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Plane wave

A plane wave is a fundamental type of wave in physics characterized by wavefronts that are infinite parallel planes of constant phase, perpendicular to the direction of propagation, resulting in a wave that travels without distortion or change in amplitude through a homogeneous medium.^[1] Mathematically, it is expressed as f(\mathbf{r}, t) = A_0 \cos(\mathbf{k} \cdot \mathbf{r} - \omega t + \phi), where A_0 is the constant amplitude, \mathbf{k} is the wave vector pointing in the propagation direction with magnitude k = 2\pi / \lambda (the wave number, and \lambda the wavelength), \omega = 2\pi f is the angular frequency (f being the frequency), and \phi is the phase constant; this form satisfies the wave equation \nabla^2 f = \frac{1}{v^2} \frac{\partial^2 f}{\partial t^2}, with phase velocity v = \omega / k.^[2] Plane waves exhibit uniform properties across their wavefronts, including constant energy density due to conservation of energy as they propagate in one direction without transverse variations.^[2] In the context of electromagnetism, they represent solutions to Maxwell's equations in source-free regions, where the electric field \mathbf{E} and magnetic field \mathbf{H} are mutually perpendicular and both transverse to the propagation direction \mathbf{k}, with |\mathbf{E}| / |\mathbf{H}| = \eta (the intrinsic impedance, approximately 377 ohms in free space) and energy flux given by the Poynting vector \mathbf{S} = \mathbf{E} \times \mathbf{H}.^[3]^[4] These waves are idealized models essential for analyzing phenomena in optics (e.g., interference and diffraction approximations), acoustics, and quantum mechanics (e.g., as basis functions for wave functions), often approximating real waves in the far field or paraxial regimes.^[1]

Fundamentals

Definition

A plane wave is a fundamental concept in wave physics, representing an idealized model of wave propagation. In general, waves are disturbances that propagate through a medium or space, characterized by key parameters such as amplitude (the maximum displacement from equilibrium), frequency (the number of oscillations per unit time), and wavelength (the distance between consecutive crests or troughs). These properties describe how energy is transferred without net displacement of the medium, as seen in phenomena like sound, light, and water waves.^[5] Specifically, a plane wave is defined as a wave that extends infinitely in the directions perpendicular to its propagation direction, with all points on a given wavefront maintaining the same phase. This results in wavefronts that are flat, infinite parallel planes advancing at a constant speed along the direction of propagation. Unlike real-world waves, which often exhibit curvature and spreading due to diffraction or finite sources, the plane wave approximation assumes no such effects, providing a uniform intensity and directionality across its extent.^[1]^[4] This idealization serves as a basic solution to the wave equation, facilitating analysis in various physical contexts.^[2] The concept of plane waves emerged in 19th-century wave theory, building on Christiaan Huygens's 1678 principle that every point on a wavefront acts as a source of secondary spherical wavelets, which was later refined by Augustin-Jean Fresnel in the early 1800s to explain optical phenomena like diffraction and interference.^[6]^[7] Originally applied to light in optics, the plane wave model was subsequently generalized to other wave types, such as acoustic and electromagnetic waves, becoming a cornerstone for theoretical physics.^[8]

Mathematical representation

Plane waves are exact solutions to the scalar wave equation, which describes the propagation of waves in non-dispersive media:

\nabla^2 \psi = \frac{1}{c^2} \frac{\partial^2 \psi}{\partial t^2},

where \psi(\mathbf{r}, t) is the wave field, \mathbf{r} is the position vector, t is time, and c is the wave speed.^[4]^[9] To derive the plane wave solution, assume a functional form \psi(\mathbf{r}, t) = f(\mathbf{r} \cdot \mathbf{n} - c t), where \mathbf{n} is a unit vector in the direction of propagation and f is an arbitrary twice-differentiable function. Substituting this into the wave equation yields \frac{\partial^2 f}{\partial \xi^2} = \frac{1}{c^2} \frac{\partial^2 f}{\partial \xi^2}, where \xi = \mathbf{r} \cdot \mathbf{n} - c t, which holds identically for any f. This confirms that such functions satisfy the equation, representing waves propagating without distortion at speed c along \mathbf{n}.^[4]^[9] For monochromatic plane waves, the real-valued form is

