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Medicinal plants

Medicinal plants are any plants that contain substances in one or more of their organs which can be used for therapeutic purposes or as precursors for the synthesis of useful drugs, forming the foundation of traditional medicine systems worldwide and serving as a key source for modern pharmaceuticals.^[1] These plants have been utilized by humans for health promotion, disease prevention, and treatment since ancient times, with empirical knowledge passed down through generations across diverse cultures.^[2] Over 90% of traditional medicine recipes incorporate medicinal plants, highlighting their integral role in healthcare practices that predate written history.^[1] The use of medicinal plants dates back thousands of years, with evidence from ancient civilizations such as the Sumerians, Egyptians, and Greeks documenting their application for ailments ranging from pain and fever to infections.^[3] In traditional systems like Ayurveda in India and Traditional Chinese Medicine, these plants have been central to holistic healing, often combining botanical remedies with cultural and spiritual elements.^[2] Historical texts and archaeological findings confirm that early humans relied on plants for survival, evolving alongside nature to identify beneficial species through trial and observation.^[1] In contemporary contexts, medicinal plants continue to play a vital role in both complementary and conventional medicine, addressing conditions such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, malaria, and hypertension through bioactive compounds like alkaloids, flavonoids, and terpenoids.^[3] Approximately 40% of all pharmaceutical products derive from natural sources, including plants, underscoring their pharmacological importance in drug discovery and development.^[3] Advanced extraction techniques, such as ultrasound-assisted and supercritical fluid methods, have enhanced the isolation of these compounds, enabling rigorous scientific validation of their efficacy and safety.^[2] Globally, medicinal plants support primary healthcare in many regions, with 170 World Health Organization (WHO) Member States reporting their widespread use and a market value exceeding $100 billion annually as of 2013.^[1] Notable examples include willow bark, which provided the basis for aspirin to treat pain and inflammation; sweet wormwood, yielding artemisinin for malaria therapy; and Madagascar periwinkle, sourcing vinblastine and vincristine for cancer treatment.^[3] In countries like China and India, over 7,000 medicinal plant species are documented, with hundreds to over a thousand harvested and traded annually, fueling trade worth billions and emphasizing the need for sustainable cultivation to meet growing demand.^[1] In May 2025, WHO Member States adopted the Traditional Medicine Strategy 2025-2034 to promote evidence-based integration and sustainability.^[4]

Historical Development

Prehistoric and Ancient Practices

Archaeological evidence indicates that prehistoric humans, including Neanderthals, utilized plants for medicinal purposes as early as 60,000 years ago. In Shanidar Cave, Iraq, pollen analysis from the burial of Shanidar IV revealed concentrations of yarrow (Achillea millefolium) and hollyhock (Alcea spp., related to marshmallow), suggesting intentional use of these plants, potentially for healing or ritual, though interpretations remain debated due to possible natural deposition.^[5] Similarly, dental calculus from Neanderthal remains at El Sidrón Cave in Spain, dated to around 50,000 years ago, contained microfossils of yarrow and camomile (Matricaria spp.), plants with known anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties, indicating self-medication through consumption. These findings highlight empirical discovery in Paleolithic societies, where trial-and-error likely identified effective remedies amid oral traditions passed by healers. In ancient civilizations, written records formalized these practices. Sumerian clay tablets from around 3000 BCE, inscribed in cuneiform, document early herbal recipes for treating ailments like digestive issues and infections using plants such as myrrh and thyme, marking one of the oldest pharmacopeias.^[6] The Egyptian Ebers Papyrus, dating to approximately 1550 BCE but drawing from earlier knowledge, lists over 700 prescriptions, predominantly plant-based, for conditions ranging from wounds to internal disorders, incorporating remedies like aloe and garlic.^[7] In China, the Shennong Bencao Jing, compiled around the 1st century CE and attributed to the legendary emperor Shennong, classifies 365 medicinal plants into categories based on toxicity and efficacy, emphasizing uses for tonics and balms derived from roots like ginseng.^[8] Indian Ayurvedic texts, such as the Charaka Samhita from circa 100 BCE to 200 CE, detail polyherbal formulations for balancing bodily humors, including combinations of turmeric and ashwagandha for vitality and inflammation.^[9] Prehistoric and ancient healing relied heavily on shamans and community healers who preserved knowledge through oral traditions, experimenting with local flora via observation of effects on animals and humans. For instance, willow bark (Salix spp.) was identified through such trial-and-error for pain relief and fever reduction across Eurasian hunter-gatherer groups, its salicin content providing analgesic benefits long before isolation in modern aspirin.^[10] These practitioners integrated plants into rituals, fostering cultural reverence for nature's pharmacy and ensuring transmission across generations without written codification. The dissemination of medicinal plant knowledge accelerated through migration and trade routes. Along the Silk Road from the 2nd century BCE, exchanges introduced Chinese ginseng (Panax ginseng) to the West as an adaptogen and rhubarb (Rheum spp.) from Central Asia to China and beyond as a purgative, blending pharmacopeias and enriching regional healing systems.^[11]^[12] This interconnectedness laid foundational empirical practices that influenced later systematized medicine.

