancing innovation with ethical safeguards.^[56]^[57] Despite these advances, IVG faces significant challenges, particularly in epigenetic reprogramming, where incomplete erasure of somatic cell imprints leads to aberrant DNA methylation patterns that impair gamete viability and embryonic development. Efficiency remains low, with success rates below 10% for producing mature, fertilizable gametes in mammals, including humans, due to difficulties in replicating the precise gonadal microenvironment and resolving genomic instability in cultured cells. Ongoing research focuses on optimizing culture conditions and epigenetic modifiers to improve outcomes.^[58]^[59]^[60]

Evolutionary and Molecular Aspects

The evolutionary history of gametogenesis is intertwined with the origins of sexual reproduction in eukaryotes, which emerged around 1.2 billion years ago during the Proterozoic Eon, coinciding with the rise of multicellularity and oxygen levels conducive to complex life cycles.^[61] Initially, ancestral eukaryotes likely employed isogamy, producing gametes of similar size and motility, as seen in many modern protists and algae. The shift to anisogamy—characterized by dimorphic gametes, with small, mobile male gametes (sperm) and larger, nutrient-rich female gametes (eggs)—evolved independently in multiple lineages, driven by selection pressures favoring gamete competition and resource allocation.^[62] This transition, estimated to have occurred multiple times over the last 1 billion years, laid the foundation for sexual dimorphism and advanced reproductive strategies in animals and plants.^[61] Key conserved genetic elements, such as the DMRT1 gene, underscore this history; DMRT1, encoding a DNA-binding transcription factor, regulates testis differentiation and sex determination across vertebrates, reflecting its ancient role in gonadal development predating mammalian evolution.^[63] At the molecular level, gametogenesis is orchestrated by conserved signaling pathways that ensure precise timing of germ cell proliferation, meiosis, and differentiation. Retinoic acid (RA), a vitamin A derivative, acts as a critical trigger for meiotic entry in vertebrate germ cells by inducing the expression of genes like STRA8, which coordinates the switch from mitosis to meiosis during fetal gonad development.^[64] In parallel, the DAZL and BOULE proteins, members of the DAZ gene family, function as RNA-binding regulators essential for germ cell survival and differentiation; DAZL promotes primordial germ cell formation and represses pluripotency in early stages, while BOULE drives later meiotic progression and haploid gamete maturation in both males and females.^[65] These proteins exhibit functional conservation across mammals, highlighting their role in translational control of germ cell-specific transcripts.^[66] Cross-kingdom comparisons reveal both shared and divergent molecular mechanisms in gametogenesis. The core meiotic machinery, including the SPO11 enzyme, is highly conserved across eukaryotes, where it catalyzes programmed double-strand DNA breaks essential for recombination and chromosome segregation during gamete formation.^[67] In animals, this process integrates with RA and DAZL/BOULE pathways, whereas in plants like Arabidopsis, regulators diverge significantly; the ABORTED MICROSPORES (AMS) gene, a basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor, specifically governs tapetum degeneration and pollen exine formation during male gametogenesis, without direct homologs in animals.^[68] Such differences reflect adaptations to sessile lifestyles and pollen-mediated reproduction in plants, contrasting with motile gametes in animals. Despite these insights, significant knowledge gaps persist, particularly in the transitional forms of gametogenesis among protists, where the shift from isogamy to anisogamy remains poorly resolved due to limited genomic data and diverse reproductive modes that blur distinctions between sexual and asexual cycles.^[69] Emerging CRISPR-based studies by 2025 have begun addressing these voids by editing gamete-specific genes in model organisms, revealing novel regulators of fertility and meiosis, though off-target effects and ethical constraints in human applications highlight ongoing challenges.^[70]

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The appearance of sexual reproduction constituted an important breakthrough with critical genetic, cellular, physiological, and evolutionary implications.
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Chapter 30: Gametogenesis and Sexual Reproduction
When two haploid gametes fuse, this restores the diploid condition in the new zygote. Thus, most sexually reproducing organisms alternate between haploid and ...
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Genetics, Meiosis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Meiosis is important for creating genomic diversity in a species. It accomplishes this primarily through 2 processes: independent assortment and crossing over ( ...
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Germline stem cells in human | Signal Transduction and Targeted ...
Oct 2, 2022 · PGCs are migratory cells during embryogenesis, which originate from the epiblast, move toward, and finally colonize the developing genital ...