\psi(\mathbf{r}, t) = A \cos(\mathbf{k} \cdot \mathbf{r} - \omega t + \phi),

where A is the amplitude, \mathbf{k} is the wave vector with magnitude k = 2\pi / \lambda ( \lambda being the wavelength) pointing in the propagation direction, \omega = 2\pi f is the angular frequency (f the frequency), and \phi is the phase constant. This form arises by assuming a sinusoidal dependence in the argument of f, ensuring the second spatial derivative introduces -\mathbf{k}^2 and the temporal derivative -\omega^2, satisfying the wave equation when the dispersion relation holds.^[10]^[4] In linear wave theory, the complex exponential form \psi(\mathbf{r}, t) = A \exp[i (\mathbf{k} \cdot \mathbf{r} - \omega t)] is often used, where the physical field is the real part of this expression. This notation simplifies calculations involving superpositions, derivatives, and phase shifts due to Euler's formula relating exponentials to cosines and sines, while the imaginary part does not contribute to observable quantities in linear systems.^[11]^[10] The dispersion relation for non-dispersive media is \omega = c |\mathbf{k}|, linking frequency to wave number and ensuring phase and group velocities equal c. This relation follows directly from substituting the plane wave into the wave equation, balancing the Laplacian term with the time derivative.^[12]^[4] For vector waves, such as in electromagnetism, the plane wave solution extends to \mathbf{E}(\mathbf{r}, t) = \mathbf{E}_0 \exp[i (\mathbf{k} \cdot \mathbf{r} - \omega t)], where \mathbf{E}_0 is the polarization vector perpendicular to \mathbf{k} to satisfy transversality.^[13]

Types

Traveling plane wave

A traveling plane wave is a disturbance that propagates unidirectionally in a medium, maintaining a constant shape and amplitude with no fixed nodes along its direction of travel.^[14] It represents the simplest form of wave propagation, where the wavefronts are infinite parallel planes perpendicular to the direction of motion.^[4] This type of wave is characterized by its dependence solely on the coordinate along the propagation direction, such as the z-axis, while remaining uniform in the transverse directions.^[15] The propagation of a traveling plane wave is governed by its phase velocity, defined as v_p = \frac{[\omega](/page/Omega)}{|[k](/page/K)|}, where \omega is the angular frequency and k is the wave number.^[3] In vacuum, for electromagnetic waves, this velocity equals the speed of light c \approx 3 \times 10^8 m/s.^[16] The group velocity, which describes the speed of energy or information transport, is given by v_g = \frac{d[\omega](/page/Omega)}{d[k](/page/K)}; in non-dispersive media like free space or a uniform acoustic medium, v_g = v_p = c for light or the speed of sound for acoustic waves.^[3] These velocities highlight the wave's ability to carry energy efficiently without distortion in ideal conditions.^[17] A classic example is a sound wave in a uniform, isotropic medium, where pressure variations form planar wavefronts that advance steadily at the speed of sound, approximately 343 m/s in air at standard conditions.^[18] Similarly, light propagating in free space as an electromagnetic plane wave exhibits flat wavefronts moving at c, with electric and magnetic fields oscillating in phase perpendicular to the propagation direction.^[16] These illustrations demonstrate the wave's role in unidirectional energy transport.^[15] Traveling plane waves are idealized as existing in unbounded domains, where boundary conditions are absent, and edge effects or reflections are neglected to focus on pure propagation behavior.^[19] This assumption simplifies analysis in theoretical models of wave physics.^[20]

Standing plane wave

A standing plane wave forms through the interference of two traveling plane waves of equal amplitude and frequency propagating in opposite directions along the same axis. This superposition results in a wave pattern that does not propagate but instead oscillates in place, creating a stationary interference pattern.^[21]^[22] Mathematically, consider two counter-propagating waves given by \psi_1 = A \cos(kz - \omega t) and \psi_2 = A \cos(kz + \omega t), where A is the amplitude, k is the wave number, \omega is the angular frequency, z is the position along the propagation axis, and t is time. Their superposition yields:

\psi(z, t) = \psi_1 + \psi_2 = 2A \cos(kz) \cos(\omega t).