Medieval and Early Modern Periods

During the Islamic Golden Age, scholars synthesized herbal knowledge from diverse traditions, significantly advancing medicinal plant studies. Avicenna's Canon of Medicine, completed in 1025 CE, integrated Greek, Persian, and Indian herbal traditions into a comprehensive framework, describing over 800 simple drugs derived from herbs, minerals, and animals, with extensive commentary on their therapeutic applications.^[13] This encyclopedic work emphasized empirical observation and pharmacological properties, serving as a foundational text for centuries and influencing both Islamic and European medicine through its translations.^[14] In medieval Europe, monastic communities preserved and expanded this knowledge through dedicated cultivation and documentation. Hildegard von Bingen's Physica, composed in the 1150s, detailed the medicinal uses of over 230 plants and grains, linking their properties to holistic health and spiritual well-being, such as using fennel for digestion and eye ailments.^[15] Monasteries maintained physic gardens—structured plots of raised beds for growing medicinal herbs near infirmaries—exemplified by the 9th-century St. Gall monastery plan, which featured 16 beds of therapeutic plants to support self-sufficiency and healing practices.^[16] The Age of Exploration in the early modern period introduced transformative New World plants to European pharmacopeias, broadening therapeutic options. Cinchona bark from Peru, first documented for medicinal use by Spanish colonizers around 1630, was adopted for treating intermittent fevers, later recognized as malaria, and imported by Jesuits for widespread application.^[17] Similarly, tobacco arrived in Europe in the 16th century as a versatile remedy, prescribed for over 65 conditions including wounds, rheumatism, and plague, often administered via smoking, ointments, or enemas, as promoted in works like Nicolas Monardes' Historia Medicinal (1565).^[18] Advancements in printing facilitated more accurate botanical representation, while innovative chemical approaches refined plant-based treatments. Otto Brunfels' Herbarum Vivae Eicones (1530), the first modern illustrated herbal, featured detailed, nature-derived woodcuts by Hans Weiditz, elevating botany by prioritizing wild plants and medicinal organization over classical texts.^[19] Concurrently, Paracelsus pioneered iatrochemistry in the 16th century, advocating the extraction of active principles from plants—such as opium in his laudanum tincture for pain relief—within an alchemical framework to address chemical imbalances in the body, shifting medicine toward targeted chemical therapies.^[20]

Industrial and Contemporary Advances

The 19th century marked a pivotal shift in the utilization of medicinal plants through the isolation of their active principles, enabling more precise pharmaceutical applications. In 1804, German pharmacist Friedrich Sertürner successfully isolated morphine, the primary alkaloid from the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), laying the foundation for modern alkaloid chemistry and analgesic drug development.^[21] This breakthrough was followed in 1828 by the isolation of salicin from willow bark (Salix spp.) by French pharmacist Henri Leroux, which served as a precursor to salicylic acid and ultimately led to the synthesis of acetylsalicylic acid, marketed as aspirin by Bayer in 1899 for its anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties.^[22]^[23] The 20th century saw further advancements in extracting bioactive compounds from natural sources, paralleling developments in plant-derived antibiotics. Although derived from the fungus Penicillium notatum, Alexander Fleming's 1928 discovery of penicillin highlighted the potential for microbial analogs to plant antimicrobials, inspiring similar isolations from botanical origins and accelerating antibiotic research.^[24] A landmark achievement came in the 1970s when Chinese pharmacologist Tu Youyou isolated artemisinin from sweet wormwood (Artemisia annua), a compound that revolutionized malaria treatment by rapidly clearing the parasite Plasmodium falciparum.^[25] Contemporary advances emphasize the integration of medicinal plants into global pharmaceuticals and biotechnology. According to a 2022 World Health Organization statement, approximately 40% of approved pharmaceutical products derive from natural substances, underscoring the enduring role of plant-based compounds in modern medicine.^[26] The herbal supplements market, reflecting this trend, reached a global value of approximately USD 43 billion in 2021, driven by consumer demand for natural remedies and supported by efforts toward standardization and quality control.^[27] Biotechnology has enhanced production efficiency, as seen in the 1990s development of plant cell culture techniques for taxol (paclitaxel) from Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia), which addressed supply limitations of bark harvesting by enabling scalable, sustainable yields of this anticancer agent.^[28] A more recent example is the 2023 FDA approval of FILSUVEZ (birch triterpenes), a topical gel derived from downy birch (Betula pubescens), for the treatment of partial-thickness wounds in adult and pediatric patients 6 months of age and older with dystrophic or junctional epidermolysis bullosa.^[29]

Definition and Context

Botanical and Pharmacological Foundations

Medicinal plants are defined botanically as any plants, or parts thereof, that contain substances capable of being used for therapeutic purposes, often derived from secondary metabolites produced beyond those essential for basic growth and reproduction. These include a diverse array of forms such as herbs like basil (Ocimum basilicum), trees like neem (Azadirachta indica), and roots like ginseng (Panax ginseng), where the bioactive components reside in leaves, bark, flowers, or rhizomes.^[1] Pharmacologically, medicinal plants are characterized by their bioactivity against diseases, typically through mechanisms such as anti-inflammatory effects that reduce cytokine production or antimicrobial actions that inhibit bacterial cell wall synthesis. This distinguishes them from nutraceuticals, which are derived from food sources and provide health benefits primarily through nutritional enhancement rather than targeted disease treatment, and from poisons, which exhibit toxicity at low doses without a therapeutic window for safe use. For instance, while willow bark (Salix alba) contains salicin for analgesic effects, excessive intake can lead to toxicity akin to poisons, underscoring the need for dosage precision.^[30]^[31]^[32] In taxonomy, certain plant families stand out for their abundance of medicinal species; the Asteraceae family, exemplified by chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) used for its calming properties, and the Lamiaceae family, including peppermint (Mentha piperita) for digestive relief, together represent a significant portion of globally utilized medicinals due to their rich secondary metabolite profiles. A 2017 analysis recorded at least 28,187 plant species as being of medicinal use worldwide, with recent estimates suggesting over 30,000, highlighting the vast botanical diversity underpinning traditional and modern pharmacopeias.^[33]^[34] From an evolutionary perspective, plants synthesize these secondary metabolites primarily as chemical defenses against herbivores and pathogens; for example, alkaloids deter insect feeding by disrupting neural functions, a trait that has been co-opted by humans for therapeutic applications like quinine from cinchona bark (Cinchona spp.) for malaria treatment. This adaptive strategy, honed over millions of years, explains the pharmacological potency observed in medicinal plants today.^[35]

