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Inga

Inga is a genus of approximately 300 species of mostly trees and shrubs in the legume family Fabaceae, subfamily Mimosoideae, native exclusively to the Neotropics from Mexico to northern South America.^[1]^[2] These plants are characterized by pinnate leaves, small white or pinkish flowers, and indehiscent legume pods containing seeds enveloped in a sweet, edible white aril, which serves as a food source for humans and wildlife.^[3]^[4] As nitrogen-fixing species, Inga trees play a key ecological role in tropical forests by enriching soil fertility through symbiotic relationships with rhizobial bacteria, and they are widely utilized in agroforestry systems for shade over coffee and cacao plantations due to their rapid growth and dense canopies.^[5]^[6] Notable species include Inga edulis, known as the ice cream bean for its palatable pod pulp, which underscores the genus's importance in local diets and sustainable land management practices across its range.^[7]^[8] The high species diversity and morphological complexity of Inga have posed challenges for taxonomic classification, with ongoing research refining sectional groupings and identifying new species in hyperdiverse regions like the Chocó.^[9]^[10]

Taxonomy

Classification and etymology

Inga is a genus within the legume family Fabaceae, placed in the subfamily Mimosoideae and tribe Ingeae.^[11]^[12] The genus was established by Philip Miller in 1754.^[11] It encompasses approximately 300 species, the majority distributed across neotropical regions.^[4]^[13] The name Inga originates from the Tupi indigenous term ingá, which refers to the soaked or powdery consistency of the fruit pulp in many species.^[14]^[15] This etymology reflects early observations by European botanists of the genus's characteristic indehiscent pods filled with sweet, arillate seeds.^[14] Recent molecular phylogenetic analyses have prompted taxonomic refinements to achieve monophyly within Inga and related genera. For instance, in 2024, the species formerly known as Inga inundata (previously in Zygia) was reclassified into the newly described genus Ingopsis based on distinct morphological and genetic traits, ensuring coherent boundaries for Inga.^[16] Similarly, Zygia sabatieri was transferred to the new genus Pseudocojoba.^[17] These adjustments address historical misplacements driven by reliance on superficial traits like pinnate leaves.^[16]

Species diversity and phylogeny

The genus Inga encompasses approximately 300 species of trees, exhibiting its greatest diversity in the Amazonian region of tropical moist forests across the Neotropics.^[18] ^[19] Species such as Inga edulis and Inga ingoides serve as focal points in ecological and genetic research due to their abundance, morphological variation, and utility in agroforestry studies.^[20] Taxonomic challenges persist owing to morphological similarity among closely related species, leading to overlooked or newly described taxa even in hyper-diverse areas.^[9] Phylogenetic analyses, including targeted enrichment of nuclear genes and phylogenomic data from over 1,300 loci across 189 of approximately 288 species, indicate a crown age for the genus ranging from 2 to 10 million years, consistent with a recent and rapid radiation.^[21] ^[22] This diversification is marked by high speciation rates, potentially driven by ecological specialization in understory niches, though resolving deep relationships remains complicated by incomplete lineage sorting and reticulate evolution.^[23] Hybridization contributes to taxonomic ambiguity, with evidence of widespread introgression blurring species boundaries; for instance, genetic studies in Peruvian Amazon contact zones reveal strong interspecific gene flow between I. ingoides and I. edulis, facilitating adaptive introgression for traits like flood tolerance.^[20] ^[23] Such reticulation, documented across broader phylogenomic sampling, underscores ongoing evolutionary dynamics that challenge traditional morphological delimitation in this hyperdiverse lineage.^[23]

Morphology

Vegetative structure

Inga species are primarily evergreen trees growing to heights of 10 to 40 meters, though some reach only shrub-like forms under certain conditions, with a broad, spreading crown that often branches low on the trunk, sometimes from below 3 meters.^[1]^[24] The bark is characteristically smooth and pale gray, occasionally featuring elongated lenticels, contributing to the genus's morphological uniformity that complicates species identification.^[1]^[25] The leaves are alternate and paripinnate, typically 10 to 30 cm long, with 4 to 6 pairs of opposite, elliptic to lanceolate leaflets that measure 5 to 16 cm in length and exhibit raised veins on the lower surface.^[1]^[26] Extrafloral nectaries, small glandular structures, are consistently present on the petioles, rachises, and sometimes leaflet bases, aiding in distinguishing Inga from related genera.^[27]^[28] The root system is extensive and branching, often forming numerous nodules that integrate with soil structure, supporting the tree's anchorage and resource uptake in tropical environments; variations exist, with some species developing shallower roots adapted to specific soil conditions.^[7]^[28] While most species lack prominent thorns, certain Inga exhibit spinose stipules or branch modifications for structural defense, varying by taxon and habitat.^[1]