This expression separates into a time-dependent factor \cos(\omega t) and a spatially dependent envelope $2A \cos(kz), demonstrating the standing nature of the wave. The derivation arises from adding waves with wave vectors \mathbf{k} and -\mathbf{k}, which produces the cosine spatial modulation as the real part of the complex superposition e^{i(kz - \omega t)} + e^{i(-kz - \omega t)} = 2\cos(kz) e^{-i\omega t}, leading to a time-independent amplitude profile.^[22]^[23] The key characteristics of a standing plane wave include fixed nodes, where the amplitude is zero (\cos(kz) = 0), and antinodes, where the amplitude reaches its maximum (|\cos(kz)| = 1). These positions remain stationary over time, with the wave oscillating between positive and negative peaks without net displacement. Unlike traveling waves, standing plane waves exhibit no net energy transport; the time-averaged Poynting vector, which represents energy flux, is zero, as the forward and backward energy flows cancel each other, causing energy to oscillate locally between nodes and antinodes.^[24]^[25] Common examples include standing waves on a vibrating string fixed at both ends, where reflections from the boundaries create the counter-propagating components necessary for the pattern, and acoustic standing waves in a pipe, such as in organ pipes or resonance tubes, where pressure variations form nodes and antinodes along the length.^[26]^[24]

Sinusoidal plane wave

A sinusoidal plane wave represents a monochromatic variant of a plane wave, characterized by a single frequency and purely harmonic dependence on both time and spatial coordinates. This form arises in contexts where waves propagate without dispersion or nonlinearity, maintaining a constant waveform shape. Mathematically, for propagation along the z-direction, it is expressed as \psi(z, t) = A \sin(\omega t - k z + \phi), where A is the amplitude, \omega is the angular frequency, k = 2\pi / \lambda is the wavenumber with \lambda the wavelength, and \phi is the phase constant. In three dimensions, the general form is \psi(\mathbf{r}, t) = A \sin(\mathbf{k} \cdot \mathbf{r} - \omega t + \phi), with \mathbf{k} the wave vector pointing in the direction of propagation and |\mathbf{k}| = k.^[27] These waves offer significant analytical advantages in linear media, as they are eigenfunctions of linear time-invariant systems, meaning an input sinusoidal wave produces an output of the same frequency with only amplitude and phase modifications determined by the system's transfer function. This property simplifies solving wave equations and predicting responses in dispersive or absorbing environments. Moreover, sinusoidal plane waves serve as the fundamental basis for Fourier analysis, allowing complex, arbitrary waveforms to be decomposed into superpositions of these harmonics, which is essential for understanding wave propagation, interference, and signal processing in physics.^[28] For transverse vector waves, such as electromagnetic fields, the polarization of a sinusoidal plane wave describes the time-varying orientation of the oscillation perpendicular to the propagation direction. Linear polarization occurs when the field vector oscillates along a fixed line, represented by a real-valued Jones vector like \begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ 0 \end{pmatrix}. Circular polarization features a rotating field of constant magnitude, with left- or right-handed forms given by \begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ i \end{pmatrix} or \begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ -i \end{pmatrix}, respectively. Elliptical polarization generalizes this, where the field traces an ellipse, as in \begin{pmatrix} A \\ i B \end{pmatrix} with A \neq B > 0. These states are crucial for applications in optics and quantum mechanics.^[29] An illustrative example is a monochromatic laser beam, which approximates a sinusoidal plane wave over limited regions due to its coherence and narrow spectral width. Specifically, within a volume of a few millimeters in beam radius—where wavefront curvature is negligible compared to the short optical wavelength—the field can be treated as having uniform phase and amplitude across planar fronts, facilitating theoretical modeling in wave optics.^[30]

Properties

Physical properties

Plane waves exhibit distinct physical characteristics related to their propagation speed and direction. The phase velocity v_p = \frac{\omega}{k}, where \omega is the angular frequency and k is the wave number, describes the speed at which a surface of constant phase travels along the direction of propagation.^[31] The group velocity v_g = \frac{d\omega}{dk} represents the velocity at which the envelope of a wave packet propagates, corresponding to the transport of energy and information.^[31] In relativistic settings, such as electromagnetic plane waves in vacuum, both velocities equal the speed of light c, and the phase of the wave remains invariant under Lorentz transformations, ensuring consistency across inertial frames.^[32] For electromagnetic plane waves, energy transport is quantified by the Poynting vector \vec{S} = \frac{1}{\mu_0} \vec{E} \times \vec{B}, which points in the direction of propagation and gives the instantaneous power flux density.^[33] The time-averaged intensity for a monochromatic plane wave is I = \frac{1}{2} c \epsilon_0 E_0^2, where E_0 is the electric field amplitude, highlighting how energy density scales with the square of the amplitude.^[33] Plane waves can be either transverse or longitudinal, depending on the type of wave and the medium.^[34] In transverse plane waves, the oscillations are perpendicular to the propagation direction \vec{k}. For electromagnetic plane waves, the electric field \vec{E} and magnetic field \vec{B} are both perpendicular to \vec{k}, making the wave purely transverse.^[35] This property is also exhibited by certain mechanical waves, such as transverse waves on a string, where particle displacement is perpendicular to the propagation direction.^[36] In contrast, longitudinal plane waves, such as those in acoustics, have oscillations parallel to the propagation direction. When incident on an interface between media, plane waves undergo partial reflection and transmission, with coefficients determined by the impedances of the media; for electromagnetic waves, these are described by the Fresnel equations.^[37] Due to their infinite lateral extent, ideal plane waves experience no scattering from obstacles, as the uniform wavefront maintains coherence without diffraction.^[38] In reality, plane waves serve as local approximations for finite sources, valid only over regions much larger than the wavelength and far from the source; deviations occur due to diffraction when waves pass through apertures or encounter edges, causing spreading and interference patterns.^[39]