Cultural and Economic Roles

Medicinal plants hold profound cultural significance in various traditional healing systems worldwide, deeply embedded in societal practices and worldviews. In Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), which draws from over 8,000 medicinal herbs, plants are integral to holistic health philosophies emphasizing balance between yin and yang, with formulations like ginseng and astragalus used for millennia to treat imbalances and promote longevity.^[36] Similarly, Ayurveda in India features polyherbal formulations such as triphala, a blend of three fruits—amalaki, bibhitaki, and haritaki—prescribed for digestive health and detoxification, reflecting the system's dosha-based approach to wellness and its reliance on indigenous biodiversity for sustainable healing.^[37] In the Amazon region, indigenous communities, including the Shipibo and Asháninka peoples, incorporate plants like ayahuasca (a brew from Banisteriopsis caapi vine and Psychotria viridis leaves) in shamanic rituals for spiritual insight, community healing, and ecological knowledge transmission, underscoring the plants' role as mediators between human and natural realms.^[38] Economically, medicinal plants drive substantial markets and livelihoods, particularly in developing regions where they form the backbone of primary healthcare. The global market for herbal medicines reached approximately $145 billion in 2023, with estimates as of 2024 placing it at around USD 80-233 billion reflecting continued growth due to rising consumer interest in integrative health.^[39]^[40] In Africa, where the World Health Organization estimates that 80% of the population depends on traditional remedies for basic health needs, this reliance supports employment for millions as herbalists, gatherers, and traders, contributing to rural economies and poverty alleviation in resource-limited settings.^[41] Socially, gender dynamics shape herbalism, with women often serving as primary knowledge keepers and gatherers in many cultures, from African savannas to Asian highlands, where they manage home gardens, transmit intergenerational expertise, and sustain biodiversity through daily practices.^[42] However, bioprospecting raises intellectual property concerns, addressed by the 2010 Nagoya Protocol under the Convention on Biological Diversity, which mandates fair benefit-sharing from genetic resources derived from indigenous knowledge to prevent exploitation.^[43] In public health, medicinal plants complement conventional medicine for a vast portion of the global population, enhancing accessibility in underserved areas. The World Health Organization reports that over 80% of people in developing countries use traditional medicine alongside modern healthcare, integrating herbal therapies to address chronic conditions and preventive care where pharmaceuticals are scarce.^[44] The COVID-19 pandemic amplified this role, sparking a surge in demand for immune-boosting herbs like elderberry (Sambucus nigra), whose sales increased as consumers sought natural antivirals and antioxidants to support respiratory health amid global uncertainties.^[45] This complementary integration not only bolsters resilience in healthcare systems but also highlights the need for standardized safety protocols to harness these plants' full potential without cultural erosion.

Phytochemical Foundations

Major Classes of Bioactive Compounds

Medicinal plants derive their therapeutic properties primarily from secondary metabolites, a diverse array of compounds that include over 100,000 identified structures across the plant kingdom.^[46] These bioactive compounds are categorized into major classes such as alkaloids, glycosides, polyphenols, and terpenes, each characterized by distinct chemical structures and pharmacological functions. Approximately 25% of prescribed drugs worldwide originate from these plant-derived secondary metabolites, underscoring their significance in modern pharmacology.^[47] Alkaloids are nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compounds, often basic in nature, formed primarily from amino acid precursors and exhibiting a wide range of structures, including the indole ring system found in vinca alkaloids.^[48] Notable examples include caffeine, a purine alkaloid from coffee plants (Coffea spp.), which acts as a central nervous system stimulant, and vincristine, an indole alkaloid from Madagascar periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus), valued for its antineoplastic properties in treating cancers like leukemia by inhibiting microtubule formation.^[49] Alkaloids also demonstrate analgesic effects, as seen in morphine from opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), which binds to opioid receptors to alleviate pain.^[48] Glycosides consist of a sugar moiety (glycone) linked to a non-sugar aglycone, with therapeutic activity often released upon enzymatic or acid hydrolysis that liberates the bioactive aglycone.^[50] A prominent cardiac glycoside is digoxin, extracted from foxglove (Digitalis lanata), which enhances myocardial contractility by inhibiting the Na+/K+-ATPase pump, thereby increasing intracellular calcium and treating heart failure and atrial fibrillation.^[51] This class's structures typically feature a steroid nucleus in cardenolides like digoxin, contributing to their specific ion channel interactions.^[52] Polyphenols encompass a broad group of aromatic compounds with multiple phenolic hydroxyl groups, functioning as potent antioxidants through radical scavenging mechanisms involving the phenolic OH moieties that donate hydrogen atoms to neutralize free radicals.^[53] Flavonoids, a major subclass, share a characteristic 15-carbon skeleton with two phenyl rings (A and B) connected by a heterocyclic pyran ring; quercetin, a flavonol abundant in onions (Allium cepa), exemplifies this with its anti-inflammatory and cardioprotective effects via inhibition of oxidative stress pathways.^[54] Tannins, polymeric polyphenols, contribute astringent properties and antimicrobial activity, as in oak bark extracts used traditionally for wound healing.^[55] Terpenes, also known as isoprenoids, are built from isoprene (C5H8) units, forming diverse structures from monoterpenes (C10) to more complex forms, and often appear as volatile essential oils with anti-inflammatory roles.^[56] Menthol, a monoterpene alcohol from peppermint (Mentha piperita), provides cooling sensations and analgesic effects by activating TRPM8 receptors, while limonene, a cyclic monoterpene hydrocarbon from citrus peels, exhibits anti-inflammatory and anticancer potential through modulation of cytokine production.^[57] These compounds' lipophilic nature facilitates membrane interactions, enhancing their bioavailability in therapeutic applications.^[58]

