Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Lymnaea

Lymnaea is a genus of air-breathing freshwater snails in the family Lymnaeidae, comprising pulmonate gastropod mollusks with right-spiraling shells that vary in size from 5 to 65 mm and exhibit diverse shapes, including tall spires and swollen whorls.^[1] These snails are hermaphroditic, capable of self-fertilization or cross-fertilization through sperm exchange, and typically lay gelatinous, sausage-shaped egg masses containing dozens to hundreds of eggs in shallow, calcium-rich freshwater habitats.^[2] The genus Lymnaea is distributed worldwide except in Antarctica, with the highest species diversity in northern North America and Eurasia, where it inhabits temperate lakes, ponds, rivers, and wetlands.^[1] Taxonomically, it falls within the superorder Hygrophila. The family Lymnaeidae includes the genus Lymnaea (containing over 20 species) and related genera such as Stagnicola, Galba, Radix, and Omphiscola, with classifications revised based on morphological and molecular data to reflect evolutionary relationships.^[3]^[4] Notable species include Lymnaea stagnalis (the great pond snail, reaching up to 55–65 mm in shell length and serving as a model organism for neurobiology and ecotoxicology studies) and Lymnaea truncatula (a smaller species widespread in Europe and key in veterinary parasitology).^[5]^[6] Biologically, Lymnaea species are primarily herbivorous, using a radula to rasp filamentous algae and detritus, and they respire via a lung-like mantle cavity that allows surfacing for air.^[2] Their life cycles last 9–15 months to maturity, influenced by temperature and water quality, with faster reproduction in warmer conditions.^[2] Ecologically, lymnaeid snails play a critical role as intermediate hosts for at least 71 species of trematode parasites across 13 families, including the liver fluke Fasciola hepatica, which causes fascioliasis in livestock and humans, making Lymnaea species vital subjects in medical and veterinary research.^[7] Additionally, their nervous systems, particularly in L. stagnalis, have been extensively studied for associative learning, memory formation, and central pattern generators underlying behaviors like feeding and locomotion.^[8]

Taxonomy and phylogeny

Classification

The genus Lymnaea belongs to the kingdom Animalia, phylum Mollusca, class Gastropoda, subclass Heterobranchia, order Hygrophila, superfamily Lymnaeoidea, family Lymnaeidae, and serves as the type genus of the family Lymnaeidae. Its type species is Helix stagnalis Linnaeus, 1758.^[9]^[10] Several synonyms have been proposed for the genus, including Limnaea Blainville, 1824, Limnaeus Beck, 1838, and Kazakhlymnaea Starobogatov & Izzatulaev, 1980, the latter recognized as a junior synonym in modern classifications.^[11]^[12] Historically, Lymnaea was treated broadly to include diverse groups now classified separately, with subgenera such as Lymnaea sensu stricto, Galba (small-bodied European species such as pond and marsh snails), Stagnicola (North American pond snails with elongated shells), Acella, and Myxas based on shell morphology and internal anatomy. However, contemporary taxonomy restricts Lymnaea sensu stricto to a narrower group of large-bodied Eurasian species (e.g., L. stagnalis), while most former subgenera have been elevated to full genus rank within Lymnaeidae based on molecular evidence.^[13] As the type genus of Lymnaeidae, Lymnaea occupies a central position in the phylogeny of freshwater pulmonate gastropods; molecular analyses employing 18S rRNA and cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) sequences indicate close relationships to other Hygrophila families, with major divergences within the Lymnaeidae occurring during the Mesozoic era.^[14]^[15]

