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Longitudinal wave

A longitudinal wave is a type of mechanical wave in which the particles of the medium oscillate parallel to the direction of wave propagation, resulting in alternating regions of compression (high particle density) and rarefaction (low particle density).^[1]^[2] This particle motion distinguishes longitudinal waves from transverse waves, where oscillations occur perpendicular to the propagation direction.^[1]^[3] Unlike transverse waves, which require a medium capable of shear stress (such as solids), longitudinal waves can propagate through solids, liquids, and gases due to the medium's compressibility.^[4]^[1] Key characteristics of longitudinal waves include their dependence on the medium's elastic properties and density for propagation speed, typically expressed as v = f \lambda, where v is the wave speed, f is the frequency, and \lambda is the wavelength.^[3] The amplitude represents the maximum displacement from equilibrium, while the wavelength corresponds to the distance between consecutive compressions or rarefactions.^[2]^[3] Prominent examples include sound waves, which transmit pressure disturbances through air or other fluids as longitudinal pressure variations, and primary (P) waves generated during earthquakes, which travel fastest through Earth's interior by compressing and expanding rock and other materials.^[1]^[5] Other applications encompass ultrasound waves used in medical imaging^[6] and longitudinal vibrations in solids, such as those in coiled springs like a slinky.^[1]^[2]

Fundamentals

Definition

A longitudinal wave is a mechanical wave in which the oscillation of particles in the medium occurs parallel to the direction of energy propagation.^[1] This contrasts with transverse waves, where particle displacement is perpendicular to the propagation direction.^[1] In longitudinal waves, the disturbance creates a series of compressions and rarefactions along the path of travel, with compressions representing regions of increased particle density and rarefactions indicating decreased density.^[5] The deformation of the medium in a longitudinal wave can be visualized as alternating bunches and stretches in a coiled spring or as high- and low-pressure zones in a fluid, where particles momentarily cluster tightly before spreading out.^[5] These patterns allow the wave to transmit energy through the medium without net displacement of the particles from their original positions over time.^[1] The term "longitudinal wave" originated in the early 19th century, with its first known use recorded in 1813 amid developing theories of wave motion in physics.^[7] Physicists such as John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh, furthered the conceptual framework in the late 19th century through studies of sound propagation, as detailed in his influential two-volume work The Theory of Sound (1877–1878), which analyzed longitudinal vibrations in various media.^[8] Understanding longitudinal waves requires familiarity with fundamental wave properties, including wavelength (the distance between consecutive compressions or rarefactions), frequency (the number of wave cycles per unit time), amplitude (the maximum displacement of particles from equilibrium), and phase (the position of a point within the wave cycle).^[9]

Nomenclature

The term "longitudinal" originates from the Latin longitudo, meaning "length," reflecting the parallel alignment of particle oscillations with the direction of wave propagation.^[10] In the context of wave mechanics, key terminology includes compression, denoting regions where medium particles are densely packed, increasing local density or pressure, and rarefaction, referring to regions of expanded spacing with reduced density or pressure.^[11] Longitudinal strain describes the fractional change in length along the propagation direction, quantifying the deformation in the medium.^[11] Standard symbols in physics literature for longitudinal waves include \xi(x, t) to represent the longitudinal displacement of particles from their equilibrium positions, where x is the position coordinate and t is time.^[9] The associated longitudinal strain is conventionally expressed as \partial \xi / \partial x, capturing the spatial derivative of displacement.^[11] In fluid media, the pressure variation induced by the wave is denoted by p, often related to the bulk modulus and strain.^[11] Conventions for wave parameters in longitudinal contexts follow general wave physics, with k as the wave number (k = 2\pi / \lambda, where \lambda is wavelength) describing spatial periodicity, and \omega as the angular frequency (\omega = 2\pi f, where f is frequency) characterizing temporal oscillation.^[9] Longitudinal waves differ from vector-based transverse waves by being irrotational and representable via a scalar potential in continuum mechanics formulations, where the displacement field derives from the gradient of a scalar function.