Biosynthesis and Therapeutic Mechanisms

Medicinal plants synthesize bioactive compounds through specialized metabolic pathways that convert primary metabolites into secondary ones with therapeutic potential. Phenolic compounds, a major class of plant-derived therapeutics, are primarily biosynthesized via the shikimic acid pathway, a seven-step process starting from phosphoenolpyruvate and erythrose-4-phosphate derived from glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway, respectively; this route yields aromatic amino acids like phenylalanine and tyrosine, which serve as precursors for phenolics such as flavonoids and lignans.^[59] Terpenoids, another key group including anti-inflammatory agents like artemisinin, are produced through two main pathways in plants: the mevalonate pathway in the cytosol, where acetyl-CoA undergoes sequential condensations to form isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) for certain terpenoids such as sesquiterpenes and sterols, and the methylerythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway in plastids, which supplies IPP and DMAPP for others including monoterpenes, diterpenes, and artemisinin.^[60]^[61] In alkaloid biosynthesis, exemplified by tropane alkaloids in nightshade plants (Solanaceae family) such as Atropa belladonna, the pathway initiates with the decarboxylation of ornithine to putrescine by ornithine decarboxylase, followed by N-methylation and cyclization to form tropinone, the core structure of compounds like atropine and scopolamine.^[62] Environmental factors significantly influence the biosynthesis of these compounds, often triggering enhanced production as adaptive responses. Abiotic stresses, such as ultraviolet (UV) light exposure, induce flavonoid accumulation through upregulation of genes like chalcone synthase, enabling plants to absorb UV-B radiation and mitigate oxidative damage via antioxidant activity.^[63] Biotic interactions further modulate synthesis; for instance, secondary metabolites play ecological roles in allelopathy, where phenolic or terpenoid compounds are exuded into the soil to inhibit the growth of neighboring plants by disrupting their enzyme activities or nutrient uptake.^[64] Additionally, these metabolites facilitate pollination by producing volatile terpenoids or colorful flavonoids that attract pollinators, while also deterring herbivores through toxicity or repellency.^[65] In human physiology, plant-derived compounds exert therapeutic effects through targeted molecular interactions. Opioid alkaloids, such as morphine from the opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), bind agonistically to mu-opioid receptors in the central nervous system, inhibiting neurotransmitter release to alleviate pain and induce analgesia.^[66] Salicylic acid, derived from willow bark (Salix spp.), inhibits cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes—particularly COX-2—by competing at the active site and reducing prostaglandin synthesis, thereby suppressing inflammation and fever.^[67] Whole plant extracts often demonstrate synergistic therapeutic mechanisms compared to isolated compounds, as multiple bioactive constituents interact to enhance efficacy, such as flavonoids potentiating alkaloid absorption or terpenoids modulating enzyme activity, leading to broader-spectrum effects like improved antimicrobial or anticancer activity.^[68] The pharmacokinetics of plant compounds involves absorption primarily through the gastrointestinal tract via passive diffusion or active transport, followed by phase I metabolism in the liver by cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes; for example, hyperforin from St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum) induces CYP3A4 expression, accelerating the metabolism and reducing plasma levels of co-administered drugs like cyclosporine.^[69] These metabolites, often conjugated in phase II reactions to increase water solubility, are excreted mainly via the kidneys as glucuronides or sulfates, with urinary recovery rates varying by compound—such as 28.5% for epicatechin from green tea catechins over 24 hours—ensuring efficient clearance to prevent accumulation.^[70]

Production and Trade

Cultivation and Harvesting Techniques

Cultivation of medicinal plants encompasses a range of systems tailored to enhance bioactive compound yields while maintaining plant health and environmental sustainability. Organic farming, which avoids synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, has been shown to produce herbs with higher levels of flavonoids, polyphenols, and vitamin C compared to conventional methods, as demonstrated in multi-year field studies on species like chamomile and peppermint.^[71]^[72] Conventional farming, relying on chemical inputs for higher throughput, can accelerate growth but risks residue contamination that affects therapeutic quality.^[73] For high-value crops such as ginseng (Panax ginseng), hydroponic systems offer controlled environments that boost root biomass and ginsenoside content, with greenhouse trials on cultivars like 'K-1' yielding viable plants in nutrient solutions without soil.^[74] Propagation methods vary by species; aloe vera (Aloe vera) is commonly multiplied through offsets or pups for rapid establishment, though seed propagation is slower and less uniform.^[75] Site selection is critical for optimizing phytochemical production, influenced by soil and climate factors that support target compounds. Acidic soils with pH 4.5–5.5 are essential for blueberries (Vaccinium spp.), where low pH enhances anthocyanin accumulation in berries, as soil acidity facilitates iron availability for pigment biosynthesis.^[76]^[77] Ginger (Zingiber officinale) thrives in tropical climates with temperatures above 30°C, high humidity, and well-drained loamy soils, requiring a long growing season of at least 10 months to maximize gingerol content in rhizomes.^[78] Crop rotation prevents nutrient depletion and soil-borne diseases in medicinal plant fields; rotating with legumes or cover crops restores nitrogen and suppresses pathogens, as evidenced in organic systems for herbs like echinacea.^[79]^[80] Harvesting techniques prioritize timing and method to capture peak bioactive levels, particularly for volatile oils and roots. For plants rich in essential oils, such as lavender or peppermint, collection in the early morning after dew dries preserves volatile terpenes, which evaporate under midday heat, aligning with the "balsamic time" when secondary metabolites are maximized.^[81] Sustainable wildcrafting follows guidelines like harvesting no more than 10–20% of a population to ensure regeneration, especially for roots where the "one in ten" rule limits extraction to avoid depleting stands of species like goldenseal.^[82]^[83] Yield optimization hinges on genetic selection and regional production scales, targeting strains with elevated therapeutic compounds. High-artemisinin varieties of Artemisia annua, such as hybrids developed through selective breeding, achieve up to 2% artemisinin in foliage, far exceeding wild types and supporting antimalarial drug supply.^[84] In traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), China is a leading cultivator of key herbs like ginseng and astragalus through extensive farmland networks exceeding 13 million acres as of 2020.^[85] These factors, when aligned with phytochemical goals, enhance overall medicinal efficacy without compromising sustainability.^[86]