Reproductive features

Inga species produce axillary spike-like inflorescences bearing small, tubular flowers typically white or whitish, featuring fused petals and numerous long, exserted stamens—often 10 or more—united at the base into an androphore, which distinguishes the genus within Fabaceae.^[29]^[30] These flowers are primarily adapted for insect pollination, with many species exhibiting self-incompatibility and obligate outcrossing, requiring cross-pollination for fruit and seed set.^[20] Flowering phenology varies across species and habitats; some display continuous or semi-continuous blooming, while others show synchronized peaks lasting weeks to months, often correlating with wet seasons to enhance pollinator activity and subsequent fruit development.^[31] For instance, Inga edulis requires approximately 155 days from flowering to fruit harvest, accumulating 497 thermal units.^[32] Fruiting yields indehiscent or dehiscing legume pods, linear to falcate and 1.5–65 cm long, containing 2–21 seeds embedded in a sweet, white, pulpy sarcotesta derived from the endocarp rather than a true aril.^[4]^[3] Seeds of Inga are recalcitrant, characterized by high water content, desiccation sensitivity, and viviparous tendencies, germinating rapidly—often within days of dispersal via rotting pods or animal ingestion of the edible pulp— with low storage longevity limiting ex situ conservation.^[33]^[34] Recent 2024 analysis of Inga edulis seeds confirms their short viability post-harvest but underscores high protein and carbohydrate levels, enabling biotechnological uses and supporting propagation in genetic diversity studies despite challenges posed by recalcitrance.^[35]^[36]

Distribution and habitat

Native range

The genus Inga, comprising approximately 300 species, is endemic to the Neotropics and occurs naturally from southern Mexico through Central America to northern Argentina, with extensions into southern Brazil and Uruguay.^[37] Species distributions span countries including Belize, Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil, reflecting a core presence in tropical regions without any verified native occurrences in Africa, Asia, or other continents.^[37] ^[3] The highest species diversity is found in the Amazon basin, where over 180 species have been documented, particularly in northern Brazil, Peru, and Colombia.^[38] Concentrations also occur in Andean foothills and montane zones, such as in Ecuador and Peru, contributing to regional hotspots of endemism.^[28] Phylogenetic analyses, based on nuclear gene sequences from over 100 species, reveal a rapid radiation originating 2–10 million years ago, with no evidence of historical range expansions beyond the tropical Americas, implying relative stability tied to Neotropical forest persistence.^[22]

Environmental adaptations

Inga species thrive in humid tropical climates, with most requiring annual rainfall exceeding 1,500 mm to support their fast growth and reproductive cycles, though some, like Inga edulis, can tolerate minima as low as 1,200 mm while enduring brief seasonal dry periods of up to five months.^[39]^[36] Certain taxa adapt to high-precipitation regimes up to 5,000 mm annually, reflecting their prevalence in lowland rainforests where consistent moisture prevents physiological stress.^[40] The genus exhibits notable tolerance to nutrient-poor, acidic soils (pH as low as 4.5) prevalent in weathered tropical oxisols and ultisols, enabling persistence in habitats degraded by leaching and erosion without external amendments.^[41]^[42] This adaptation stems from inherent physiological mechanisms, including efficient nutrient recycling, allowing Inga to occupy infertile substrates across Amazonian and Central American lowlands where few competitors survive.^[28] Altitudinally, Inga spans from sea level to elevations exceeding 2,000 m in montane forests, with species like I. edulis documented up to 2,200 m, where cooler temperatures and variable fog regimes test thermal limits but are mitigated by shade tolerance in understory positions.^[43]^[40] At higher altitudes, reduced atmospheric pressure and periodic frosts impose constraints, yet pioneer species regenerate post-disturbance in these gradients.^[44] In Central American trials, Inga alley systems have demonstrated resilience to abiotic extremes, including short-term droughts and intense storms delivering over 195 mm of rain in single events, with deep root systems and mulch layers preserving soil structure and moisture during Hurricane Mitch remnants in 1998 and subsequent events.^[45]^[46]^[47] This durability contrasts with annual crops, as Inga's woody architecture withstands wind shear up to 150 km/h, reducing erosion on slopes exceeding 30% incline.^[42]