Mathematical Formulation

Displacement and Particle Motion

In a longitudinal wave, the displacement of particles from their equilibrium positions is parallel to the direction of wave propagation. The particle displacement \xi(x, t) for a plane wave traveling in the positive x-direction can be expressed as \xi(x, t) = A \cos(kx - \omega t), where A is the amplitude, k = 2\pi / \lambda is the wave number, and \omega = 2\pi f is the angular frequency. This oscillatory motion results in particles moving back and forth along the propagation axis, creating regions of compression and rarefaction without any transverse component.^[12] The variation in density arises directly from the spatial gradient of the displacement. The local density \rho is related to the equilibrium density \rho_0 by \rho = \rho_0 \left(1 - \frac{\partial \xi}{\partial x}\right), where the term \frac{\partial \xi}{\partial x} represents the strain. Regions of compression occur when \frac{\partial \xi}{\partial x} < 0, leading to increased density, while rarefaction happens when \frac{\partial \xi}{\partial x} > 0, resulting in decreased density. For the displacement function above, \frac{\partial \xi}{\partial x} = -k A \sin(kx - \omega t), which oscillates between positive and negative values, driving these density fluctuations.^[12] The velocity of the particles is the time derivative of the displacement, given by u(x, t) = \frac{\partial \xi}{\partial t} = -\omega A \sin(kx - \omega t). The acceleration follows as a(x, t) = \frac{\partial^2 \xi}{\partial t^2} = -\omega^2 A \cos(kx - \omega t). This acceleration links to the initiation and propagation of the wave through Newton's second law, where the net force on a particle element, typically from pressure gradients, equals mass times acceleration, enabling the wave to sustain oscillatory motion.^[12] In fluids, longitudinal waves involve purely irrotational motion, meaning the velocity field satisfies \nabla \times \mathbf{u} = 0, with no vorticity generated due to the absence of shear stresses. In solids, however, longitudinal waves correspond to shear-free compression, where the displacement is dilatational without shear deformation, propagating via the material's bulk modulus and density, distinct from transverse shear waves that solids also support.^[13]^[14]

Wave Equation

The wave equation for longitudinal waves describes the propagation of particle displacements or pressure variations in a medium. In one dimension, it is derived by considering the dynamics of a small element of the medium, combining Newton's second law with the constitutive relations from elasticity theory. For solids, such as a thin elastic rod, the longitudinal displacement \xi(x, t) along the propagation direction x produces a strain \partial \xi / \partial x. By Hooke's law, the resulting stress is \sigma = E \partial \xi / \partial x, where E is the Young's modulus.^[15] The net force on an infinitesimal element of length \Delta x and cross-sectional area A is then A (\partial \sigma / \partial x) \Delta x = A E (\partial^2 \xi / \partial x^2) \Delta x. Applying Newton's second law to this element of mass \rho A \Delta x (with \rho the density) yields \rho A \Delta x (\partial^2 \xi / \partial t^2) = A E (\partial^2 \xi / \partial x^2) \Delta x, simplifying in the limit \Delta x \to 0 to the one-dimensional wave equation:

\frac{\partial^2 \xi}{\partial t^2} = c^2 \frac{\partial^2 \xi}{\partial x^2},

where the longitudinal wave speed is c = \sqrt{E / \rho}.^[15] For fluids, the derivation similarly relies on mass conservation (the continuity equation) and the linearized equations of motion, with the bulk modulus B relating pressure perturbations to density changes via dp = (B / \rho) d\rho.^[16] In one dimension, the continuity equation for small perturbations is \partial \tilde{\rho} / \partial t + \rho_0 \partial v / \partial x = 0, where \tilde{\rho} is the density perturbation, \rho_0 the equilibrium density, and v the particle velocity. The linearized Euler equation gives \rho_0 \partial v / \partial t = -\partial \tilde{p} / \partial x, with pressure perturbation \tilde{p} = (B / \rho_0) \tilde{\rho}. Differentiating the continuity equation with respect to time and substituting from the Euler equation, followed by using the bulk modulus relation, leads to the wave equation for pressure:

\frac{\partial^2 \tilde{p}}{\partial t^2} = c^2 \frac{\partial^2 \tilde{p}}{\partial x^2},

with wave speed c = \sqrt{B / \rho_0}.^[16] This one-dimensional form assumes propagation along a single axis and neglects transverse effects. To extend to three dimensions, longitudinal waves are modeled as irrotational, with particle velocity \mathbf{v} = \nabla \phi using a scalar potential \phi(\mathbf{r}, t), and displacement \boldsymbol{\xi} = \nabla \phi. The potential then satisfies the three-dimensional wave equation \partial^2 \phi / \partial t^2 = c^2 \nabla^2 \phi, or equivalently for pressure in fluids, \partial^2 \tilde{p} / \partial t^2 = c^2 \nabla^2 \tilde{p}.^[16]^[15] For plane waves in an unbounded medium, boundary conditions typically involve no incoming waves from infinity, ensuring outgoing or standing wave solutions. The general solution in one dimension consists of traveling waves, such as \xi(x, t) = f(x - c t) + g(x + c t), where f and g are arbitrary functions representing right- and left-propagating components, respectively. In three dimensions, plane wave solutions take the form \phi = A e^{i(\mathbf{k} \cdot \mathbf{r} - \omega t)}, with \omega = c k for dispersionless propagation.^[15]

Propagation Characteristics

Speed in Media

The speed of longitudinal waves in isotropic elastic solids is given by the formula c_L = \sqrt{\frac{\lambda + 2\mu}{\rho}}, where \lambda and \mu are the Lamé constants representing the material's compressibility and shear rigidity, respectively, and \rho is the density.^[17] This expression arises from the wave equation for dilatational motion, where particle displacement is parallel to the propagation direction, involving no shear deformation; the effective elastic modulus is thus \lambda + 2\mu, combining volumetric and deviatoric responses.^[14] In contrast, the speed of transverse waves in the same medium is c_T = \sqrt{\frac{\mu}{\rho}}, which depends solely on shear modulus and is typically lower than c_L since \lambda + 2\mu > \mu.^[17] In liquids, the speed is given by c = \sqrt{\frac{B}{\rho}}, where B is the adiabatic bulk modulus and \rho is the density. For example, in water at 20°C, this speed is approximately 1480 m/s.^[18] In ideal gases, the longitudinal wave speed, equivalent to the speed of sound, is c = \sqrt{\frac{\gamma P}{\rho}}, where \gamma is the adiabatic index (ratio of specific heats), P is the pressure, and \rho is the density; this derives from adiabatic compression assumptions in the fluid's equation of state./Book%3A_University_Physics_I_-Mechanics_Sound_Oscillations_and_Waves(OpenStax)/17%3A_Sound/17.03%3A_Speed_of_Sound) The propagation speed is influenced by material properties such as temperature (which affects molecular spacing and elasticity), density (inversely proportional in the formulas), and elastic moduli (directly scaling the square root term); for instance, higher temperatures generally increase speed in gases due to enhanced molecular activity, while in solids, density variations from composition dominate./Book%3A_University_Physics_I_-Mechanics_Sound_Oscillations_and_Waves(OpenStax)/17%3A_Sound/17.03%3A_Speed_of_Sound) Representative values illustrate these differences: in air at 20°C and standard pressure, the speed is approximately 343 m/s, reflecting low density and compressibility, whereas in steel, it reaches about 5960 m/s due to high elastic moduli and moderate density./Book%3A_University_Physics_I_-Mechanics_Sound_Oscillations_and_Waves(OpenStax)/17%3A_Sound/17.03%3A_Speed_of_Sound)^[19] In anisotropic media, such as crystals, the longitudinal wave speed varies with propagation direction because elastic properties are tensorial, leading to direction-dependent velocities without a simple scalar formula.^[20]

