Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Local Bubble

The Local Bubble, also known as the Local Cavity, is a vast, low-density cavity of hot, X-ray-emitting plasma within the interstellar medium (ISM) of the Orion Arm in the Milky Way galaxy, encompassing the Solar System and extending approximately 330 parsecs (about 1,000 light-years) in diameter.^[1] Formed roughly 14 million years ago by a series of supernova explosions from massive stars in the nearby Scorpius–Centaurus stellar association, the bubble's expansion has carved out this tenuous region, with an interior temperature of approximately 1 million Kelvin and a neutral hydrogen density around 0.05 atoms per cubic centimeter—about one-tenth that of the average ISM.^[1]^[2] Surrounded by a fragmented shell of cooler, denser gas and dust clouds, the Local Bubble's boundaries host most of the star-forming complexes within 200 parsecs of the Sun, where supernova shocks compressed interstellar material to trigger widespread star formation.^[1] Young stars and associations on this shell, such as those in the Vela, Lupus, and Chamaeleon regions, exhibit outward radial motions perpendicular to the bubble's surface, indicating the ongoing influence of its expansion.^[1] The Solar System resides within a smaller, partially ionized substructure called the Local Interstellar Cloud (or "Local Fluff"), a denser filament about 10 parsecs across with a temperature of around 7,000 K, through which the heliosphere navigates as the Sun orbits the galactic center.^[3]^[4] Observations in X-rays, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, bolstered by data from missions like Gaia and eROSITA, reveal the bubble's irregular, peanut-like shape and magnetic field distortions, while radioisotope signatures in deep-sea sediments on Earth provide evidence of the supernovae that sculpted it.^[1]^[5]^[6] This structure not only defines the local galactic environment but also influences cosmic ray fluxes and the heliosphere's interaction with external particles, shaping conditions for life in our solar neighborhood.^[7]

Introduction

Definition and Characteristics

The Local Bubble is a low-density cavity within the interstellar medium (ISM), encompassing a region devoid of significant neutral gas and filled with hot, diffuse plasma at temperatures around 10^6 K. This structure, also known as the Local Hot Bubble (LHB), spans approximately 330 parsecs (about 1,000 light-years) in diameter and is characterized by its ionized hydrogen and helium content, forming a plasma in collisional ionization equilibrium.^[1] Key physical properties include an electron density of about 4 × 10^{-3} cm^{-3}, which is much lower than the typical ISM density of ~0.1–1 atoms cm^{-3} in the solar neighborhood. This low density results in a high thermal pressure, estimated at P/k ≈ 10^4 cm^{-3} K, exceeding that of the surrounding cooler ISM by factors of 10–100 and driving the bubble's expansion. The plasma emits soft X-rays due to its temperature, typically modeled at 0.1–0.12 keV (corresponding to ~1–1.4 × 10^6 K), with slight hemispheric variations—cooler in the north (~0.10 keV) and warmer in the south (~0.12 keV).^[8] Unlike larger superbubbles, which can extend over kiloparsecs and encompass multiple interconnected cavities from clustered stellar activity, the Local Bubble represents a more isolated, single-cavity structure carved by a series of supernovae in the nearby past. Its morphology is roughly spherical overall but irregular, resembling a peanut or chimney featuring elongated tunnels and asymmetric extensions influenced by the cumulative effects of these supernova inputs.^[1]^[8]

Location and Scale

The Local Bubble is a vast cavity in the interstellar medium situated within the Orion Arm of the Milky Way galaxy, approximately 26,000 light-years from the galactic center. This positions it in a region of relatively average spiral arm density, between major arms like Perseus and Sagittarius, where the interstellar medium exhibits typical fluctuations in gas and dust distribution.^[9] The Solar System lies within the interior of the Local Bubble, with the Sun positioned near its geometric center, having entered the cavity roughly 5 million years ago as it orbits the galactic center. Recent three-dimensional mapping indicates that the bubble's center is offset from the Sun by about 100 parsecs in the direction toward the Radcliffe Wave structure, though the overall asymmetry places the Sun close to the centroid. The cavity encompasses the Solar System entirely, shielding it from denser surrounding interstellar material.^[10]^[1] Estimates of the Local Bubble's scale are informed by recent mapping, with a radius of approximately 165 parsecs (about 540 light-years), corresponding to a diameter of about 1,000 light-years. It extends asymmetrically, reaching farther in directions toward the constellations Centaurus and Vela in the southern galactic hemisphere, where the shell is more elongated perpendicular to the galactic plane. The volume is on the order of 10^7 cubic parsecs, underscoring its immense scale relative to local structures. To contextualize its vastness for human perception, light emitted from the bubble's boundary today would take several centuries to reach Earth, dwarfing historical timescales.^[10]^[1]^[11]