Etymology and historical revisions

The genus name Lymnaea derives from the Ancient Greek word lymnaîa (λυμναῖα), meaning "pond dweller" or "marsh inhabitant," alluding to the freshwater aquatic habitats of these pulmonate snails.^[16] The genus was formally established by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in 1799 in his Prodrome d'une nouvelle classification des coquilles, based primarily on European pond snail species such as L. stagnalis, characterized by their dextral coiling and air-breathing adaptations.^[4] In the 19th century, the genus expanded significantly through descriptions of species from diverse global regions, including contributions by W.H. Benson in the 1840s, who added numerous taxa from India and other parts of Asia, incorporating variations in shell morphology to broaden the genus's scope beyond Europe.^[17] By the mid-20th century, Bengt Hubendick's comprehensive 1951 monograph Recent Lymnaeidae emphasized the family's morphological uniformity alongside extensive intraspecific variation, leading him to recognize a single broad genus Lymnaea with multiple subgenera to accommodate global diversity, while cataloging over 1,800 named species and subspecies. Molecular phylogenetic studies from the late 20th and early 21st centuries prompted major taxonomic revisions, with Bargues et al. (2001) using nuclear ribosomal DNA ITS-2 sequences to delineate four distinct clades within European Lymnaeidae, reclassifying many traditional Lymnaea species into separate genera such as Radix (e.g., R. balthica, formerly L. peregra) and Omphiscola (e.g., O. glabra), based on genetic divergences reflecting evolutionary histories and host specificity for trematodes like Fasciola hepatica.^[18] These findings highlighted the polyphyly of Lymnaea sensu lato, fueling ongoing debates; post-2010 analyses, including multi-gene phylogenies, have elevated several subgenera (e.g., Stagnicola, Galba) to full genus status, refining the group's monophyly and incorporating broader taxon sampling from Asia and the Americas, while also revealing cryptic diversity such as L. stagnalis comprising at least 10 distinct species.^[19]^[20] The fossil record of Lymnaeidae, the family encompassing Lymnaea, spans from the Early Jurassic (approximately 190 million years ago) to the Recent, with the genus Lymnaea itself known from the Middle Jurassic onwards (approximately 170 million years ago), including records from the Late Jurassic Morrison Formation in North America, and persisting through the Cretaceous and Cenozoic eras.^[21] Early fossil forms exhibit primitive pulmonate traits, such as simple, ovate shells and basic radular structures adapted to freshwater environments, indicating an evolutionary origin tied to Mesozoic diversification of aquatic gastropods, though precise ancestral links remain unresolved.^[21]

Morphology and anatomy

Shell structure

The shell of Lymnaea species is a spiral, conical structure composed of multiple whorls arranged around a central axis, with heights typically ranging from 5 to 65 mm across the genus.^[1] These shells exhibit predominantly dextral (right-handed) coiling when viewed from the apex, though rare sinistral variants occur in some populations.^[5] Key morphological features include a thin, fragile periostracum, an organic outer layer that provides minimal protection and is often smooth or faintly striated in some species.^[1] The underlying teleoconch displays irregular growth lines.^[22] The aperture is ovate to elongated, frequently with a reflected inner lip forming a callus, while the umbilicus is generally closed or narrowly open.^[1] As pulmonate gastropods, Lymnaea lack an operculum, relying instead on the shell's retraction of the soft body for protection.^[23] Shell variations are notable, with environmental factors influencing shape: forms in flowing waters tend to be more elongated and streamlined, whereas those in still ponds are often globose and inflated.^[24] Coloration ranges from brown to greenish hues, sometimes with a translucent quality in juveniles.^[25] Sculpturing varies by subgenus, featuring fine axial ribs or striae that are more pronounced in groups like Stagnicola, aiding species identification.^[2]

Internal anatomy

The body of Lymnaea species is organized into distinct regions typical of pulmonate gastropods, including a head with tentacles and mouth, a muscular foot for locomotion, a coiled visceral mass containing major organs, and a mantle that envelops the visceral mass and secretes the shell.^[26] The visceral mass houses the hermaphroditic gonad embedded within the digestive gland, allowing simultaneous production of eggs and sperm.^[26] This body plan supports adaptations for freshwater environments, such as the foot's broad, flattened shape aiding in substrate adhesion and the mantle's role in respiration and excretion.^[5] The circulatory system is open, consisting of a heart with a single auricle and ventricle located in the mantle cavity, pumping hemolymph through a network of sinuses and aortae for nutrient and oxygen distribution.^[26] Hemocyanin serves as the primary oxygen-transporting pigment in the hemolymph, binding oxygen efficiently in low-oxygen freshwater habitats, though some species exhibit additional hemoprotein pigments in neural tissues.^[27]^[28] Respiration occurs via a modified mantle cavity functioning as a lung, enabling air-breathing at the water surface through the pneumostome, a valved opening on the right side of the mantle.^[26] This pulmonary adaptation allows Lymnaea to inhabit oxygen-poor waters, with the pneumostome regulating gas exchange to prevent desiccation during surfacing.^[5] The digestive system features a radula equipped with tricuspid central teeth for scraping algae and plant matter from substrates, supported by an esophagus, stomach, and intestine within the visceral mass.^[26] Sensory structures include the osphradium, a chemosensory organ near the pneumostome that detects water quality and food cues; simple eyes at the base of the tentacles for light detection; and tentacles with tactile and olfactory functions.^[26] The nervous system is centralized, comprising a ring of ganglia (cerebral, pedal, pleural, parietal, visceral, and buccal) around the esophagus, with identifiable neurons in L. stagnalis facilitating studies of learning and memory.^[29] Reproductive anatomy is hermaphroditic, with a single gonad producing ova and spermatozoa, connected to an oviduct for egg transport, a prostate gland for semen production, and a seminal receptacle for sperm storage.^[26] Accessory glands, including the albumen and capsule glands, secrete nutrients and protective coatings for egg masses, enabling deposition of gelatinous clusters in aquatic environments.^[5]