Processing and Preparation Methods

Processing and preparation methods for medicinal plants involve a series of post-harvest techniques designed to isolate bioactive compounds, ensure stability, and enhance bioavailability for therapeutic use. These methods transform raw plant materials into usable forms such as extracts, oils, and formulations, minimizing degradation of active constituents while adhering to principles of efficiency and safety. The choice of method depends on the plant's chemical profile, target compounds, and intended application, with traditional approaches often complemented by modern innovations to improve yield and purity. Extraction methods are fundamental to obtaining bioactive components from medicinal plants. Solvent extraction, commonly using ethanol, produces tinctures by macerating plant material in alcohol to dissolve polar and semi-polar compounds, as seen in the preparation of herbal tinctures where ethanol acts as an efficient solvent for alkaloids and flavonoids. Steam distillation is widely employed for volatile essential oils, particularly from aromatic plants like lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), where steam passes through the plant material to vaporize and condense oils rich in terpenes and phenols. For non-polar compounds such as cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa, supercritical CO2 extraction offers a green alternative, utilizing carbon dioxide under high pressure and temperature to selectively extract lipophilic substances without residual solvents, achieving high yields of cannabinoids like CBD and THC. Traditional preparations rely on simple aqueous methods to create readily absorbable remedies. Decoctions involve boiling tough plant parts, such as roots of licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra), in water to extract glycosides and polysaccharides, resulting in concentrated liquids suitable for oral administration. Infusions, or steeped preparations, are made by pouring hot water over softer materials like chamomile (Matricaria recutita) flowers to release flavonoids and volatile oils, preserving delicate compounds that might degrade under prolonged heat. In contemporary practice, these are often advanced through encapsulation, where standardized extracts are enclosed in capsules or microencapsulated particles to protect against oxidation and ensure consistent dosing. Preservation techniques are essential to maintain the potency of medicinal plant materials post-extraction. Drying reduces moisture content to prevent microbial growth, with shade drying preferred over sun drying for heat-sensitive herbs like peppermint (Mentha piperita) to retain essential oils and antioxidants, as excessive heat can lead to up to 50% loss of volatile compounds. Freezing, including freeze-drying, preserves enzymatic activity and nutritional profile by rapidly solidifying water content before sublimation under vacuum, minimizing structural damage in fruits and leaves. Quality control often includes metrics such as loss on drying, where medicinal plant materials should exhibit less than 10% moisture to ensure stability and compliance with pharmacopeial standards. Formulation advances focus on overcoming limitations in solubility and delivery of plant-derived compounds. Liposomal delivery encapsulates curcumin from turmeric (Curcuma longa) in phospholipid vesicles, enhancing its poor aqueous solubility and bioavailability by up to 10-fold through improved gastrointestinal absorption and cellular uptake. Standardization to marker compounds ensures reproducibility, as in St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum) extracts calibrated to 0.3% hypericin content, which standardizes antidepressant activity by quantifying naphthodianthrone levels critical for therapeutic efficacy. These innovations bridge traditional herbal knowledge with pharmaceutical precision, facilitating integration into modern healthcare products.

Global Trade Dynamics

The global trade in medicinal plants involves complex international supply chains, with major exporting countries shaping the market dynamics. India stands out as a leading exporter, particularly for plants like neem (Azadirachta indica) and turmeric (Curcuma longa), contributing to its overall herbal and Ayush product exports valued at approximately $1.24 billion in the period from 2021–2022 to 2022–2023, rising to US$689.34 million in FY25 (April 2024–March 2025).^[87] Turmeric exports alone reached $226.6 million in 2023–2024, increasing to $341 million in FY 2024-25.^[88]^[89] China plays a pivotal role in the trade of ginseng (Panax ginseng) and astragalus (Astragalus membranaceus), with global ginseng exports valued at $368.6 million in 2023.^[90] In Africa, countries like Namibia and South Africa export significant volumes of devil's claw (Harpagophytum procumbens), with Namibia supplying over 1,000 metric tons annually in the early 2000s, primarily for joint health applications, while hoodia (Hoodia gordonii) from the Kalahari region supports appetite suppressant markets.^[91]^[92] Supply chains for medicinal plants typically span multiple stages, beginning with primary collectors or farmer cooperatives who harvest wild or cultivated materials, progressing to local contractors and regional traders, and culminating with wholesalers and exporters who facilitate international shipment.^[93] These chains often involve six or seven intermediaries, leading to fragmented pricing and quality control, as seen in the trade of wild-simulated ginseng where cooperatives in Appalachia supply roots to domestic wholesalers before export.^[94] International regulations, such as those under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), govern the export of endangered species like wild American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), requiring permits to prevent overexploitation and ensuring traceability from harvest to market.^[95] Economic drivers fuel the expansion of this trade, with rising global demand for natural remedies propelling the herbal medicine market, valued at approximately USD 70.57 billion in 2023 and estimated at USD 85-90 billion as of 2025, to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 20% from 2023 to 2030, reaching an estimated $328.72 billion.^[40] This surge is attributed to increasing consumer preference for plant-based therapeutics amid health trends and integrative medicine adoption. However, price volatility poses significant risks; for instance, vanilla pods (Vanilla planifolia), used in traditional medicine for digestive aids, experienced sharp spikes following cyclones in Madagascar, with prices exceeding $600 per kilogram in 2018 due to supply disruptions.^[96]^[97] Key challenges include illicit trade and adulteration, which undermine market integrity; studies indicate that about 20% of traded raw medicinal plant drugs are adulterated, often with non-medicinal substitutes, as reported in analyses of global commerce.^[98] The World Health Organization highlights that substandard and falsified medical products, including plant-derived ones, affect supply chains in low-regulation regions, exacerbating health risks.^[99] To address inequities, fair trade certifications like FairWild have been implemented for Ethiopian frankincense (Boswellia spp.), ensuring sustainable harvesting and fair compensation for collectors in the Horn of Africa, thereby supporting community livelihoods while curbing overexploitation.^[100]

Therapeutic Applications

Traditional and Modern Uses

Medicinal plants have been integral to traditional healing systems worldwide, often employed in holistic approaches that address both symptoms and underlying imbalances. In Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), ginger (Zingiber officinale) is commonly used to alleviate nausea and digestive discomfort, prepared as decoctions or fresh rhizome to harmonize the stomach and dispel cold. Similarly, in Native American practices, echinacea (Echinacea purpurea) has been utilized for centuries to treat respiratory infections, colds, and wounds, with roots and aerial parts chewed or applied as poultices to support immune responses and promote healing. These traditional applications emphasize symptom-based remedies within cultural frameworks, such as using echinacea for upper respiratory tract issues or ginger for motion sickness and vomiting in various indigenous systems. In modern healthcare, medicinal plants continue to play a role through over-the-counter (OTC) products and pharmaceutical integrations. Peppermint oil (Mentha piperita), for instance, is widely available as enteric-coated capsules for managing irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) symptoms like abdominal pain and bloating, offering antispasmodic relief in daily regimens. Another example is galantamine, derived from the snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis), which is prescribed as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor for mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease to improve cognitive function and daily activities. These contemporary uses often incorporate standardized extracts to ensure consistency, bridging folk remedies with evidence-informed therapies. Medicinal plants are administered via diverse routes to target specific conditions, with oral intake being the most prevalent for systemic effects. Oral forms include teas, tinctures, and capsules, such as ginger tea (1-2 g dried root per day) for nausea or echinacea extracts (300-900 mg daily in divided doses) for cold symptoms, adjusted for factors like age and body weight. Topical applications, like aloe vera gel from (Aloe vera) leaves applied directly to minor burns for soothing and moisturizing effects, provide localized relief without systemic absorption. Inhalation methods, such as eucalyptus oil (Eucalyptus globulus) vapor for respiratory congestion, deliver volatile compounds through steam or diffusers to ease breathing, typically in low concentrations to avoid irritation. Dosage guidelines vary by plant and preparation, emphasizing consultation with healthcare providers to account for individual variables like pregnancy or concurrent medications.