Mathematical properties

Plane waves exhibit orthogonality when integrated over all space, expressed by the relation

\int e^{i (\mathbf{k} - \mathbf{k}') \cdot \mathbf{r}} \, d^3\mathbf{r} = (2\pi)^3 \delta^3(\mathbf{k} - \mathbf{k}')

in three dimensions, where \delta^3 is the three-dimensional Dirac delta function.^[40] This property enables the decomposition of arbitrary square-integrable functions into a superposition of plane waves via the Fourier transform, facilitating analysis in wave equations. The set of plane waves forms a complete basis for expanding functions in L^2 space, particularly for periodic functions in bounded domains through Fourier series, allowing any suitable function to be uniquely represented as an infinite sum of these basis elements.^[41] This completeness ensures that the plane wave expansion converges to the original function under appropriate conditions, underpinning applications in signal processing and quantum mechanics.^[42] Plane waves possess translational invariance, remaining unchanged under arbitrary spatial shifts, as their form \exp(i \mathbf{k} \cdot \mathbf{r}) depends only on the relative position.^[43] They are also invariant under rotations in the plane perpendicular to the wave vector \mathbf{k}, preserving the uniform phase across transverse directions.^[43] Furthermore, plane waves satisfy the Helmholtz equation (\nabla^2 + k^2) \psi = 0, where k = |\mathbf{k}|, serving as fundamental solutions to time-independent wave equations in homogeneous media.^[44] Due to their infinite extent, plane waves are not square-integrable over finite volumes, precluding conventional L^2 normalization; instead, they employ delta-function normalization, where the inner product yields (2\pi)^3 \delta^3(\mathbf{k} - \mathbf{k}'), ensuring consistency in continuous spectra.^[45] This normalization is essential for treating plane waves as generalized eigenfunctions in rigged Hilbert spaces.^[45]

Applications

In wave physics

In acoustics, plane waves represent a fundamental mode of sound propagation in fluids, where pressure variations create longitudinal disturbances that travel through the medium. These waves are characterized by a pressure perturbation that varies sinusoidally in space and time, often expressed in complex notation as