Ecology

Nitrogen fixation and symbiosis

Inga species, such as Inga edulis, establish symbiotic relationships with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, predominantly fast-growing strains of Bradyrhizobium (related to B. japonicum and B. liaoningense), within specialized root nodules.^[48] These bacteria, housed in nodules formed through plant-bacteria signaling and infection threads, express nitrogenase enzymes to reduce atmospheric dinitrogen (N₂) to ammonia (NH₃), which the plant assimilates into amino acids and proteins in exchange for photosynthates.^[48] This mutualism enables Inga to thrive in nitrogen-limited, acidic soils where non-symbiotic plants struggle, as the process bypasses dependence on mineralized soil nitrogen, directly accessing the abundant but inert atmospheric pool.^[49] Field studies quantify nitrogen fixation efficiency, with I. edulis deriving 74–81% of its nitrogen from atmospheric sources (%Ndfa) under natural conditions.^[50] In shaded coffee agroforestry systems with 205–250 Inga trees per hectare, symbiotic fixation contributes approximately 45 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹, while broader estimates in similar setups range from 41–50 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ based on biomass accumulation and isotope dilution methods using non-fixing references like Vochysia guatemalensis.^[51]^[52] Nodule nitrogenase activity, measured via acetylene reduction assays, confirms functional symbiosis, though rates vary with soil phosphorus availability and rhizobial strain compatibility, with Bradyrhizobium ingae strains showing high effectiveness in low-fertility environments.^[48]^[49] The fixed nitrogen integrates into Inga's biomass, enhancing soil dynamics through eventual litterfall and decomposition. Leaf litter from I. edulis exhibits slow breakdown, with only 33% mass loss and 36% nitrogen release after 20 weeks in humid tropical conditions (half-life of labile N ≈24 weeks), due to a recalcitrant fraction rich in lignin and cellulose that resists rapid microbial decay.^[53] This gradual release—equating to ≈52 kg N ha⁻¹ from 5 Mg ha⁻¹ mulch over that period—promotes sustained soil nitrogen retention and carbon sequestration, contrasting with faster-decomposing non-legume litters that risk nutrient leaching.^[53] Symbiotically, this efficiency stems from the energetic trade-off: the plant allocates 10–20% of photosynthates to nodules for fixation, yielding a net gain in nutrient-poor ecosystems where soil N mineralization alone cannot support comparable growth.^[48]

Herbivore defenses and species coexistence

Inga species exhibit a suite of antiherbivore defenses, including chemical compounds such as cyanogenic glycosides, physical barriers like trichomes, and indirect protections through extrafloral nectaries (EFNs) that attract predatory ants.^[54] ^[19] Young expanding leaves, which are particularly vulnerable, allocate substantial resources to these mechanisms, with chemical defenses comprising up to 50% of leaf dry weight in some species.^[54] EFNs, located between leaflets, secrete nectar rich in sugars but do not increase production in response to herbivore damage, indicating a constitutive rather than induced strategy.^[55] This multi-faceted approach deters folivores and limits damage, as evidenced by lower herbivory rates on defended tissues across Neotropical populations. The evolution of these defenses has proceeded rapidly within Inga, a genus encompassing over 300 species that diverged within the last 2–10 million years.^[19] Phylogenetic analyses of 43 species reveal that antiherbivore traits, particularly chemical profiles, exhibit high lability, with shifts in metabolite classes (e.g., from cyanogenic glycosides to alkaloids or phenolics) correlating with speciation events.^[56] ^[57] Quantitative and qualitative variations in defenses, measured via high-performance liquid chromatography in six focal species, define distinct defense syndromes that diverge early in cladogenesis, potentially driving reproductive isolation through herbivore-mediated selection.^[57] Such evolutionary dynamics suggest defenses act as key innovations facilitating the genus's hyperdiversity in tropical forests.^[19] These defense differences contribute to species coexistence by promoting niche partitioning in diverse communities. In field surveys across Panama (12 species) and Peru (31 species), conspecific Inga individuals co-occurring as spatial neighbors displayed greater divergence in defense traits than expected by chance, reducing overlap in herbivore susceptibility and interspecific competition for safe microsites.^[19] This pattern aligns with enemy-free space hypotheses, where varied defenses minimize shared natural enemies, enhancing local persistence amid high herbivore pressure. Empirical herbivory data from these sites confirm that defense heterogeneity lowers overall damage and supports stable multispecies assemblages, underscoring causal links between trait disparity and community structure.^[19] ^[58]