Evidence of Efficacy

Scientific evidence for the efficacy of medicinal plants has been evaluated through randomized controlled trials (RCTs), systematic reviews, and preclinical studies, providing varying levels of support for their therapeutic benefits. For instance, RCTs on Ginkgo biloba extract EGb 761 have demonstrated improvements in cognitive function and activities of daily living in patients with mild dementia and Alzheimer's disease, with a meta-analysis of 18 trials showing significant benefits over placebo in clinical effectiveness (RR 1.23, 95% CI 1.13-1.34).^[101] However, many such trials suffer from limitations, including small sample sizes (often n < 100) and short durations (typically 12-24 weeks), which reduce generalizability and long-term applicability.^[101] Systematic reviews, such as those from the Cochrane Collaboration, offer robust assessments of aggregated data. A comprehensive Cochrane review of 18 trials involving St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum) for major depression found it superior to placebo (RR 1.28, 95% CI 1.10-1.49 in larger trials), and comparable efficacy to standard antidepressants like SSRIs (RR 1.00, 95% CI 0.90-1.11).^[102] Similarly, artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) derived from Artemisia annua have been extensively reviewed for malaria treatment, with meta-analyses confirming cure rates exceeding 95% in uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum cases across multiple regions, establishing ACTs as the global standard.^[103] These reviews highlight consistent efficacy but note challenges like regional variations in parasite resistance.^[104] Preclinical data from in vitro and in vivo models further underpin potential mechanisms. Antioxidant assays, such as the Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC), have quantified the potency of green tea (Camellia sinensis) catechins, with values ranging from 728 to 1,686 μmol Trolox equivalents per gram of tea, indicating strong free radical scavenging activity that correlates with reduced oxidative stress in cellular models.^[105] In animal models, curcumin from turmeric (Curcucuma longa) has shown anti-cancer effects, including inhibition of tumor growth in xenograft studies of colorectal and prostate cancers through downregulation of NF-κB signaling and induction of apoptosis, with tumor volume reductions up to 50% in treated mice compared to controls.^[106] Despite these findings, significant gaps persist in the evidence base for medicinal plants. Research on herbal medicines is chronically underfunded, with limited investment from pharmaceutical sectors due to low patentability and high variability in plant-derived products, resulting in fewer large-scale trials compared to synthetic drugs.^[107] Placebo effects also confound results, accounting for up to 30% of observed improvements in subjective outcomes like pain and mood in herbal trials, particularly where blinding is challenging.^[108] The World Health Organization (WHO) acknowledges these limitations while endorsing traditional medicine, reporting its use by populations in over 170 Member States and publishing monographs on selected plants to guide evidence-based integration. In June 2025, WHO adopted the 2025-2034 Strategy for Traditional, Complementary and Integrative Medicine to strengthen the evidence base, safety, quality, and access.^[44]^[109]

Integration in Drug Discovery

Medicinal plants play a pivotal role in modern drug discovery by providing bioactive compounds that serve as starting points for pharmaceutical development. High-throughput screening methods, often applied to extracts from ethnobotanical leads, enable the rapid identification of potential therapeutic agents. These approaches leverage traditional knowledge to prioritize plants with documented uses, resulting in higher hit rates in bioassays compared to random collections. For instance, in a comparative analysis of plant samples, ethnomedical collections exhibited a 28.1% activity rate across various assays, surpassing the 22.2% rate for random samples, demonstrating the efficiency of integrating indigenous knowledge into screening pipelines.^[110] Lead optimization further refines these natural leads into viable drug candidates through techniques such as semi-synthesis and reverse pharmacology. Semi-synthesis involves chemical modification of plant-derived scaffolds to improve efficacy, stability, or reduce toxicity; a prominent example is the development of paclitaxel analogs from the Pacific yew tree (Taxus brevifolia), where modifications enhanced solubility and therapeutic index for cancer treatment.^[111] Reverse pharmacology, particularly drawing from Ayurvedic traditions, starts with validated traditional remedies and systematically explores their mechanisms, as seen in the investigation of anti-inflammatory compounds from plants like Withania somnifera. These strategies bridge empirical traditional uses with rigorous scientific validation, accelerating the transition from plant extract to optimized lead. Notable case studies illustrate the successful integration of medicinal plants into drug discovery. Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) originated from salicin isolated from meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria), which was chemically modified in the late 19th century to create a more potent and tolerable analgesic and anti-inflammatory agent. Similarly, metformin, a first-line treatment for type 2 diabetes, was derived from guanidine compounds extracted from French lilac (Galega officinalis) in the 1920s, with its hypoglycemic properties confirmed through subsequent pharmacological studies. In contemporary pipelines, plant-derived compounds continue to contribute significantly to new drug approvals, accounting for approximately 18% of novel chemical entities and related structures between 2015 and 2019, a trend that underscores their ongoing relevance amid synthetic alternatives.^[112] Bioprospecting efforts are supported by comprehensive databases like NAPRALERT, which aggregates data from over 200,000 scientific papers on natural products, facilitating the mining of ethnobotanical and pharmacological information for lead identification.^[113] This integration not only enhances discovery efficiency but also preserves cultural knowledge in the face of biodiversity challenges.