Attenuation Mechanisms

Attenuation in longitudinal waves describes the progressive reduction in wave amplitude and energy as it propagates through a medium, primarily due to energy dissipation into other forms such as heat. The displacement amplitude A decays exponentially with propagation distance x according to the relation A = A_0 e^{-\alpha x}, where \alpha is the attenuation coefficient with units of inverse length (nepers per meter).^[21] Consequently, the wave intensity I, which is proportional to the square of the amplitude, follows I = I_0 e^{-2\alpha x}, reflecting the quadratic dependence of energy on displacement.^[21] This exponential decay quantifies how longitudinal waves, such as sound or seismic P-waves, weaken over distance in real media, distinguishing them from ideal lossless propagation. Attenuation mechanisms for longitudinal waves are categorized into classical and quantum types, each dominating under specific conditions like temperature or material state. Classical mechanisms encompass viscous drag, stemming from molecular friction that opposes particle motion, and thermal conduction, which arises from heat diffusion across compressions and rarefactions in the wave.^[22] These processes, prevalent in fluids and higher-temperature solids, irreversibly convert acoustic energy into thermal energy via irreversible thermodynamics.^[22] In contrast, quantum mechanisms, particularly relevant in crystalline solids at low temperatures, involve phonon scattering, where quantized lattice vibrations (phonons) collide, leading to anharmonic interactions that redistribute and dissipate wave energy among phonon modes.^[23] Phonon-phonon scattering, for instance, follows quantum statistical mechanics and becomes the primary attenuation pathway when classical effects are negligible.^[23] The magnitude of \alpha typically varies with the angular frequency \omega of the wave, influencing propagation differently across media. In viscous fluids, classical mechanisms yield \alpha \propto \omega^2, as derived from the Stokes-Kirchhoff formula, where higher frequencies amplify the relative motion and energy loss due to viscosity and conduction.^[24] This quadratic dependence is evident in liquids like water, where attenuation increases sharply with frequency, limiting high-frequency ultrasound penetration. In certain solids, especially those exhibiting viscoelastic or anelastic behavior, \alpha \propto \omega, reflecting linear frequency scaling from mechanisms like internal friction or specific phonon interactions.^[25] Such dependence arises in non-linear viscoelastic media, where wave distortion enhances dissipation proportionally to frequency.^[25] To experimentally determine \alpha, techniques like the pulse-echo method are employed, involving the transmission of short ultrasonic pulses into the medium and analysis of echoed signals from boundaries.^[26] In this approach, the amplitude ratio between successive echoes, after correcting for reflection coefficients and diffraction effects, yields \alpha via logarithmic fitting of the decay.^[26] This method is widely used for longitudinal waves in both fluids and solids, providing frequency-resolved measurements that validate theoretical models of attenuation.^[27]

Examples in Acoustics and Mechanics

Sound Waves

Sound waves represent a primary example of longitudinal waves in gaseous and liquid media, manifesting as propagating disturbances that cause alternating regions of compression and rarefaction, thereby producing oscillations in pressure and density. In air, these waves typically involve small-amplitude variations superimposed on the ambient atmospheric pressure, enabling the transmission of audible frequencies from approximately 20 Hz to 20 kHz. The mathematical description of the pressure variation in a plane progressive sound wave is given by p(x,t) = p_0 + \Delta p \cos(kx - \omega t), where p_0 is the equilibrium pressure, \Delta p is the amplitude of the pressure fluctuation, k = 2\pi / \lambda is the wavenumber, and \omega = 2\pi f is the angular frequency.^[28] The pressure amplitude \Delta p relates to the maximum particle displacement A through \Delta p = \rho c \omega A, with \rho denoting the medium's density and c the speed of sound; this connection stems from the acoustic impedance Z = \rho c, which quantifies the medium's resistance to the oscillatory flow induced by the wave. The speed of sound in air derives from the adiabatic nature of compressions and rarefactions in the wave, where air parcels exchange no heat with their surroundings. For an ideal diatomic gas like air, the speed is expressed as c = \sqrt{\frac{\gamma R T}{M}}, with \gamma = 1.4 as the ratio of specific heats, R the universal gas constant, T the absolute temperature, and M the molar mass (approximately 0.029 kg/mol for dry air). This formulation arises by equating the restoring force from pressure gradients to the inertial response of fluid elements, yielding the wave speed as the square root of the adiabatic bulk modulus divided by density. Temperature strongly influences c, increasing it by roughly 0.6 m/s per Kelvin; at 20°C (293 K), c \approx 343 m/s for dry air. Humidity modifies this slightly by lowering the effective M due to water vapor's lower molecular weight (18 g/mol versus 29 g/mol for dry air), raising c by 0.1% to 0.6% depending on relative humidity levels up to 100% at standard conditions.^[29]^[30] In air, sound waves experience attenuation mainly from classical mechanisms involving viscosity and thermal conduction, which dissipate energy as heat, particularly prominent at higher frequencies. The attenuation coefficient \alpha (in nepers per meter) approximates \alpha \approx \frac{\omega^2}{2 \rho c^3} \left( \frac{4}{3} \eta + \frac{(\gamma - 1) \kappa}{C_p} \right), where \eta is the dynamic viscosity, \kappa the thermal conductivity, and C_p the specific heat capacity at constant pressure; the intensity decays as e^{-2\alpha x}. This quadratic frequency dependence makes absorption negligible below 1 kHz but significant above 5 kHz, where it limits propagation over distances beyond a few hundred meters for typical audible sounds.^[31] Nonlinear effects emerge in high-amplitude sound waves due to the pressure-dependent variation in local propagation speed, causing compressive regions to accelerate relative to rarefactions and leading to waveform steepening. Nonlinear steepening becomes evident in intense acoustic sources like explosions or loudspeakers at over 140 dB SPL (corresponding to peak particle velocities of about 0.7 m/s in air). Full shock waves form when the propagation distance exceeds the shock formation distance; for typical audible waves, this requires particle velocities around c/20 (approximately 17 m/s, or about 168 dB SPL) for distances comparable to one wavelength, resulting in a discontinuous sawtooth profile characterized by a sharp rise and linear decay, accompanied by higher harmonic generation and increased dissipation.^[32]