Formation and History

Supernova Origins

The Local Bubble is primarily formed through a series of sequential supernova explosions from massive stars, typically in the mass range of 10-20 solar masses, within the Scorpius-Centaurus (Sco-Cen) OB association. These core-collapse supernovae release enormous energy, approximately 10^51 ergs per event, which drives powerful shock waves into the surrounding interstellar medium (ISM). The shock waves heat the gas to temperatures exceeding 10^6 K, ionize it, and sweep away denser material, progressively carving out a low-density cavity over several million years. Multiple such events, estimated at 15^{+11}_{-7}, are required to create the observed scale of the bubble, as a single supernova would produce a much smaller remnant. Candidate progenitor events are traced to subgroups within the Sco-Cen association, particularly the Upper Centaurus Lupus (UCL) and Lower Centaurus Crux (LCC) subgroups, which are located near the bubble's inferred center of expansion. Approximately 14-20 supernovae from these regions, occurring around 14 million years ago, are implicated in the bubble's formation, with the LCC subgroup alone contributing about six explosions from its early massive stars. The adjacent Loop I superbubble, also driven by supernovae in Sco-Cen, may have contributed overlapping shock structures that influenced the Local Bubble's development. While older structures like the Gum Nebula have been proposed in some models as potential contributors due to their proximity and supernova-driven morphology, recent kinematic analyses favor the Sco-Cen events as the dominant mechanism.^[12] The process begins with the initial supernova ejecting material at velocities up to 10,000 km/s, creating a blast wave that rapidly expands and compresses the ISM, forming a hot, tenuous interior. Subsequent overlapping explosions from nearby massive stars in the association amplify this effect, with their shock waves merging to enlarge the cavity and evaporate or displace molecular clouds. This sequential clearing prevents the bubble from collapsing under self-gravity, maintaining its ~100 parsec diameter. The resulting hot plasma fills the void, as observed in X-ray emissions. Evidence for these supernova origins comes from the kinematics of young stars near the bubble's shell, whose proper motions—measured via Gaia data—show radial expansion patterns consistent with being ejected or triggered by past shock waves. Traceback simulations of these stars converge to the UCL/LCC region approximately 14 million years ago, aligning with the timing of Sco-Cen supernova activity and supporting the model of multiple progenitor events.

Age and Expansion Dynamics

The Local Bubble is estimated to have formed approximately 10 to 20 million years ago, with more precise models constraining its age to around 14 million years based on the ages of embedded stellar associations and kinematic traceback analyses of young stars within its volume.^[13]^[14] This timeline aligns with expansion models that integrate supernova energy inputs and the dynamical evolution of the interstellar medium (ISM), where the bubble's growth is traced backward from current stellar positions and velocities.^[15] The expansion history of the Local Bubble began with a rapid initial phase following multiple supernova explosions, during which the hot interior gas drove a shock front outward at high velocities, carving out a low-density cavity in the surrounding ISM. Over time, this expansion slowed as the bubble reached approximate pressure balance with the ambient medium, transitioning from free expansion to a more momentum-conserving snowplow phase influenced by radiative cooling and mass accumulation in the shell. A recent 2025 kinematic study of young star associations within the bubble reveals evidence of re-acceleration in the past few million years, attributed to additional supernova events; radial velocities derived from these stars range from about 5 to 10 km/s, showing a pattern of deceleration followed by renewed outward motion consistent with theoretical predictions for episodic energy injections.^[14]^[13] The dynamics of the Local Bubble's shell can be described by a basic expansion model where the radial velocity v is given by v = \frac{dr}{dt}, with r as the bubble radius and t as time, evolving under pressure-driven forces in the hot interior. The evolution follows a relation where the internal pressure P scales with the product of ambient density \rho and velocity squared, P \propto \rho v^2, reflecting the ram pressure balance at the shell interface during adiabatic expansion phases.^[16] Key factors influencing the Local Bubble's ongoing dynamics include interactions with adjacent ISM clouds, which can fragment the shell and alter expansion rates through localized density enhancements and turbulent mixing. These encounters raise the potential for future further expansion if additional energy inputs occur, or partial collapse and reconfiguration of substructures if pressure gradients lead to shell instabilities over the next few million years.^[14]^[17]