Regulatory and Safety Considerations

Legal Frameworks and Standardization

The World Health Organization (WHO) provides key global guidelines for the regulation of herbal medicines, including the 2024 Global Report on Traditional, Complementary and Integrative Medicine, which emphasizes the need for evidence-based policies, quality assurance, and integration into national health systems across member states.^[114] The WHO Traditional Medicine Strategy, originally 2014–2023, was extended to 2025, with a new global strategy 2025–2034 emphasizing evidence-based integration into health systems.^[115] Additionally, the WHO's guidelines on good manufacturing practices (GMP) for herbal medicines, updated periodically since 2007, outline standards for production to ensure safety, efficacy, and consistency, covering aspects from raw material sourcing to final packaging.^[116] In the European Union, Directive 2004/24/EC amends prior legislation to classify traditional herbal medicinal products as medicines requiring authorization, establishing a simplified registration procedure based on longstanding use (at least 30 years, including 15 within the EU) and safety data, thereby harmonizing market access while prioritizing consumer protection.^[117] National regulations vary significantly, reflecting differing approaches to herbal products. In the United States, the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) of 1994 distinguishes dietary supplements, including many herbal products, from drugs regulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA); under DSHEA, manufacturers are responsible for safety and labeling accuracy before marketing, without pre-market approval, though the FDA can intervene post-market for violations.^[118] In China, the Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China serves as the official compendium, standardizing thousands of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) preparations and herbal materials, with the 2020 edition including 5,911 monographs on purity, identification, and assay methods to support clinical use and export compliance.^[119] Standardization protocols are essential for quality control in medicinal plant products. Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP), as endorsed by WHO, mandates controlled environments, validated processes, and documentation to minimize contamination and variability during herbal medicine production.^[116] Marker compound assays, such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for quantifying ginsenosides in ginseng, ensure batch-to-batch consistency; for instance, Panax ginseng extracts are often standardized to contain 4-10% total ginsenosides to meet pharmacopoeial requirements for potency.^[120] Intellectual property issues in medicinal plants involve patents on derivatives and international benefit-sharing mechanisms. Patents have been granted for extracts like those from Hoodia gordonii, a succulent used traditionally for appetite suppression, with examples including processes for isolating active steroidal glycosides, though such claims have raised concerns over bioprospecting without indigenous consent.^[121] The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), adopted in 1992 and ratified by 196 parties, requires fair and equitable benefit-sharing from genetic resources, including medicinal plants, through prior informed consent and mutually agreed terms between providers (often developing countries) and users.^[122] These frameworks support trade compliance by aligning intellectual property with access rights, facilitating sustainable commercialization.

Toxicity and Adverse Effects

Medicinal plants, while offering potential therapeutic benefits, can pose significant risks of toxicity and adverse effects due to their bioactive compounds, improper dosing, or interactions with other substances. These risks range from organ-specific damage to systemic reactions, often exacerbated by variability in plant composition and lack of standardized dosing. Hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity are among the most documented concerns, with certain plants linked to severe, irreversible outcomes.^[123] One prominent example of hepatotoxicity involves kava (Piper methysticum), where consumption has been associated with liver injury, including hepatitis and liver failure. In rare cases, this led to regulatory action, with the European Medicines Commission concluding in November 2002 that evidence supported a risk of hepatotoxicity, prompting bans on kava products across the European Union by early 2003. Similarly, aristolochic acid, found in species of Aristolochia, causes aristolochic acid nephropathy (AAN), a progressive renal fibrosis often accompanied by urothelial malignancies; over 100 cases were identified in Belgium following exposure through contaminated herbal preparations, with hundreds more reported worldwide.^[124]^[125]^[126] Drug interactions represent another critical area of concern, as medicinal plants can alter the metabolism or efficacy of pharmaceuticals. Garlic (Allium sativum) supplements have been shown to induce CYP3A4 enzymes, potentially reducing the efficacy of warfarin by accelerating its clearance and lowering anticoagulant effects. St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum), through its induction of CYP3A4 and other cytochrome P450 enzymes, can interact with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) such as sertraline or paroxetine, precipitating serotonin syndrome characterized by agitation, hyperthermia, and autonomic instability.^[127]^[128] Vulnerable populations face heightened risks from medicinal plants. During pregnancy, certain herbs like pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium) are contraindicated due to their emmenagogue and abortifacient properties; ingestion has led to severe toxicity, including hepatic failure and death, from pulegone-induced oxidative damage. In children, dosing risks are amplified by immature metabolic pathways and lower body weight, increasing susceptibility to acute poisoning from plants like those containing alkaloids; studies indicate that herbal exposures in pediatrics often result in multi-organ dysfunction, with traditional herbal medicines doubling the odds of such outcomes compared to non-use.^[129]^[130]^[131] Monitoring adverse effects is essential for risk mitigation, with regulatory bodies tracking incidents to inform public health. In the United States, over 20,000 emergency department visits annually are attributed to adverse events from dietary supplements, including herbal products, highlighting the scale of potential harm. Toxicity can be quantified using metrics like the lethal dose 50 (LD50), as seen with aconitine from Aconitum species, which has an oral LD50 of approximately 1.8 mg/kg in mice, underscoring its narrow therapeutic window and risk of cardiac arrhythmias even at low doses.^[132]^[133]