Seismic P-Waves

Seismic P-waves, also known as primary waves, are the fastest type of body wave generated during earthquakes, traveling through the Earth's interior at speeds typically ranging from 5 to 7.5 km/s in the crust. These longitudinal waves propagate by alternating compression and dilation of the medium, causing particles to oscillate parallel to the direction of wave travel, and they can traverse solids, liquids, and gases alike. Unlike shear waves, P-waves do not require rigidity in the medium, allowing them to penetrate the fluid outer core while refracting at boundaries such as the core-mantle interface.^[33]^[34] The velocity of P-waves varies with depth due to changes in the Earth's material properties, generally increasing from the crust into the mantle as pressure enhances the elastic moduli relative to density. In the upper mantle, speeds reach 8 to 13 km/s, reflecting higher bulk and shear moduli under greater lithostatic pressure.^[34] This relationship is captured by the formula v_p = \sqrt{\frac{K + \frac{4}{3} G}{\rho}} where v_p is the P-wave speed, K is the bulk modulus (measuring resistance to compression), G is the shear modulus (measuring resistance to shear deformation), and \rho is the density of the medium.^[35] P-waves are detected by seismographs, which record ground vibrations as differential motion between a stationary mass and the moving Earth, often capturing particle velocity or displacement components to identify the initial compressional arrivals.^[36] Arrival time differences from multiple stations enable epicenter location and, through seismic tomography, the construction of three-dimensional velocity models that map discontinuities like the Mohorovičić (Moho) boundary and mantle transitions.^[37] Attenuation of P-waves in the Earth arises primarily from anelasticity, where energy is dissipated as heat through mechanisms such as viscoelastic relaxation, particularly in regions of partial melting that reduce the quality factor Q.^[38] The Q factor, defined as Q = 2\pi E / \Delta E (with E as peak stored energy and \Delta E as energy lost per cycle), quantifies this low-loss propagation; values are low (e.g., Q \approx 20-90) in the upper mantle beneath mid-ocean ridges due to partial melting, increasing to hundreds in the deeper mantle.^[38] This frequency-dependent dissipation provides insights into temperature, volatile content, and melt distribution within the lithosphere and asthenosphere.^[38]