Structure and Internal Features

Boundaries and Extent

The boundaries of the Local Bubble are defined by a transition zone to the surrounding denser interstellar medium, occurring at distances ranging from approximately 80 to 360 parsecs (about 260 to 1,175 light-years) from the Sun, where the neutral hydrogen column density reaches a threshold of log N(H I) ≈ 19.3, marking the onset of shell-like walls composed of compressed neutral gas and dust.^[18]^[19] These walls represent the interface between the low-density hot plasma interior and the cooler, denser ISM, with the shell exhibiting elevated densities up to 900 cm⁻³ in localized regions due to compression from the bubble's expansion.^[7] The extent of the Local Bubble is irregular and asymmetric, extending up to roughly 300 parsecs radially in most directions but showing elongation along the galactic plane, with prominent shell walls oriented toward the Vela and Centaurus regions, where interactions with star-forming complexes in the Scorpius-Centaurus association contribute to the boundary structure.^[20] Recent 3D dust mapping informed by Gaia astrometry has refined this asymmetry as of 2024-2025, highlighting morphological features such as an open "chimney" structure that suggests breakout from the galactic disk in certain directions, with the shell spanning -300 to 330 parsecs in the radial coordinate aligned with the Sun's motion.^[21]^[22] The shell itself has a variable thickness estimated at 50-150 parsecs (163-490 light-years), consisting of swept-up material with enhanced X-ray emission arising from shocked gas layers at the interface, where temperatures can reach up to 8000 K in denser clumps.^[23]^[19] Hydrodynamic simulations of multiple supernova remnants demonstrate that these irregular boundaries result from asymmetric energy inputs and non-uniform initial ISM conditions, producing fragmented and elongated shells rather than a symmetric cavity.^[7]^[6]

Molecular Clouds and Filaments

The interior of the Local Bubble contains sparse filaments composed of partially ionized gas and dust, which trace the cavity's low-density environment and exhibit minimal extinction, enabling unobstructed views across hundreds of parsecs. These structures arise from the incomplete sweeping of interstellar material by supernova-driven shocks, resulting in elongated features that delineate the bubble's internal dynamics.^[24] The recently discovered molecular clouds and filaments within the Local Bubble, such as the Eos cloud, possess densities typically ranging from 10 to 100 atoms per cubic centimeter, with temperatures around 100 K, reflecting their cooler, denser nature compared to the surrounding hot plasma.^[25] In April 2025, astronomers identified the Eos cloud, a dark molecular cloud situated approximately 94–130 parsecs from the Sun, marking the closest such structure within the Local Bubble.^[25] This crescent-shaped feature, with a mass of about 5,500 solar masses, extends across galactic longitudes 25° to 45° and latitudes 40° to 63°, highlighting the presence of substantial hidden molecular reservoirs near the Solar System.^[25] Further observations in 2025 revealed translucent interstellar clouds in the Libra constellation embedded inside the Local Bubble, detected through their cloud shine and associated with filamentary formations likely shaped by expansion shocks.^[24] These clouds underscore the ongoing discovery of diffuse internal components, expanding our understanding of the bubble's sparse yet structured interior. eROSITA X-ray data analyzed in 2024 uncovered an interstellar tunnel—a filamentary channel of hot plasma—extending from the Local Bubble toward the Centaurus constellation, potentially linking the Solar System to remote stellar regions and enabling the transport of cosmic particles.^[26] This asymmetric feature, part of the bubble's complex morphology, illustrates how supernova remnants can carve pathways through the interstellar medium.

Observations and Discovery

Historical Detection

The detection of the Local Bubble originated in the late 1960s with the identification of an isotropic soft X-ray background in the energy band of approximately 0.1–0.3 keV, observed using rocket-borne detectors. This emission, first reported by Bowyer et al. (1968), suggested the presence of hot (∼10⁶ K), low-density plasma within about 100 pc of the Sun, distinct from more distant Galactic contributions. In the 1970s, ultraviolet absorption-line observations from the Copernicus satellite provided confirmatory evidence for a local cavity of reduced neutral gas density, as low column densities of neutral hydrogen (N(H I) ≲ 10¹⁸ cm⁻²) were measured toward nearby hot stars, indicating an underdense region extending tens of parsecs. These findings aligned the soft X-ray excess with a local origin, ruling out extragalactic sources and highlighting the cavity's role in shadowing distant emission. Radio surveys in the 1980s, particularly 21 cm HI mapping, further delineated the low neutral hydrogen density (n(H I) ∼ 0.1 cm⁻³) within the cavity, contrasting with denser surrounding regions and supporting its extent to ∼100 pc. Cox and Reynolds (1987) synthesized these data in a comprehensive review, formalizing the "Local Hot Bubble" model where supernova-heated plasma fills the void, accounting for the observed X-ray intensity and minimal absorption.^[27] Early indications of X-ray shadows cast by intervening molecular clouds, noted in proportional counter surveys from the 1970s, reinforced the local plasma's proximity and uniformity. A retrospective review by Welsh and Lallement (2008) consolidated the historical narrative, emphasizing how absorption-line mapping and X-ray data established the "Local Bubble" nomenclature and its boundaries by the late 1980s. By the 1990s, initial theoretical models interpreted the structure as an aggregate of multiple supernova remnants, with Breitschwerdt et al. (1991) demonstrating how successive explosions (∼5–10 over 10–15 Myr) could carve and sustain the hot cavity through shock propagation in the interstellar medium.