Hybridization and genetic diversity

Studies using microsatellite markers have documented strong introgression between Inga ingoides and I. edulis in contact zones within the Peruvian Amazon, where populations exhibit weak overall genetic differentiation despite geographic separation across river tributaries.^[20] This hybridization results in admixed individuals, with genetic variation levels comparable between the two species (expected heterozygosity around 0.70-0.75), suggesting ongoing gene flow that enhances local resilience but challenges species delimitation based on morphology alone.^[20] ^[59] Phylogenetic analyses across the genus reveal rampant reticulation, with gene tree incongruence indicating widespread interspecific hybridization during the rapid radiation of Inga species, accounting for approximately 20% of shared genetic variation among sampled taxa.^[60] Targeted enrichment of nuclear genes has highlighted low divergence in plastid markers relative to morphological and chemical trait diversity, underscoring hybridization's role in blurring lineage boundaries while potentially driving adaptive evolution, such as in antiherbivore defenses.^[22] ^[61] Recent research from 2023-2024 emphasizes hybridization's contributions to genetic diversity, including introgression at loci linked to secondary metabolism, which may facilitate breeding programs for agroforestry by combining traits like drought tolerance from I. ingoides with pod productivity from I. edulis.^[20] However, such reticulation risks diluting species-specific adaptations in natural populations, complicating conservation efforts in fragmented habitats.^[62]

Human uses

Agroforestry systems

Inga species are integrated into alley cropping systems by planting them in contour-aligned hedgerows spaced 4 to 6 meters apart, allowing intercropping with annual staples such as maize, beans, and squash in the resulting alleys. Trees are pruned two to three times annually to a height of about 2 meters, with the fresh green prunings laid directly onto the soil surface as mulch to cover the ground and facilitate nutrient recycling. This technique draws on the trees' rapid growth and leguminous properties, requiring initial establishment from seedlings or cuttings spaced 1 to 2 meters within rows.^[63]^[40] The Inga Foundation has advanced this alley cropping approach since its founding in 2012, building on field trials conducted in Honduras during the 1980s and 1990s that identified Inga as suitable for replacing slash-and-burn practices. Implementation involves community nurseries for propagating species like Inga edulis and Inga vera, followed by farmer training in site preparation, planting on degraded slopes, and ongoing maintenance to maintain alley widths for machinery or manual cultivation. Adoption has spread among subsistence farmers in tropical regions, with over 5 million trees established by more than 600 families in Honduras as of 2024.^[64]^[65]^[66] In Honduras and parts of Central America, Inga alley cropping forms the core of the Guama Model, an integrated framework that positions hedgerows on steep, eroded lands to enable continuous cropping without forest clearance. This model emphasizes contour planting to minimize soil erosion, with prunings applied in layers up to 20-30 cm thick post-harvest to prepare fields for the next season. Historical rollout began with pilot sites in the 1990s, evolving into broader programs that train farmers in combining Inga rows with perimeter live fences and fruit tree interplanting for diversified land use.^[47]^[67]

Empirical benefits and evidence

Studies on Inga edulis in agroforestry systems indicate nitrogen fixation rates of approximately 35 to 100 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹, primarily through symbiosis with rhizobial bacteria, enabling nutrient recycling via leaf prunings and litterfall that replenish soil fertility on degraded tropical lands.^[68]^[69] This process supports sustained maize and bean yields in alley-cropping trials, where crops interplanted between Inga hedgerows achieved harvests comparable to or exceeding those on freshly cleared slash-and-burn plots, without requiring multi-year fallows, as demonstrated in long-term experiments in humid tropics.^[67]^[70] In multi-strata agroforestry incorporating Inga species, soil organic matter increases over time due to persistent mulch layers from pruned biomass, correlating with elevated soil carbon accumulation and improved understory plant diversity in aging stands of Inga punctata.^[71]^[72] Erosion control is enhanced by the contour-planted hedgerows and deep root systems, which stabilize slopes and reduce runoff on acidic, nutrient-poor soils typical of rainforest zones.^[39] Field observations in Honduras reveal Inga alley-cropping systems' resilience to extreme weather, with plots withstanding tropical storms and droughts in 2021 while maintaining productivity on restored lands, outperforming traditional methods vulnerable to soil degradation post-disturbance.^[45] For associated crops like cocoa, yields under Inga shade reached up to 1,000 kg ha⁻¹ by year eight in Peruvian trials, reflecting fertility gains from nutrient release without synthetic inputs.^[40] Adoption of Inga alley cropping has enhanced household food security for subsistence farmers by enabling sustained maize and bean production without soil degradation, with reports of yields 5-10 times higher than slash-and-burn methods.^[65] In Honduras, implementation across over 300 families has resulted in 100% food security, allowing surplus production for market sales and reducing hunger periods previously lasting up to eight months annually.^[73] ^[74] Intercropping Inga alleys with cash crops such as vanilla, rambutan, and coffee has diversified income sources, with farmers generating revenue from organic products sold locally or exported, often without incurring debt for inputs.^[75] This approach, scaled primarily through private initiatives like those of the Inga Foundation in Honduras since the early 2000s, emphasizes farmer-provided labor for tree pruning and planting, yielding positive long-term returns on investment after 2-3 years of establishment.^[76] Economic analyses of Inga integration in tropical agroforestry systems show high net present values compared to fallow or monocrop alternatives, driven by reduced fertilizer costs and improved land productivity over decades.^[77] Socially, the model frees family labor from intensive weeding—cutting it by up to 80%—enabling education, off-farm work, and community stability, while promoting self-reliance over aid dependency through replicable, low-external-input techniques.^[78]^[79]