\psi = p_0 \exp[i (\mathbf{k} \cdot \mathbf{r} - \omega t)],

where p_0 is the pressure amplitude, \mathbf{k} is the wave vector, \mathbf{r} is the position vector, \omega is the angular frequency, and i = \sqrt{-1}. This form assumes a scalar pressure field for non-viscous, compressible fluids, with the real part taken for the physical quantity. The speed of such acoustic plane waves in an ideal gas is given by c = \sqrt{\gamma P / \rho}, where \gamma is the adiabatic index, P is the equilibrium pressure, and \rho is the density; in liquids or solids, it relates to the bulk modulus K as c = \sqrt{K / \rho}. These waves maintain constant phase across planes perpendicular to the propagation direction, enabling uniform energy transport in unbounded media.^[46]^[47] Mechanical plane waves occur in elastic media such as strings or membranes, where they approximate the behavior of disturbances in the far field, distant from the source. On a taut string, the waves are transverse, with particle displacement perpendicular to the propagation direction along the string axis; the wave equation yields solutions of the form y(x, t) = A \cos(kx - \omega t + \phi), where A is the amplitude, k = 2\pi / \lambda is the wavenumber, and the speed is v = \sqrt{T / \mu} with tension T and linear density \mu. For membranes, such as a vibrating drumhead under uniform tension, the waves are also transverse but propagate in two dimensions, governed by the 2D wave equation \frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial t^2} = c^2 \nabla^2 u, where u is the transverse displacement and c = \sqrt{\tau / \sigma} with surface tension \tau and mass per unit area \sigma; plane wave solutions assume uniform wavefronts across the membrane. Longitudinal mechanical waves, involving compression along the propagation direction, appear in bulk solids or fluids but are less common on flexible structures like strings, where bending stiffness is negligible. The plane wave approximation holds in the far field, where the distance r from the source greatly exceeds 2D²/λ (with D the characteristic source size and λ the wavelength), allowing spherical wavefronts to locally resemble planes over the observation region.^[16]^[48]^[49]^[20] Approximations like the paraxial form extend plane wave concepts to directed beams in mechanical and acoustic contexts, assuming small angles of divergence from the propagation axis. In this regime, the wave equation simplifies by neglecting higher-order transverse derivatives, yielding a Helmholtz-like equation for slowly varying envelopes, useful for modeling focused acoustic beams from transducers. The validity of the plane wave approximation requires the wavelength to be much smaller than the source size, ensuring minimal diffraction and near-uniform phase over the observation area; otherwise, spherical or cylindrical waves dominate near the source. These conditions limit applicability to low-frequency regimes or small apertures, where curvature effects become significant.^[50]^[51] Experimentally, plane acoustic waves are realized using large transducers or arrays that span many wavelengths to minimize edge diffraction, producing near-uniform fields in anechoic chambers or water tanks for frequencies up to several kHz. In waveguides, such as rectangular ducts with rigid walls, plane waves propagate as the fundamental mode below the cutoff frequency of higher modes, maintaining constant amplitude and phase across the cross-section; this setup is common in aeroacoustic testing, where transducer arrays at one end generate controlled wavefronts. For free-field methods, these achieve plane wave conditions over propagation distances up to approximately D²/λ (where D is the aperture size and λ the wavelength); in waveguides, propagation can extend much farther for the fundamental mode. Imperfections like boundary absorption introduce gradual decay.^[52]^[53]^[54]

In electromagnetism and quantum mechanics

In electromagnetism, plane waves represent fundamental solutions to Maxwell's equations in free space, describing transverse electromagnetic fields that propagate without requiring a medium. The electric field \mathbf{E} and magnetic field \mathbf{B} are both perpendicular to the wave vector \mathbf{k} and to each other, with the wave propagating in the direction of \mathbf{k}. A common complex representation of the electric field is \mathbf{E} = \mathbf{E}_0 \exp[i (\mathbf{k} \cdot \mathbf{r} - \omega t)], where \mathbf{E}_0 is the amplitude vector perpendicular to \mathbf{k}, \mathbf{r} is the position vector, \omega is the angular frequency, and the real part is taken for the physical field. The corresponding magnetic field follows as \mathbf{B} = \frac{1}{c} \hat{k} \times \mathbf{E}, ensuring the fields remain in phase and transverse. The propagation speed c = \frac{1}{\sqrt{\mu_0 \epsilon_0}} emerges directly from Maxwell's equations, where \mu_0 is the vacuum permeability and \epsilon_0 is the vacuum permittivity, equating to the speed of light in vacuum.^[55] Electromagnetic plane waves exhibit polarization, characterized by the orientation of the electric field oscillation. Linear polarization occurs when \mathbf{E}_0 lies in a fixed plane, such as horizontal or vertical relative to the propagation direction, representing a special case of elliptical polarization with zero eccentricity. Circular polarization arises when the electric field vector rotates at constant magnitude, forming a helix along the propagation path; right-handed (clockwise when viewed toward the source) and left-handed forms correspond to opposite chiralities, with eccentricity equal to 1. These states can be quantified using Stokes parameters, a set of four measurable values: I for total intensity, Q and U for linear polarization components along orthogonal axes, and V for circular polarization (V = \pm I for pure right or left circular light).^[56] In quantum mechanics, plane waves describe the de Broglie matter waves associated with free particles, serving as exact solutions to the time-dependent Schrödinger equation in the absence of potential. The wave function takes the form \psi(\mathbf{r}, t) = A \exp\left[i \frac{\mathbf{p} \cdot \mathbf{r} - Et}{\hbar}\right], where A is a normalization constant, \mathbf{p} is the particle momentum, E = \frac{p^2}{2m} is the kinetic energy, \hbar is the reduced Planck's constant, and the probability density |\psi|^2 = |A|^2 is uniform in space. This connects to the de Broglie relation \mathbf{p} = \hbar \mathbf{k}, where \mathbf{k} is the wave vector, implying the wavelength \lambda = h / p inversely proportional to momentum p. Substituting into the Schrödinger equation i \hbar \frac{\partial \psi}{\partial t} = -\frac{\hbar^2}{2m} \nabla^2 \psi confirms the plane wave satisfies it for free particles, with non-quantized energy.^[57] Electromagnetic plane waves carry classical energy and momentum deterministically, with intensity proportional to E_0^2 and Poynting vector \mathbf{S} = \frac{1}{\mu_0} \mathbf{E} \times \mathbf{B} giving the energy flux. In contrast, de Broglie plane waves represent probability amplitudes, where |\psi|^2 dV yields the likelihood of detecting the particle in volume dV, without direct classical energy transport by the wave itself. Electromagnetic waves apply the relation E = h \nu to massless photons, while de Broglie waves extend \lambda = h / p to massive particles, as verified by electron diffraction experiments.^[58] A modern extension involves plane wave expansions in periodic media, where Bloch's theorem describes wave functions as plane waves modulated by periodic functions, forming the basis for band structures in solids. In a periodic potential V(\mathbf{r} + \mathbf{T}) = V(\mathbf{r}) with lattice vectors \mathbf{T}, solutions are \psi_{\mathbf{q}}(\mathbf{r}) = e^{i \mathbf{q} \cdot \mathbf{r}} u_{j,\mathbf{q}}(\mathbf{r}), where u_{j,\mathbf{q}} has the lattice periodicity and \mathbf{q} lies in the first Brillouin zone; this expands plane waves into reciprocal lattice components to compute dispersion relations.^[59]