Modern Surveys and Instruments

The Gaia mission, launched by the European Space Agency, has revolutionized the three-dimensional mapping of the Local Bubble through its high-precision astrometry of billions of stars. Data releases from 2018 onward, culminating in Gaia DR3 (2022) and subsequent analyses up to 2025, have enabled detailed kinematic studies by cross-matching young stars' positions and velocities, revealing the Bubble's expansion patterns and irregular boundaries at scales of 100-300 parsecs.^[28] X-ray observatories such as NASA's Chandra and ESA's XMM-Newton have provided critical spectroscopy of the hot plasma filling the Local Bubble, measuring temperatures around 1 million Kelvin and emission lines from ions like O VII. Chandra's high-resolution imaging has resolved faint structures within the Bubble's interior, while XMM-Newton's Reflection Grating Spectrometer has quantified absorption features, confirming the low-density hot gas environment. For ultraviolet absorption lines tracing neutral and molecular gas at the Bubble's edges, the Hubble Space Telescope's Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph has detected key species like H I and C II along sightlines to distant quasars. Complementing this, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), operational since 2022, has extended observations into the near-infrared, capturing absorption from warm dust and molecules that reveal filamentary structures interacting with the Bubble's boundaries. Recent surveys have further refined the Local Bubble's morphology. In 2025, H₂ fluorescence mapping using far-ultraviolet data from the FIMS/SPEAR instrument aboard the Korean STSat-1 satellite uncovered Eos, a dark molecular cloud at approximately 94 parsecs from the Sun, highlighting previously invisible cold structures within the Bubble's low-density volume. Kinematic analyses from Gaia DR3, cross-matched with the Zari et al. pre-main-sequence star catalog, have quantified radial velocities of young star associations around 5-10 km/s, consistent with a typical expansion velocity of about 7 km/s and indicating a recent re-acceleration phase.^[25]^[28] Established techniques continue to support these efforts. Legacy EUV and soft X-ray all-sky surveys from ROSAT (1990-1999) provide baseline maps of the Bubble's diffuse emission, with modern reprocessing enhancing resolution for subtraction of foreground contributions. Dust extinction mapping combines 2MASS near-infrared photometry with Gaia data to construct 3D reddening models, delineating the Bubble's shell at average distances of 150-200 parsecs where extinction drops sharply. Radio observations of neutral hydrogen (H I) at 21 cm, utilizing the Arecibo Observatory's legacy datasets and the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA), trace cold gas filaments and voids, confirming the Bubble's extent through velocity dispersions.^[29]^[30] A notable 2024 advancement from eROSITA's all-sky survey detected an interstellar tunnel of hot, low-density plasma toward the Centaurus region, potentially connecting the Local Bubble to adjacent superbubbles.^[26]

Interactions and Implications

Impact on Star Formation

The Local Bubble's interior, characterized by its low gas density of approximately 0.005–0.01 atoms per cubic centimeter and high temperature exceeding 10^6 K, fundamentally suppresses star formation by preventing the gravitational collapse required to form dense cores. This sparse environment lacks sufficient mass to achieve the critical density thresholds—typically around 10^4 cm^{-3} for molecular cloud formation—essential for initiating protostellar collapse. Additionally, the hot, ionized plasma within the cavity disrupts nascent molecular clouds by photoionizing and heating ambient gas, inhibiting the cooling processes necessary for fragmentation and collapse.^[31] Within the bubble's ~100 pc radius cavity, the star formation rate is effectively negligible, far below the galactic average of roughly 10^{-10} M_\sun yr^{-1} pc^{-3}, resulting in a virtual absence of ongoing massive star formation over the past ~10 million years. Observations confirm this suppression, with only a handful of older young stellar associations, such as the β Pictoris moving group (age ~20–25 Myr), residing inside; these predate the bubble's recent expansion phase and show no active star-forming regions.^[31] In contrast, the bubble's expansion compresses shells at its boundaries, potentially triggering star formation there, as evidenced by the alignment of nearby star-forming complexes like those in the Scorpius-Centaurus association along the cavity's surface. Recent 2025 surveys highlight the Eos molecular cloud, a dark cloud of ~3,400 M_\sun located 94 pc from the Sun near the edge of the Local Bubble, as a rare potential site for future star formation despite its current lack of active sites. Detected via H_2 far-ultraviolet fluorescence, Eos exhibits no significant young stellar objects or embedded protostars, consistent with the region's overall inefficiency, where cloud evaporation outpaces formation rates.^[25] However, its substantial mass and position suggest it could seed a localized burst if external compression or infalling material enhances density. Over longer timescales, the Local Bubble exemplifies a transient "star formation desert" in galactic disk evolution, where supernova feedback clears gas, halting activity for millions of years before replenishment via infalling material from surrounding denser regions potentially reignites cycles. This phase underscores the role of superbubbles in regulating the interstellar medium's multiphase structure and modulating bursty star formation patterns in spiral arms.^[25]