Limitations and criticisms

Establishment of Inga alley cropping systems demands substantial initial labor, including site preparation, manual grass removal, and planting hedgerows at spacings of 4-6 meters, often requiring 20-24 months before first pruning.^[80]^[42] Direct seeding proves unreliable without consistent rainfall to prevent desiccation, favoring bare-root seedlings instead, while short seed viability—lasting up to two weeks—necessitates local collection and limits propagation scalability.^[42] Ongoing management, such as annual pruning to chest height for mulch production, adds labor intensity, particularly in commercial settings where mechanization lags.^[80] Inga edulis requires a minimum of 1200 mm annual rainfall for optimal growth, rendering it unsuitable for drier regions without supplemental irrigation, as mature trees tolerate only short droughts and young plants are more vulnerable.^[42]^[81] Efficacy varies in non-optimal conditions; field trials in the Peruvian Amazon showed Inga edulis tree fallows yielding no crop improvements over natural fallows and significantly lower outputs in some cases, underscoring dependence on precise management like timely pruning and soil adaptation.^[77] Transition periods often involve reduced short-term crop yields due to shade from establishing trees and mulch decomposition delays, with leaves breaking down slowly compared to faster-cycling alternatives.^[42]^[80] Scalability faces barriers beyond subsistence farming, including high upfront investments, land tenure insecurities, and cultural resistance to labor shifts, limiting replacement of monocultures in commercial operations.^[80] While no widespread invasiveness occurs in native Neotropical ranges, localized pests like mistletoe in Ecuador highlight monitoring needs in agroforestry deployments.^[42]

Cultivation

Propagation methods

Seed propagation is the primary method for cultivating Inga species, including Inga edulis, due to the ready availability of seeds and their capacity to produce genetically diverse seedlings. Seeds exhibit recalcitrant storage physiology, rapidly losing viability post-harvest—often within weeks—requiring fresh collection and immediate sowing to achieve optimal results.^[34] Fresh seeds from ripe pods germinate readily without pretreatment, frequently initiating while still within the pod, with rates exceeding 80% under suitable conditions such as moist, shaded nursery beds at 25–30°C.^[82] ^[83] For seeds with physical dormancy or those stored briefly, mechanical scarification—such as nicking the seed coat with sandpaper or a file—breaks the impermeable layer, enhancing water uptake and germination, though this is less critical for orthodox species like I. edulis.^[84] Vegetative propagation via stem cuttings is less commonly employed across the Inga genus owing to challenges in rooting mature tissues, but it offers potential for clonal multiplication of superior genotypes. Semi-hardwood cuttings from juvenile stock plants, treated with auxins like indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), show variable success, with rooting rates improved under high humidity and mist systems.^[85] Mini-cuttings derived from orthotropic shoots in clonal mini-gardens have demonstrated higher efficacy for I. edulis, achieving over 85% rooting and survival regardless of IBA concentrations up to 3000 mg/L, when propagated in shaded greenhouses.^[86] Air layering provides an alternative for larger branches but yields lower propagation efficiency compared to seeds. Nursery protocols for Inga emphasize early inoculation with compatible rhizobia to establish nitrogen-fixing symbioses, as native soil strains may be ineffective in new sites. Seeds or young seedlings are inoculated by soaking in a suspension of crushed root nodules from mature Inga plants mixed with water overnight, or using commercial Bradyrhizobium strains specific to the genus, promoting nodulation within 4–6 weeks.^[87] ^[88] This step, combined with sterile media to prevent fungal contamination, supports vigorous seedling growth in polybags or raised beds under 50–70% shade, prior to outplanting at 20–30 cm height.^[88]