Specialized Contexts

Pressure Waves in Fluids

Pressure waves in fluids are longitudinal disturbances propagated by variations in pressure that induce corresponding density changes, driving particle motion parallel to the direction of wave propagation. These waves arise in both gases and liquids, often as transient phenomena rather than periodic oscillations, and are governed by the principles of compressible fluid dynamics. In irrotational flow, the velocity field can be expressed as \mathbf{v} = \nabla \phi, where \phi is the velocity potential, leading to the Euler equation \nabla p = -\rho \frac{\partial \mathbf{v}}{\partial t} that describes the pressure gradient balancing the fluid's acceleration.^[39]^[40] Such waves are commonly generated by sudden piston motions in confined fluids or by explosive events that rapidly compress surrounding media. For instance, a piston abruptly advancing into a fluid column creates a compression front that travels outward, satisfying the irrotational Euler equation and producing a propagating pressure pulse. Explosions, similarly, initiate strong pressure gradients through rapid energy release, forming blast waves where the initial shock front evolves according to the same foundational equations.^[39]^[40]^[41] The propagation speed c of these pressure waves in a compressible fluid is derived from the equation of state and given by c = \sqrt{\frac{dp}{d\rho}}, where dp and d\rho represent infinitesimal changes in pressure and density, respectively. This speed reflects the medium's compressibility; in ideal incompressible fluids, where density remains constant (d\rho = 0), the wave speed approaches infinity, implying instantaneous pressure transmission. Sound waves in fluids constitute a specific, often harmonic subset of these disturbances, propagating at the same characteristic speed under small-amplitude conditions.^[42]^[43] In practical applications, pressure waves manifest as hydraulic shocks in pipelines, known as water hammer, where sudden valve closures generate pressure surges calculated by the Joukowsky equation \Delta p = \rho c \Delta v, with \rho as fluid density, c as wave speed, and \Delta v as velocity change. These surges can reach magnitudes sufficient to damage infrastructure, emphasizing the need for gradual flow control. Blast waves from explosions represent another key application, featuring strong shocks where post-shock pressures and densities jump discontinuously across the front, leading to rapid energy dissipation in the fluid.^[44]^[45]^[41]^[46] At interfaces between dissimilar fluids, pressure waves exhibit reflection and transmission governed by continuity of pressure and the mismatch in acoustic impedance Z = \rho c. Pressure remains continuous across the boundary, ensuring no abrupt discontinuity, while the particle velocity experiences a jump proportional to the impedance difference, with the reflection coefficient for pressure amplitude given by R = \frac{Z_2 - Z_1}{Z_2 + Z_1}. This behavior determines the partitioning of wave energy, with significant reflection occurring for large impedance contrasts, such as air-water boundaries.^[47]^[48]

Longitudinal Waves in Electromagnetics

Longitudinal electromagnetic waves, characterized by an electric field component parallel to the wave vector \mathbf{k}, are rare compared to the ubiquitous transverse electromagnetic waves. In free space and non-dispersive media, such propagating longitudinal waves are forbidden by Gauss's law, \nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} = 0 in charge-free regions, as a longitudinal \mathbf{E}-field would imply nonzero divergence, violating the condition for far-field radiation.^[49] This constraint arises from Maxwell's equations in vacuum, where plane-wave solutions require \mathbf{E} \perp \mathbf{k} and \mathbf{B} \perp \mathbf{k} for energy propagation via the Poynting vector.^[49] Longitudinal components can nevertheless appear in specialized settings. In near-field regions close to sources, such as antennas, the reactive fields include a significant longitudinal \mathbf{E}-component parallel to the propagation direction, decaying rapidly with distance and not contributing to far-field radiation.^[50] Within waveguides, transverse magnetic (TM) modes support a longitudinal electric field E_z along the guide's axis (direction of \mathbf{k}), enabling guided propagation with partial longitudinal character, though the overall mode remains hybrid.^[51] Engineered metamaterials further enable true propagating longitudinal waves by breaking natural symmetries, supporting them across broad frequency bands up to Bragg resonances through tailored permittivity and permeability.^[52] A key realm for longitudinal electromagnetic waves is in plasmas, where Langmuir waves—electrostatic oscillations of electron density—exhibit purely longitudinal polarization with \mathbf{E} \parallel \mathbf{k}.^[53] These arise from charge bunching, consistent with Gauss's law allowing \nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} = \rho / \epsilon_0 in the presence of plasma density perturbations.^[53] For warm electrons, the dispersion relation is

\omega^2 = \omega_p^2 + 3 v_{\mathrm{th}}^2 k^2,

where \omega_p = \sqrt{n_e e^2 / \epsilon_0 m_e} is the electron plasma frequency, v_{\mathrm{th}} = \sqrt{k_B T_e / m_e} is the thermal velocity, and the factor of 3 accounts for three-dimensional isotropy.^[53] This relation shows weak dispersion, with phase velocities much greater than the thermal velocity (superluminal for sufficiently small k), distinguishing these waves from non-propagating cold-plasma oscillations at \omega = \omega_p.^[53] Langmuir waves find critical applications in plasma diagnostics and particle acceleration. In diagnostics, Langmuir probes excite these waves, and measuring their frequency directly yields the local electron density n_e via \omega_p, providing a standard tool for characterizing plasma parameters without invasive perturbations. In wakefield acceleration, intense laser or particle beams drive large-amplitude Langmuir-like wakes in underdense plasmas, generating gigavolt-per-meter electric fields for compact electron acceleration to GeV energies, as pioneered in the laser-wakefield concept.^[54] As of 2025, experiments have achieved acceleration of high-charge electron bunches to energies exceeding 10 GeV in compact, meter-scale setups.^[55] These waves propagate at speeds near c, enabling relativistic particle injection and staging for future high-energy colliders.^[54]