Effects on the Solar System and Earth

The Local Bubble's hot, low-density plasma, with temperatures around 10^6 K and density of approximately 0.005–0.01 atoms/cm³, exerts external pressure on the surrounding Local Interstellar Cloud (LIC), which in turn compresses the heliosphere's boundary known as the heliopause and shapes the overall structure of the solar wind's influence.^[32] Voyager spacecraft observations have revealed that the ISM surrounding the heliosphere—the LIC—consists of a partially ionized flow with density ~0.2 atoms/cm³, moving at approximately 25 km/s relative to the Sun, which allows for a relatively unhindered penetration of neutral atoms into the inner heliosphere while the hot plasma of the Bubble maintains a dynamic pressure balance on the LIC.^[33] This interaction results in a thinner heliosheath and influences the distribution of pickup ions derived from the ISM, altering the plasma environment beyond 100 AU.^[34] The low density of the Local Bubble contributes to reduced modulation of galactic cosmic rays entering the heliosphere compared to denser ISM regions, leading to a lower flux of high-energy particles at Earth's orbit and a correspondingly milder radiation environment for the inner Solar System.^[35] This attenuation arises because the sparse medium scatters and absorbs fewer cosmic rays locally, allowing the heliosphere's magnetic field to deflect a greater proportion of incoming galactic rays, though anomalies in the cosmic ray spectrum below 200 GV rigidity suggest contributions from nearby supernova remnants within the Bubble.^[36] A 2024 3D mapping of the Bubble's structure identified an "escape tunnel"—a low-density channel extending outward—potentially enabling direct influx of stellar particles and energetic neutral atoms from adjacent regions, which could episodically enhance the local particle radiation flux.^[37] Evidence of the Bubble's formation by nearby supernovae appears in geological records on Earth, particularly through anomalies in the iron-60 (⁶⁰Fe) isotope detected in deep-sea sediments and ferromanganese crusts, with peaks dated to approximately 2.6 million years ago and broader signals extending to around 8 million years ago, indicating multiple explosions within 100 pc that ejected radioactive material into the ISM.^[38] These events, part of the sequence carving out the Local Bubble, delivered ⁶⁰Fe via cosmic dust and gas flows that penetrated the proto-heliosphere, providing a chronological marker for supernova activity in the solar neighborhood.^[39] Such proximity has prompted investigations into links with evolutionary changes, including a proposed 2025 study analyzing cosmic ray signatures and geological proxies that a supernova approximately 2.5 million years ago, within the Local Bubble, induced enhanced UV penetration to Earth's surface through ozone layer disruption via nitrogen oxide production, potentially influencing evolutionary pressures on early microbial and viral communities by accelerating mutation rates and genetic diversity.^[40] This mechanism, supported by isotopic evidence and models of cosmic ray-induced atmospheric chemistry, suggests that such events could have driven adaptive changes in pre-human biosphere components, including virus-host interactions in aquatic environments.^[41]

Connection to the Local Interstellar Cloud

The Local Interstellar Cloud (LIC) is a filamentary structure of warm, partially ionized gas and dust, approximately 30 light-years across, that embeds the Solar System and constitutes a denser region within the otherwise low-density interior of the Local Bubble. With a total hydrogen density of about 0.2 atoms per cm³, the LIC represents a transitional zone where neutral and ionized material interacts with the surrounding hot, tenuous plasma of the Bubble, which has a density roughly 10–100 times lower. This cloud is part of the broader Cluster of Local Interstellar Clouds (CLIC), a grouping of at least 15 such structures identified through their coherent kinematic properties, including bulk velocities around 23–26 km/s relative to the Sun. The dynamics at the interface between the LIC and the Local Bubble involve pressure-driven interactions, where the hot gas (temperatures ~10^6 K) in the Bubble exerts thermal and ram pressure on the cooler (~7000 K), denser LIC, leading to evaporation and erosion of its edges through ionization and heating processes. Neutral hydrogen atoms from the LIC flow into the heliosphere at approximately 26 km/s, interacting with the solar wind to form pickup ions and energetic neutral atoms (ENAs), while the ionized component of the LIC contributes to the plasma environment beyond the heliopause. These flows shape the heliosphere's boundary, with the LIC's material serving as the primary source of interstellar neutrals detected near Earth. Key observations of this interface come from spacecraft missions probing the very local interstellar medium (VLISM). The Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) has mapped the influx of neutral hydrogen and helium from the LIC since 2009, revealing its flow direction and density through ENA imaging, with data confirming the cloud's partial ionization fraction of about 20%. Voyager 1 and 2, having crossed the heliopause in 2012 and 2018 respectively, have directly measured VLISM plasma densities (~~0.04–0.06 electrons per cm³) and temperatures (~~30,000–40,000 K), consistent with models of the LIC's ionized outskirts influenced by Bubble heating. In 2025, updated analyses from IBEX and New Horizons data refined the interstellar neutral flow parameters, highlighting temporal variations in the LIC's interaction with the heliosphere due to solar cycle effects.^[42] Evolutionarily, the LIC is linked to the Local Bubble's expansion as compressed shell material swept up by supernova remnants within the cavity. Recent modeling indicates that the CLIC, including the LIC, originated from diffuse interstellar clouds compressed over ~1.2 million years by a supernova in the Upper Centaurus–Lupus association, operating in a pressure-driven snowplow phase that molded these structures from an ambient density of ~0.04 atoms per cm³.^[43] This process positions the LIC as a remnant fragment of the Bubble's formative dynamics rather than an infalling external cloud, with its current configuration reflecting ongoing compression and dispersal at the Bubble's interior boundaries.^[43]