Quality Assurance and Ethical Issues

Quality assurance in medicinal plants encompasses rigorous measures to ensure product purity, potency, and safety, addressing common issues like adulteration and contamination. Adulteration, where inferior or substitute materials are added to increase volume or reduce costs, affects a significant portion of the market; for instance, a systematic review of commercial ginseng products found that approximately 24% were adulterated with other plant species or synthetic fillers. DNA barcoding, a molecular technique that sequences specific genetic markers like the ITS or rbcL regions, has emerged as a key tool for detecting such fraud, enabling rapid identification of authentic species in complex herbal mixtures. Additionally, regulatory standards limit heavy metal contaminants, with the United States Pharmacopeia (USP) <232> specifying permitted daily exposures that translate to limits such as no more than 5 micrograms per day for lead in oral botanical products, equivalent to roughly 10 ppm in certain formulations to prevent toxicity risks. Labeling standards play a crucial role in informing consumers and preventing misrepresentation of medicinal plant products. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) prohibits dietary supplements, including herbal ones, from making disease treatment or cure claims, allowing only structure/function statements like "supports immune health" provided they include a disclaimer that the FDA has not evaluated the claim. Allergen disclosure is also mandated under the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act, requiring clear listing of major allergens such as soy or tree nuts if present in herbal formulations to protect sensitive individuals. Ethical issues in the medicinal plants sector highlight concerns over equitable knowledge sharing and sustainable practices. A prominent example of biopiracy involves the rosy periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus) from Madagascar, where indigenous traditional knowledge of its antidiabetic properties, documented since ancient times, was exploited by pharmaceutical companies in the mid-20th century to develop vincristine and vinblastine for cancer treatment, generating billions in revenue without compensation or benefit-sharing agreements to local communities. To address ethical lapses in research, alternatives to animal testing are increasingly adopted, such as in vitro cell cultures and computational modeling, which reduce reliance on live animals while evaluating herbal extracts' bioactivity in herbal medicine development. Advertising pitfalls often exacerbate consumer risks through unsubstantiated claims and counterfeit proliferation. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) has imposed fines on companies for misleading advertisements, such as in 2009 when it halted sales of herbal products falsely promoted as cancer cures, resulting in monetary judgments exceeding $1 million. Counterfeit herbal products, which may contain incorrect dosages or harmful substitutes, comprise an estimated 10-15% of the global herbal trade, underscoring the need for vigilant enforcement to safeguard public health.

Conservation and Threats

Environmental and Human-Induced Risks

Medicinal plants are increasingly vulnerable to habitat loss driven by deforestation, which fragments ecosystems and directly impacts numerous species critical for traditional and modern medicine. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) identifies habitat destruction as a leading threat to many plant species, including those with medicinal value, such as the Himalayan mayapple (Podophyllum hexandrum), whose subpopulations have declined significantly due to logging and land conversion.^[134] Climate change compounds this risk by altering temperature and precipitation patterns, shifting suitable ranges for species like American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), where warmer conditions have led to reduced plant stature and population viability over recent decades.^[135] These environmental shifts disrupt reproduction and survival, particularly for alpine and montane medicinal plants adapted to specific microclimates.^[136] Overharvesting from wild populations represents another acute anthropogenic threat, often fueled by demand for bioactive compounds. In Mexico, wild yam species (Dioscorea spp.), harvested for diosgenin used in steroid synthesis, have experienced severe depletion, with historical overexploitation reducing accessible wild stocks and prompting shifts to cultivation to meet pharmaceutical needs.^[34] Poaching targets rare orchids valued in traditional medicine, such as those in the genera Dendrobium and Vanilla, where illegal collection for herbal remedies has driven local extinctions and complicated conservation efforts across Asia and the Americas.^[137] Global trade demands exacerbate these pressures, intensifying extraction rates and hindering natural regeneration.^[138] Pollution further endangers medicinal plant diversity through chemical contamination and biological invasions. Pesticide residues from agricultural runoff accumulate in soils and tissues of wild and cultivated medicinal herbs, impairing growth, inducing oxidative stress, and reducing overall biodiversity in affected habitats.^[139] Invasive alien species, such as certain grasses and shrubs, outcompete native medicinal plants for resources like light and nutrients, leading to ecosystem imbalances that diminish populations of species like those used in South African traditional healing.^[140] Unsustainable human activities amplify these risks on a landscape scale. Monoculture farming practices erode soil structure and fertility, stripping away the nutrient-rich topsoil necessary for medicinal plant establishment and persistence, as seen in regions where intensive cropping replaces diverse wild stands.^[141] Urban expansion in biodiversity hotspots like the Himalayas has caused substantial habitat fragmentation, contributing to losses of 26% in availability of key medicinal herbs through direct conversion of forests to infrastructure.^[142] These factors collectively heighten vulnerability, underscoring the interplay between ecological disruption and human development.^[143]

Sustainability and Preservation Strategies

Conservation programs for medicinal plants encompass both in situ and ex situ strategies to safeguard biodiversity and ensure long-term availability. In situ protection involves maintaining species within their natural habitats through initiatives like the IUCN Species Survival Commission's Medicinal Plant Specialist Group (MPSG), established in 1994 to raise awareness of threats and promote sustainable use and conservation actions for medicinal plants globally.^[144] Ex situ approaches include germplasm banks such as the Millennium Seed Bank at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, which stores seeds from over 40,000 wild plant species, representing more than 10% of the world's flora and including a significant portion of useful medicinal plants to complement in situ efforts and support restoration.^[145] Sustainable harvesting and cultivation practices are essential for reducing pressure on wild populations while promoting ecological balance. Agroforestry systems integrate trees with understory crops, enabling the cultivation of shade-loving medicinal herbs like ginseng and goldenseal in forested environments, which enhances soil health, biodiversity, and yield stability compared to monoculture farming.^[146] Certification schemes, such as the Rainforest Alliance's Herbs & Spices Program in partnership with the Union for Ethical BioTrade, verify sustainable sourcing for crops like turmeric by enforcing standards on environmental protection, fair labor, and biodiversity conservation, as demonstrated in certified supply chains from India.^[147] Policy initiatives provide legal frameworks to regulate trade and protect habitats. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) lists over 800 medicinal and aromatic plant species in Appendix II (as of 2023), requiring export permits to prevent overexploitation while allowing sustainable commerce for species like African cherry and hoodia.^[148] In countries like India, national efforts under the National Medicinal Plants Board include supporting thousands of herbal gardens nationwide, including within protected areas and urban green spaces, to conserve and propagate native species such as ashwagandha and neem for educational and restorative purposes.^[149] Research efforts focus on developing adaptable resources through innovation and local involvement. Breeding programs aim to create resilient varieties of medicinal plants, such as drought-tolerant strains of aloe and artemisia, using genetic selection and modern techniques to withstand climate variability and pests, as outlined in global reviews of medicinal plant improvement.^[150] Community-based management models, like the Potato Park in Peru's Andes, empower indigenous Quechua groups to steward agrobiodiversity, including over 1,300 potato landraces alongside medicinal plants such as muña and uña de gato, fostering cultural resilience and sustainable resource use through traditional ayllu governance systems.^[151] Recent global initiatives, such as the 2026 World Wildlife Day theme on medicinal and aromatic plants, continue to highlight the need for enhanced conservation efforts.^[152]

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