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Seismic Tomography - EarthScope Consortium
Jul 23, 2025 · One powerful technique is called Seismic Tomography, which works much like a CT scan of the Earth. Just as doctors take X-rays from different ...Missing: seismographs | Show results with:seismographs
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[PDF] 1.25 Deep Earth Structure: Q of the Earth from Crust to Core
Because of its strong dependence on temperature, partial melting, and water content, mapping anelastic attenuation in the Earth has the potential to provide ...
[38]
Euler Equations
On this slide we have two versions of the Euler Equations which describe how the velocity, pressure and density of a moving fluid are related.
[39]
[PDF] A Physical Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
Dec 19, 2013 · pressure disturbances caused by the piston motion are not small, shock waves will appear. A shock wave is a very thin region where the ...
[40]
Blast Wave - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
A blast wave is defined as a shock wave that propagates through an explosive mixture at supersonic velocity, resulting from the almost instantaneous ...
[41]
Speed of Sound - Equations - The Engineering ToolBox
c = (dp / dρ)1/2 (1). where. c = speed of sound (m/s, ft/s). dp = change in pressure (Pa, psi). dρ = change in density (kg/m3, lb/ft3). Speed of Sound in Gases ...
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[PDF] Notes on Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Gas Dynamics
Dec 15, 2021 · (b) The speed of sound in air (k = 1.4,R = 287 J kg 1 K 1) at standard conditions (T = 288 K) is 340 m s 1 (= 1115 ft s 1 ⇡ 1/5 mi s 1).
[43]
Water Hammer Impulse Surge Pressure - LMNO Engineering
ΔP = ρ c ΔV. The equation for wave speed, c, during water hammer is based on mass conservation and allows the pipe wall material to expand (Wylie, 1993, p. 6 ...
[44]
Instantaneous Water Hammer Equation - Waterhammer.com
The instantaneous water hammer equation is defined as: ΔP = -ρaΔV. Where. ΔP= pressure rise at the location of the velocity change. ρ = fluid density. a = wave ...
[45]
Blast wave kinematics: theory, experiments, and applications
Jul 25, 2022 · In a later stage, a blast wave will decay and the strong-shock approximation will no longer be valid (and in the early stages of a chemical ...
[46]
Acoustic Impedance - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
To be more exact, reflection occurs where there is a difference of acoustic impedance (Z) between the media (Fig. 1.12A). The impedance is a measure of how ...
[47]
[PDF] Lecture 9: Reflection, Transmission and Impedance
Matching the impedances of two different wave carrying media is of critical importance in electrical engineering. Say one wishes to drive an antenna, such ...
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[PDF] Electromagnetic waves in plasmas and conductors
Nov 11, 2024 · This note describes electromagnetic waves in plasmas ... The longitudinal waves are also known as plasma oscillations or Langmuir waves.
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Experimental estimation of the longitudinal component of a highly ...
Sep 9, 2021 · This paper describes a method that allows us to estimate and visualize the longitudinal component of the field in a relatively simple way.
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Longitudinal electromagnetic waves with extremely short wavelength
It is shown that the metamaterial supports longitudinal waves at an extremely wide frequency band from very low frequencies up to the Bragg resonances of the ...Abstract · Article Text
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[PDF] Chapter 5 Electromagnetic Waves in Plasmas
These have just the same shape except the electron plasma waves have much larger vertical scale: On the EM wave scale, the plasma wave curve is nearly vertical.
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Laser Electron Accelerator | Phys. Rev. Lett.
Jul 23, 1979 · Laser Electron Accelerator. T. Tajima and J. M. Dawson. Department of Physics, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90024. PDF ...Missing: original | Show results with:original