Neighboring Bubbles and Superbubble Complexes

The Local Bubble is situated within the broader Local Cavity system, a network of interconnected low-density regions in the interstellar medium (ISM), and is bordered by several adjacent cavities. To the north, it interfaces with the Loop I Bubble, a prominent superbubble-like structure at approximately 70-100 pc distance, characterized by enhanced scattering measures and turbulent plasma in its shell, suggesting possible interaction zones where dense neutral gas accumulates at the boundary.^[44] Southward, the Gum Nebula lies at approximately 450 pc, forming part of a clustered arrangement of cavities linked by interstellar tunnels and walls that facilitate gas and magnetic field exchanges.^[45] These neighboring features, including the Eridanus Bubble at 100-150 pc, contribute to a complex of cavities that collectively shape the local ISM architecture.^[44] The Local Bubble borders the larger Orion-Eridanus superbubble, a vast cavity spanning about 200 pc in width and 250 pc in length, extending from roughly 150-200 pc to over 500 pc from the Sun, formed by 10-20 supernovae and stellar winds over the past 12 million years.^[46] This proximity positions the Local Bubble near the superbubble's Eridanus end, with interactions occurring via shared shell walls where compressed magnetic fields (up to 15 μG) and over-pressured hot plasma influence cosmic ray propagation and gas dynamics.^[46] The Orion-Eridanus structure, driven by massive stars along a 150 pc blue stream, encompasses nested shells that ventilate the ISM, with the Local Bubble representing a sub-cavity within this expansive system.^[47] Recent kinematic studies from 2025, utilizing Gaia data on young star associations like Phantom, Shadow-cluster, and Bubble-edge at distances of 108-176 pc, reveal shared expansion histories between the Local Bubble and adjacent structures, evidenced by wiggle-like velocity patterns (5-10 km/s) indicative of multiple supernova-driven reaccelerations.^[48] These findings suggest potential merger dynamics with the Orion-Eridanus superbubble, as energy inputs of ~10^50 erg align with simulations of superbubble shell interactions, linking bursts in the Scorpius-Centaurus OB association 10-15 million years ago to ongoing cavity evolution.^[48] On a galactic scale, the Local Bubble forms part of a cluster of such bubbles originating from OB associations in Gould's Belt, collectively contributing to ISM ventilation by sweeping up and heating gas, thereby regulating star formation and dispersing metals across hundreds of parsecs.^[49]