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Single-cell roadmap of human gonadal development - Nature
Jul 6, 2022 · PGCs colonize the human gonads at roughly 3–5 PCW and, guided by the male and female supporting cells, start their differentiation into either ...
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Revisiting the gonadotropic regulation of mammalian ...
Apr 14, 2023 · Spermatogenesis occurs within testicular seminiferous tubules under the regulation of gonadotropins – Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and ...
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Oogenesis - Developmental Biology - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Oogenesis—the differentiation of the ovum—differs from spermatogenesis in several ways. Whereas the gamete formed by spermatogenesis is essentially a motile ...Oogenesis · Oogenic Meiosis · Gene Transcription In...
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Oogenesis in Women: From Molecular Regulatory Pathways and ...
Apr 6, 2023 · Oogenesis begins in the fetal ovaries when oogonia are developed from primordial germ cells (PGC), as soon as the development of the embryo ...
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A Comparative Analysis of Oocyte Development in Mammals - PMC
In this chapter, we discuss how various aspects of oocyte development and many molecular actors of this process are shared among mammals and possibly flies, ...
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The origin and evolution of gamete dimorphism and the male-female ...
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Particularities of reproduction and oogenesis in teleost fish ...
The absence of definitive arrest of body growth in the adult of most species gives a particular interest to the practical control of growth-reproduction ...Missing: no | Show results with:no
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Fertilization mode differentially impacts the evolution of vertebrate ...
Nov 10, 2022 · Internal fertilizers are characterized by longer sperm that evolve faster with more extreme shifts in length compared to external fertilizers.
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From birth to function: Male gametophyte development in flowering ...
Oct 5, 2021 · Each microspore then undergoes microgametogenesis, a process which involves an asymmetric mitosis that generates two distinct cell types, one ...
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DEVELOPMENT AND FUNCTION OF THE ANGIOSPERM FEMALE ...
Arabidopsis female gametophyte development can be divided into two phases: megasporo- genesis and megagametogenesis. During megasporogenesis, a diploid ...
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The beginning of a seed: regulatory mechanisms of double fertilization
In angiosperms, the haploid gametophytic generations produce the male and female gametes required to execute double fertilization. Both gametophytes are reduced ...
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Male gametogenesis in flowering plants - Frontiers
Jan 4, 2024 · 2.3 Microgametogenesis. Microgametogenesis means the microspore undergoes mitosis to produce the bicellular or tri-cellular pollen grains ...
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Evolution of haploid selection in predominantly diploid organisms
Dec 15, 2015 · Among male gametophytes, haploid pollen are thought to experience extensive selection, as pollen tubes compete for access to ovules (4–6). In ...Evolution Of Haploid... · Sign Up For Pnas Alerts · Si Text<|control11|><|separator|>
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How many nuclei make an embryo sac in flowering plants?
In this type, the single functional megas- pore undergoes three mitoses to produce an eight-nucleate structure, arranged in two four-nucleate groups at opposite.<|control11|><|separator|>
[34]
Plant Reproduction | Organismal Biology
On the opposite side of the embryo, the nucleus closest to the micropyle (the site where sperm enter the embryo sac) becomes the female gamete, or egg cell. ...
[35]
Selection on the gametophyte: Modeling alternation of generations ...
All land plants undergo an alternation of generations between multicellular haploid (gametophyte) and diploid (sporophyte) life stages.
[36]
Lab 8 - Primitive Plants - Bryophytes, Ferns and Fern Allies
Gametophytes produce gametes (sperm and eggs) in a special structure called a gametangium (-ia), while sporophytes produce spores in a special structure called ...
[37]
Seedless Vascular Plants - OpenEd CUNY
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[38]
25.4 Seedless Vascular Plants – General Biology - UCF Pressbooks
Gametophytes produce both antheridia and archegonia. Like the sperm cells of other pterophytes, fern sperm have multiple flagella and must swim to the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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26.2 Gymnosperms – General Biology - UCF Pressbooks
The life cycle of a gymnosperm involves alternation of generations, with a dominant sporophyte in which reduced male and female gametophytes reside. All ...
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Gymnosperms – Biology - UH Pressbooks
The gametophytes (1n)—microspores and megaspores—are reduced in size. It may take more than year between pollination and fertilization while the pollen tube ...
[41]
Evolution of an Expanded Sex Determining Locus in Volvox - PMC
While Chlamydomonas is isogamous (producing equal-sized gametes), Volvox and several other Volvocine genera have evolved oogamy that is under the control of ...