Management practices

In cultivated Inga systems, particularly alley cropping, trees are pruned after 20 to 24 months of growth to a height of approximately 1.5 meters via pollarding, with subsequent annual prunings to maintain productivity and alley access.^[89] Prunings, including branches and stripped leaves, are chopped and applied as mulch directly in the crop alleys to suppress weeds, retain moisture, and release nutrients upon decomposition, typically six weeks prior to crop planting to allow integration.^[81] Hedgerows are established with 4- to 6-meter alley widths to accommodate associated crops and facilitate mulch distribution, while trees within rows are spaced 1 to 2 meters apart for optimal canopy coverage post-pruning.^[63] Established Inga trees, benefiting from nitrogen-fixing root nodules, require no supplemental nitrogen fertilizers, relying instead on symbiotic bacteria for soil nitrogen replenishment and demonstrating independence from routine fertilization after initial rooting.^[90] Soil tests may guide occasional applications of phosphorus or potassium if deficiencies arise, but over-fertilization risks disrupting microbial symbioses. Pest management emphasizes monitoring for common threats like leaf-cutting ants or borers, leveraging Inga's inherent chemical defenses—such as alkaloids and tannins in foliage—that deter herbivores, alongside promotion of natural enemies via extrafloral nectaries.^[91] Biological controls and cultural practices, including mulch layers to disrupt pest cycles, are prioritized over chemical interventions to preserve ecosystem services.^[92] For climate resilience, 2024 guidelines recommend adaptive pruning to reduce wind exposure in variable rainfall areas and selection of locally adapted Inga variants to withstand droughts, with mulch retention enhancing soil moisture conservation during dry spells.^[89] Regular canopy thinning prevents overcrowding and improves light penetration for understory crops, sustaining long-term yields without external inputs.