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Our main interest in taking L infinite is that we would like to represent a nonperiodic function, for example a localized wave packet, in terms of plane-wave ...
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Fundamentals of plane wave-based methods for energy band ...
May 20, 2025 · ... complete basis set of the entire space, via a linear transformation as follows ... When one expands the electron density in terms of plane waves, ...
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[PDF] k points and plane waves
where G are reciprocal lattice vectors. The plane waves eiGr have the periodicity of the real lattice: eiGRj = 1 and form a complete basis. The coefficients ...
[42]
[PDF] Appendix: Fourier methods
For example, just as the invariance of homogeneous systems under translations leads to plane-wave solutions with definite wavevector k, it is true that ...
[43]
[PDF] Chapter 2 The Wave Equation
In free space, the plane wave propagates with velocity c in direction of the wave vector k = (kx, ky, kz). The electric field vector E0, the magnetic field ...
[44]
Function Spaces - Galileo
Now the delta function is only meaningful inside an integral, therefore so is our normalization, and the formalism, a continuum basis of plane wave states with ...
[45]
47 Sound. The wave equation - Feynman Lectures - Caltech
Both sound and light travel with a speed in air which is very nearly independent of frequency. Examples of wave propagation for which this independence is ...
[46]
13.1: Acoustic Waves - Physics LibreTexts
Jun 7, 2025 · The acoustic impedance for solids and liquids is η s = ρ o ⁢ c s = ( ρ o ⁢ K ) 0.5 [N s m-3]. Note that the units are not ohms. The ...
[47]
2.5: A Vibrating Membrane - Chemistry LibreTexts
Jun 30, 2023 · As with the 1D wave equations, a node is a point (or line) on a structure that does not move while the rest of the structure is vibrating.Missing: mechanical | Show results with:mechanical
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Paraxial and ray approximations of acoustic vortex beams
Apr 22, 2024 · A compact analytical solution obtained in the paraxial approximation is used to investigate focused and unfocused vortex beams radiated by a ...
[49]
Properties of Plane Waves - NDE-Ed.org
At big distances, which we call the far-field, a spherical wave front can be approximated as a uniform plane wave over a defined area.Missing: strings membranes
[50]
Broadband and High-Transmission Metasurface for Converting ...
Oct 21, 2019 · Underwater acoustic plane waves are usually generated using transducer arrays with sophisticated control and synchronizing systems.
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[PDF] Development of an Experimental Rig for Investigation of Higher ...
Mode Amplitude Ratio for plane wave generation at 130 dB over operating frequency range in the duct evaluated at the downstream array. The rms error at the ...
[52]
https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevApplied.12.044046
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https://www.antenna-theory.com/basics/fieldRegions.php
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https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20060018364/downloads/20060018364.pdf
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[PDF] Bloch's theorem - Rutgers Physics
i.e. (a plane wave with wavevector within the first Brillouin zone)×(a function uj,q with the periodicity of the lattice).7. This leads us to Bloch's theorem.