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A conserved RWP-RK transcription factor VSR1 controls gametic ...
... Chlamydomonas and of Volvox support its role as a dual function TF for gametogenesis. Although the VSR1 and MID DDs are not detectably conserved in other ...
[43]
Characteristics of Fungi – Biology - UH Pressbooks
Sexual reproduction involves plasmogamy (the fusion of the cytoplasm), followed by karyogamy (the fusion of nuclei). Meiosis regenerates haploid individuals, ...
[44]
Classifications of Fungi – Introductory Biology
Sexual reproduction starts with the development of special hyphae from either one of two types of mating strains (Figure 5). The “male” strain produces an ...
[45]
Mammalian in vitro gametogenesis | Science
Oct 1, 2021 · Mouse PSCs can be induced into functional oocytes and spermatozoa, whereas human PSCs can be induced into early oocytes and prospermatogonia, ...Missing: Hayashiet | Show results with:Hayashiet
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Mouse eggs made from skin cells in a dish - Nature
Oct 17, 2016 · Scientists in Japan have transformed mouse skin cells into eggs in a dish, and used those eggs to birth fertile pups.
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Self-organising human gonads generated by a Matrigel-based ...
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Initiation of meiosis from human iPSCs under defined conditions ...
Aug 15, 2025 · Here, we establish a method to initiate meiosis directly from male or female human-induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). DNMT1 inhibition, ...
[49]
Induction of experimental cell division to generate cells with reduced ...
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In Vitro Gametogenesis in Oncofertility: A Review of Its Potential Use ...
May 6, 2023 · Human in vitro gametogenesis (IVG) has the hypothetical ability to offer a unique solution to individuals receiving treatment for cancer which subsequently ...
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In vitro reconstitution of epigenetic reprogramming in the human ...
May 20, 2024 · In vitro gametogenesis (IVG) from pluripotent stem (PS) cells provides a framework for clarifying the mechanism of germ cell development.
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In vitro gametogenesis in the ongoing quest to vanquish infertility - NIH
Oct 9, 2024 · Research suggests that the low reproductive efficiency of IVG in the mouse iPSCs is a result of epigenetic malfeasance and is a major barrier to ...
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Human eggs from skin cells: 'Partially works, and partially doesn't'
Sep 30, 2025 · For the past four years, scientists at Oregon Health & Science University have been trying to write a new recipe for human reproduction.
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Oxygen, life forms, and the evolution of sexes in multicellular ...
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Anisogamy evolved with a reduced sex-determining region ... - Nature
Mar 8, 2018 · Male and female gametes differing in size—anisogamy—emerged independently from isogamous ancestors in various eukaryotic lineages, ...Missing: timeline | Show results with:timeline
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DMRT1: an ancient sexual regulator required for human ...
Ancient involvement of DMRT1 in vertebrate sex determination and its evolution. Not only is DMRT1 conserved in mammalian sex regulation but it also is a ...
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Retinoic acid, meiosis and germ cell fate in mammals | Development
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Human DAZL, DAZ and BOULE genes modulate primordial germ ...
We observed that human DAZL (Deleted in AZoospermia-Like) functions in primordial germ cell formation, whereas closely-related genes, DAZ and BOULE, promote ...
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A gene family required for human germ cell development ... - PNAS
The DAZ gene family is composed of two subfamilies required for different stages of germ cell development: DAZL for early germ cell function and BOULE for ...
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Conservation and divergence of meiotic DNA double strand break ...
These proteins are all conserved across distant phyla, even if their conservation in terms of primary sequence can be very weak, as is the case for Rec114, Mei4 ...
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ABORTED MICROSPORES Acts as a Master Regulator of Pollen ...
We report that ABORTED MICROSPORES (AMS) acts as a master regulator coordinating pollen wall development and sporopollenin biosynthesis in Arabidopsis thaliana.Missing: divergent | Show results with:divergent
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Sex in protists: A new perspective on the reproduction mechanisms ...
In this review we will discuss about origin of sex and different strategies of evolve sexual reproduction in some protists such that cause human diseases.
[63]
CRISPR/CAS9-Mediated Gene Editing in Human Gametes: A Review
Sep 30, 2025 · CRISPR/Cas9 technology holds transformative potential in reproductive biology, particularly in the genetic editing of human gametes. Because of ...