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Ingas of the Brazilian Amazon, Archives RFC Australia - Growables
The genus Inga, Leguminosae (Mimosoideae), is represented by approximately 180 species in the Brazilian Amazon and, of this number, there are but a handful of 4 ...
[39]
[PDF] chapter 5. the uses of inga in the acid soils of the rainforest zone
soil tolerance of Inga are potentially so important in this context. A ... RAINFALL; VEGETATION: 4,200 mm; Lowland wet tropical forest. (Holdridge).
[40]
Inga alley cropping manual - Rainforest Saver
Some species have over 2000m of altitudinal range while others can tolerate a very wet climate with 3500-5000 mm of rain per year or a seasonal climate with a 5 ...Missing: adaptations | Show results with:adaptations
[41]
The Inga Tree – IngaFoundatio
Many Inga species are fast growing, light-demanding plants which have the ability to compete successfully with weedy secondary vegetation. 3. Rapid Germination.Missing: bark | Show results with:bark
[42]
Inga edulis: a tree for acid soils in the humid tropics
It reaches a height of 30 m and a stem diameter (dbh) of 60 cm, and usually branches from below 3 m. The branches form a broad, flat, moderately dense canopy.
[43]
Inga edulis Ice Cream Bean, Monkey Tamarind PFAF Plant Database
The long pod fruits have sweet flavor, white, translucent, jelly-like pulp. Leaf decoctions are used against cough and lip sores.Missing: morphology | Show results with:morphology
[44]
Ice Cream Bean (Inga edulis) - ArcGIS StoryMaps
Dec 1, 2023 · Additionally, ice cream beans trees can grow at an altitude of anywhere between sea level and 7,000 feet, and can also handle sloped terrain.
[45]
Inga tree points to way out of slash-and-burn for Central American ...
Oct 27, 2021 · Alley cropping inga trees has been shown to restore degraded land while withstanding tropical storms and drought. Around 400 families in ...Missing: tolerance resilience
[46]
Inga tree points to way out of slash-and-burn for Central American ...
Oct 29, 2021 · Alley cropping inga trees has been shown to restore degraded land while withstanding tropical storms and drought. ... It involved a lesser-known ...Missing: tolerance resilience
[47]
[PDF] the Guama Model and its - Inga Foundation
Oct 17, 2024 · Beans in alleys of Inga edulis. Protected by the mulch, they and the soil survived 195 mm of rain in the storm of 21 March 2016. This was ...
[48]
Neotropical Legume Tree Inga edulis Forms N2-fixing Symbiosis ...
This study was conducted to characterize the rhizobia of I. edulis and determine if it is capable of fixing substantial amounts of N 2.
[49]
Symbiotic effectiveness of <i>Bradyrhizobium ingae</i> in promoting ...
Inga edulis Mart. is a leguminous tree adapted to acidic and low-fertility soils that establishes symbioses with nitrogen (N)-fixing bacteria.
[50]
[PDF] N2-fixing trees and the transfer of fixed-N for sustainable agroforestry
Nov 15, 2013 · sepium and Inga edulis, were found to derive 85– 86 % and 74–81 % N derived from atmosphere, respectively (Kurppa et al. 2010). Soil P, along ...
[51]
FACTORS AFFECTING THE NITROGEN FIXATION IN THE Inga spp.
This review may allow the adoption of new observational or experimental studies of the Inga spp.-rhizobia symbiosis, to approach the performance that favors the ...
[52]
Dinitrogen fixation by legume shade trees and direct transfer of fixed ...
Jan 24, 2015 · The conservative estimate of current N2 fixation rate was 41 kg [Nf] ha(-1) year(-1) based on inga biomass only and 50 kg [Nf] ha(-1) year(-1) ...Missing: per
[53]
Green mulch decomposition and nitrogen release from leaves of two ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Inga edulis Mart and Inga samanensis Uribe are promising yet little studied legume trees for use in agroforestry on acidic soils. The objective ...
[54]
The evolution of antiherbivore defenses and their contribution to ...
The young leaves of Inga make substantial investments in chemical defenses [up to 50% of DW (19)] and developmental defenses and extrafloral nectar, suggesting ...
[55]
Is extrafloral nectar production induced by herbivores or ants in a ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Analysis of nectar samples revealed that Inga species do not induce nectar production in response to herbivores. This result is not due to an ...
[56]
Evolution of defense chemistry in the tropical tree genus Inga - bioRxiv
Dec 20, 2021 · We show that: 1) Each Inga species produces exceptionally high levels of phytochemical diversity, despite costs, tradeoffs and biosynthetic ...
[57]
Quantitative and qualitative shifts in defensive metabolites define ...
To characterize shifts in chemical defenses, we chose six species of Inga, a speciose Neotropical tree genus. Focal species represent diverse chemical ...
[58]
The evolution of antiherbivore defenses and their contribution to ...
In an analysis of community assembly, we found that Inga species co-occurring as neighbors are more different in antiherbivore defenses than random, suggesting ...
[59]
(PDF) Genetic diversity and hybridization in the two species Inga ...
May 10, 2017 · Our results showed strong introgression between Inga ingoides and Inga edulis in the species contact area. Interspecific hybridization could ...
[60]
Rampant Reticulation in a Rapid Radiation of Tropical Trees ...
We assess patterns of gene tree incongruence to ascertain whether hybridization was associated with rapid radiation in Inga. Given the importance of insect ...
[61]
Rampant Reticulation in a Rapid Radiation of Tropical Trees - bioRxiv
Jul 3, 2024 · Genetic diversity and hybridization in the two species Inga ingoides and Inga edulis: potential applications for agroforestry in the Peruvian ...Materials & Methods · Discussion · Introgression And Selection...<|separator|>
[62]
Hybridization: a 'double-edged sword' for Neotropical plant diversity
Some evidence of hybridization was also found between two ecologically divergent species of the diverse genus Inga (Fabaceae) using microsatellite loci (Rollo ...
[63]
Inga Alley Cropping - IngaFoundation
The Inga species are nitrogen-fixing trees capable of maintaining soil fertility and good harvests year on year. Breaking the cycle of slash and burn allows ...
[64]
About Us - IngaFoundation
The Inga Foundation, founded in 2012 from a Cambridge research project, supports 600+ families in Honduras and elsewhere, shifting them to Inga Alley Cropping.