References

[1]
Star formation near the Sun is driven by expansion of the Local Bubble
Jan 12, 2022 · We find that nearly all of the star-forming complexes in the solar vicinity lie on the surface of the Local Bubble and that their young stars show outward ...
[2]
On the Shape of the Local Bubble - Scirp.org.
The local bubble (LB) is a low-density region that surrounds the Sun. Because it is emitting in the X-rays, it is also called Local Hot Bubble (LHB).Missing: size | Show results with:size
[3]
2000 April 12 - The Local Bubble and the Galactic ... - APOD
Apr 12, 2000 · The LIC resides in a low-density hole in the interstellar medium (ISM) called the Local Bubble, shown in black. Nearby, high-density molecular ...
[4]
Perspective on the local interstellar medium - NASA Technical ...
Consideration is given to the LISM in the immediate solar vicinity (the Local Fluff, extending 3-10 pc), the local bubble (a large irregularly shaped cavity ...
[5]
The Local Bubble: a magnetic veil to our Galaxy
Mar 6, 2018 · The local magnetic field has probably been distorted by the Local Bubble, a cavity of hot ionized gas extending all around the Sun and surrounded by a shell of ...Missing: american | Show results with:american
[6]
Numerical studies on the link between radioisotopic signatures on ...
The Solar System (SS) currently resides within the so-called Local Bubble (LB), which is one of the numerous cavities in the interstellar medium (ISM) of our ...
[7]
The Passage of the Solar System through the Edge of the Local ...
Sep 10, 2024 · We show that as a result of the encounter of the heliosphere with the edge of the Local Bubble the heliosphere shrinks to sub-astronomical-unit ...
[8]
The SRG/eROSITA diffuse soft X-ray background. I. The local ... - arXiv
Oct 30, 2024 · We aim to extract spatial and spectral information from each constituent of the SXRB in the western Galactic hemisphere, focusing on the local hot bubble (LHB).
[9]
The interstellar cloud surrounding the Sun: a new perspective
Our new picture of the local interstellar medium consists of a single, monolithic cloud that surrounds the Sun in all directions.
[10]
1000-Light-Year Wide Bubble Surrounding Earth is Source of All ...
within 500 light years of Earth — sit on the surface of a giant bubble known as the Local Bubble ...
[11]
Superbubbles - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The Sun resides inside a bubble of hot, tenuous plasma called the Local Bubble. Such superbubbles are created around OB associations, when the wind-blown ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[12]
search for the origin of the Local Bubble redivivus - Oxford Academic
Abstract. We present a new unbiased search and analysis of all B stars in the solar neighbourhood (within a volume of 400 pc diameter) using the Arivel dat.
[13]
A recent re-acceleration of the Local Bubble revealed by kinematics ...
Sep 23, 2025 · Abstract page for arXiv paper 2509.18525: A recent re-acceleration of the Local Bubble revealed by kinematics of young star associations.Missing: 10-15 | Show results with:10-15
[14]
The History and Future of the Local and Loop I Bubbles - arXiv
Apr 7, 2006 · The Local and Loop I superbubbles are the closest and best investigated supernova (SN) generated bubbles and serve as test laboratories for ...
[15]
The search for the origin of the Local Bubble redivivus - NASA ADS
... stellar wind/superbubble expansion law. For a LB age of 10—15 Myr equation (13) predicts a bubble radius of 78—100 pc, respectively. This is in good ...
[16]
Evolution of supernovae-driven superbubbles with conduction and ...
We use spherically symmetric hydrodynamic simulations to study the dynamical evolution and internal structure of superbubbles (SBs) driven by clustered ...2.1 Dynamical Evolution · 3.2 Mixing Due To Non-Linear... · 5 Modified Solution With...
[17]
The Origin of the Cluster of Local Interstellar Clouds - arXiv
Mar 31, 2025 · The local interstellar medium is dominated by a large cavity known as the Local Bubble, a region of ionized, tenuous plasma extending ≈ 100 − ...
[18]
[PDF] the structure of the local interstellar medium. iv. dynamics ...
The Local Bubble (LB) is a region of low-density, presumably hot gas extending in all directions to hydrogen column densities log N(H i) ¼ 19:3 (Lallement ...
[19]
Gamma-ray line emission from the Local Bubble
In this paper, we use two assumptions for the geometry of the Local Bubble: (1) A measurement-based geometrical model that determines the inner radii of the ...
[20]
[PDF] arXiv:astro-ph/0702596v3 25 May 2007
May 25, 2007 · The locations of the Local Bubble boundaries have been diagnosed with a range of different ISM markers, including color excess (Lucke, 1978), ...Missing: diameter | Show results with:diameter
[21]
The Local Bubble Is a Local Chimney: A New Model from 3D Dust ...
Sep 26, 2024 · The Local Bubble displays an extension in the Galactic northern hemisphere that is morphologically consistent with representing a “local chimney ...
[22]
A 3D Model of the Local Bubble's Magnetic Field - IOP Science
Jul 24, 2025 · The Local Bubble is a superbubble centered roughly near the Sun's present-day location (see reviews in D. P. Cox & R. J.
[23]
Modeling the magnetized Local Bubble from dust data
In this his paper, we relate the structure of the Galactic magnetic field on the LB scale to three-dimensional (3D) maps of the local interstellar medium (ISM).
[24]
Observation of new interstellar clouds in the Libra constellation ...
Apparently, there are still clouds to discover inside the Local Bubble (or Local Chimney). ... cloud filaments that formed by shock waves in expanding bubble ...
[25]