[65]
The Inga Foundation - Equator Initiative
Jul 2, 2024 · Inga Alley Cropping anchors a family to a single plot of land, allowing the entire family to work together close to home and eliminating their ...
[66]
The search for a sustainable alternative to slash-and-burn ... - PubMed
Feb 17, 2021 · Since then, Inga alley-cropping has become the heart of a sustainable and integrated rural livelihood model (the Guama Model) which is being ...
[67]
The search for a sustainable alternative to slash-and-burn ...
Feb 17, 2021 · Inga A-C lies at the heart of the Guama Model; an integrated rural livelihood model comprised of four agroforestry systems for food security in ...
[68]
[PDF] Vegetative propagation of Inga feuillei from shoot cuttings and air ...
Studies in coffee plantations report that I. jinicuil. Schlecht. can fix 35 kg N/ha/year (Roskoski 1981). Inga spp. provide fuel- wood (Leon 1966), timber ...
[69]
[PDF] Biotic Drivers of Leaf Litter Decomposition in Shaded Coffee Agro ...
In another study, Inga edulis provided an estimated 100 kg N/ha/yr in a mature stand, but only 60% of individual plants fixed. N, with no clear pattern ...
[70]
Interplanting Inga edulis yields nitrogen benefits to Terminalia ...
kg of dry weight of cuttings containing 15–135 kg of nitrogen per hectare in 1 year, in an alley-cropping system (Glover, 1989). Inga edulis is native or ...
[71]
Increasing Ages of Inga punctata Tree Soils Facilitate Greater ...
Leguminous Inga trees are thought to enhance soil carbon (C) accumulation following reforestation, through mostly unknown mechanisms.
[72]
USE OF THE AMAZONIAN TREE SPECIES INGA EDULIS ... - jstor
This fast-growing, acid soil-tolerant, nitrogen with I. edulis (3) planted fallow with I. edulis +. (N)-fixing tree is traditionally used to shade kudzu and ...
[73]
Agroforestry: Improving Food Security in Honduras
Mar 22, 2020 · According to the Inga Foundation, more than 300 farming families have been able to achieve food security through the new alley cropping method, ...
[74]
Agroforestry land restoration technique improves food security in ...
Feb 20, 2020 · The Inga Tree Model is based on over 25 years of research and Cambridge University trials by Inga's founder and director, tropical ecologist ...
[75]
[PDF] Inga tree agroforestry in Honduras - Tropenbos International
A total of about. 50,000 grain seeds are sown in a 1-ha plot to secure a family's basic needs. The planting density of the Inga trees in an alley plot is 5,000 ...
[76]
the Guama Model and its implementation - Inga Foundation
Oct 29, 2021 · Inga alley-cropping has become the heart of a sustainable and integrated rural livelihood model (the Guama Model) which is being implemented successfully in ...
[77]
[PDF] the use and integration of inga edulis in agroforestry systems in the ...
This fast growing, acid-soil tolerant tree, which improves soil fertility through nitrogen fixation, is traditionally used to shade perennial crops such as ...
[78]
The Social Benefits - IngaFoundation
The easing of labour demands in crop nurture, harvesting and processing (where appropriate); ease of access; freeing the breadwinner's time for more productive ...Missing: economic impacts farmers
[79]
Our Model - IngaFoundation
The Inga Model uses efficient alley cropping to provide food security, freeing up land for other uses, and aims for a sustainable, resilient livelihood.
[80]
Barriers to the Adoption of Alley Cropping as a Climate-Smart ...
Studies of adoption of agricultural technologies have found a variety of barriers to adoption, for instance, land tenure arrangements, access to credit, farmers ...
[81]
Step by step guide to Inga alley cropping - Rainforest Saver
It is suitable in tropical climates, like rainforest areas, where there is good rainfall. It is said that Inga edulis needs 1200 to 1600 mm annually.Missing: agroforestry | Show results with:agroforestry
[82]
https://www.tradewindsfruit.com/content/seed-germination-tips.htm
[83]
Germination, seed diameter and pregerminative treatments in ...
Sep 1, 2017 · The aim of this research was to know the germination's characteristics of some species, such as Eugenia stipitata McVaugh, Inga edulis Mart ...
[84]
[PDF] chemical and biochemical aspects of seed dormancy and
Oct 23, 2014 · combined scarification and chilling treatment resulted in higher germination ... conservação de sementes de Inga edulis, espécie usada em ...
[85]
Vegetative propagation of Inga feuillei from shoot cuttings and air ...
Cuttings were taken from 2-year-old seed-propagated, greenhouse-grown stock plants. Compound leaves were either reduced in area or removed entirely before auxin ...Missing: genus | Show results with:genus
[86]
ROOTING OF Inga edulis Mart. (LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOSOIDEAE ...
Aug 6, 2025 · All Inga edulis mini-cuttings survived, and rooting was over 85%. IBA concentrations had no significant effect on most of the analyzed variables ...
[87]
How to inoculate Inga seeds prior to planting - Tropical Botany
Mar 5, 2014 · We inoculate the seeds by soaking them over-night in a mixture of macerated Inga root nodules and soil suspended in water.Missing: nursery protocol
[88]
(PDF) Neotropical Legume Tree Inga edulis Forms N 2 -fixing ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Little information can be found concerning N2 fixation in this species. This study was conducted to characterize the rhizobia of I. edulis and ...
[89]
Inga Alley Cropping | ECHOcommunity.org
Oct 1, 2024 · This agroforestry system uses Inga spp., nitrogen-fixing trees, to regenerate the steepest and most degraded land. This system sequesters and ...
[90]
How To Grow An Ice Cream Bean Tree - Gardening Know How
Feb 9, 2023 · Ice cream bean trees never need nitrogen fertilizer because, like other legumes, they produce their own nitrogen and adds nitrogen to the soil.
[91]
Extrafloral nectary-bearing leguminous trees enhance pest control ...
Oct 1, 2021 · Here we assess coffee production and natural control of coffee pests in the presence or absence of leguminous trees bearing extrafloral nectaries (Inga edulis).Missing: limitations | Show results with:limitations
[92]
Organic Farming Practices and Shade Trees Reduce Pest ...
In our study, we used three tree species as shade providers: Myroxylon balsamum L. (MB), Erythrina spp. (ES), and Inga edulis Mart. (IE) either alone or in ...