(PDF) The Trouble with the Local Bubble - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · Although such a model can solve several difficulties with the traditional hot Local Bubble model, a heating mechanism for the dimmer and cooler ...
[26]
A nearby dark molecular cloud in the Local Bubble revealed via H2 ...
Apr 28, 2025 · We report the discovery of Eos, a dark molecular cloud located just 94 pc from the Sun. This cloud is identified using H 2 far-ultraviolet fluorescent line ...
[27]
eROSITA unveils asymmetries in temperature and shape of our ...
Oct 29, 2024 · Our Solar System dwells in a low-density environment called the Local Hot Bubble (LHB), filled by a tenuous, million-degree hot gas emitting ...
[28]
https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/adee05
[29]
A Recent Reacceleration of the Local Bubble Revealed by ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The low-density region of the interstellar medium where the Sun is located is known as the Local Bubble, a cavity filled with high-temperature ...
[30]
The heliospheric soft X-ray emission pattern during the ROSAT survey
After subtraction of the heliospheric emission, there is significant interstellar 0.25 keV emission from the Local Bubble “openings” to the lower halo, as ...
[31]
Updated Gaia-2MASS 3D maps of Galactic interstellar dust
We present the updated 3D dust extinction distribution and provide an estimate of the error on integrated extinctions from the Sun to each area in the 3D map.
[32]
[PDF] Star formation near the Sun is driven by expansion of the Local Bubble
The Local Bubble lies at the closest distance between the Radcliffe. Wave and the Split, with most of the dense gas at its surface co-spatial with these two kpc ...
[33]
Are the Heliosphere, Very Local Interstellar Medium ... - IOP Science
Jan 10, 2023 · or Local Bubble is irregular with a few dense clouds within. 70–100 pc of the Sun and low-density chimneys extending into the halo toward the ...
[34]
A possible direct exposure of the Earth to the cold dense interstellar ...
Jun 10, 2024 · Studies have attributed the two peaks in 60Fe to supernova explosions within 100 pc over the last 10 Myr that formed the Local Bubble24. ...
[35]
Ionization Sources of the Local Interstellar Clouds: Two B-stars ...
Oct 6, 2025 · ... heliosphere encounter the ISM at a velocity of 26 km s -1. An ... low-density LHB plasma in the local bubble. The target area of the ...
[36]
The Discovery of a Low-energy Excess in Cosmic-Ray Iron
The Local Bubble is a low-density region of the size of ∼200 pc around the Sun filled with hot H i gas that itself was formed in a series of SN explosions (e.g ...
[37]
[1610.07014] The Local Bubble in the interstellar medium and the ...
Oct 22, 2016 · It is suggested that the bulk of cosmic rays below about 200 GV of rigidity (momentum/charge ratio) comes from the modest number of supernova remnants in the ...
[38]
3D map reveals our solar system's local bubble has an 'escape tunnel'
Nov 8, 2024 · Astronomers have created a 3D map of the low-density bubble of X-ray-emitting, million-degree hot gas that surrounds the solar system.
[39]
60Fe deposition during the late Pleistocene and the ... - PNAS
Aug 24, 2020 · Schramm, Geological isotope anomalies as signatures of nearby supernovae. ... Knie et al., 60Fe anomaly in a deep-sea manganese crust and ...
[40]
60Fe and 244Pu deposited on Earth constrain the r-process yields ...
May 14, 2021 · Schramm, Geological Isotope Anomalies as signatures of nearby supernovae. ... The late Miocene 10 Be anomaly and the possibility of a supernova ...
[41]
Violent supernovae 'triggered at least two Earth extinctions,' study ...
Mar 13, 2025 · At least two mass extinction events in Earth's history were likely caused by the "devastating" effects of nearby supernova explosions, a new study suggests.
[42]
Supernova Signatures on Life in the Local Bubble - AAS Nova
Feb 21, 2025 · Winds from massive stars and ionizing radiation from an estimated 15 supernovae carved out this bubble over the last 15 million years.Missing: Gum connection 1-2
[43]
Cosmic radiation from supernova altered virus evolution in Africa ...
Feb 18, 2025 · Right now, our solar system is in the middle of a massive patch of relatively open space called the Local Bubble. The Earth entered the bubble ...
[44]
(PDF) IBEX and New Horizons Data: Interstellar Boundaries, Neutral ...
Sep 7, 2025 · IBEX mapped energetic neutral atoms (ENAs), while New Horizons measured interstellar pickup ions and plasma waves far beyond Pluto's orbit.
[45]
The Origin of the Cluster of Local Interstellar Clouds
### Summary of Abstract and Key Findings on CLIC/LIC Origin in Relation to Local Bubble
[46]
[PDF] arXiv:astro-ph/0111034v1 2 Nov 2001
While this work has concentrated on Loop I, our most prominent such neighbor, other nearby exam- ples include the Eridanus bubble, the Gum Nebula and possibly ...
[47]
The cosmic-ray content of the Orion-Eridanus superbubble
The nearby Orion-Eridanus superbubble, which was blown by multiple supernovae several million years ago, has likely produced cosmic rays.
[48]
NESTED SHELLS REVEAL THE REJUVENATION OF THE ORION ...
Jul 27, 2015 · We argue that the Orion–Eridanus superbubble is larger and more complex than previously thought, and that it can be viewed as a series of nested shells.
[49]
None
### Summary of Kinematic Links and Expansion History of the Local Bubble (2025 Insights)
[50]
[PDF] Effect of Supernovae on the Local Interstellar Material
This review discusses the configuration of massive stars in Gould's Belt that spawn nearby supernovae (Section 2), bubble formation (Section 3.1), the location.Missing: neighboring | Show results with:neighboring