Habitat and distribution

Global range

The genus Lymnaea is primarily native to the Holarctic region, encompassing Europe, North America, and Asia, where it exhibits its core distribution across temperate freshwater systems. Some species have extended into tropical and subtropical areas, including parts of Africa and South America, likely through ancient dispersals facilitated by geological events and natural colonization pathways. The genus is notably absent from native populations in Australia and Antarctica, with no established indigenous species in these regions.^[30]^[31]^[32] Introduced populations of Lymnaea have significantly expanded the genus's global footprint, often through human-mediated dispersal via shipping, trade, and aquaculture practices. For instance, L. stagnalis was intentionally introduced to New Zealand in the late 19th century to support fish stocking efforts and has since established self-sustaining populations there. Similarly, scattered introductions of various Lymnaea species have occurred in parts of South America, such as Venezuela, Brazil, and Mexico, where they are interpreted as recent anthropogenic translocations rather than natural range extensions.^[33]^[34] Biogeographic patterns within Lymnaea reveal high species diversity concentrated in temperate zones of the Holarctic, reflecting adaptations to seasonal climates and freshwater habitats. Endemism is prominent in isolated ecosystems, such as thermal springs around Lake Baikal in Russia, where certain Radix subgenus species (e.g., R. dolgini) are restricted to these localized environments, and in the Andean highlands of South America, where autochthonous lymnaeids like L. viator exhibit regional specificity amid high-altitude conditions.^[30]^[35]^[36] Fossil evidence underscores a Laurasian origin for Lymnaea, with the earliest records of Lymnaeidae dating to the Late Jurassic period in regions that formed part of the ancient supercontinent Laurasia, including Europe and North America. This paleontological history supports the genus's long-term association with northern temperate landmasses, predating significant Cenozoic diversification.^[37]^[31]

Ecological niches

Species of the genus Lymnaea primarily inhabit stagnant or slow-flowing freshwater environments, such as ponds, marshes, ditches, and the shallow margins of lakes, where they thrive in areas with minimal current.^[5] These snails exhibit tolerance for eutrophic conditions and alkaline waters, with optimal pH ranges typically between 7.0 and 9.0.^[38]^[39] They avoid fast-flowing rivers but can occupy temporary pools during wet periods, reflecting their preference for stable, low-energy aquatic microhabitats.^[40] Abiotic factors play a critical role in defining Lymnaea niches, with temperature tolerances spanning 4–30°C across the genus, though optimal growth and reproduction occur between 15–25°C, as seen in species like Lymnaea stagnalis where rates peak around 18–20°C.^[41]^[42] These pulmonate snails demonstrate remarkable low-oxygen tolerance through air-breathing via a lung-like mantle cavity, allowing survival in hypoxic waters where they surface periodically to respire.^[5] Amphibious species, such as Lymnaea columella, enter aestivation during dry periods, burying themselves in mud to endure desiccation until water returns.^[43] Biotic associations further shape their niches, with Lymnaea species favoring dense aquatic vegetation like submerged plants and algae, which provide essential cover from predators and a primary food source.^[40] Adaptations to these environments include a dependence on calcium-rich waters for robust shell growth, as their aragonite-based shells require sufficient dissolved calcium ions for biomineralization.^[40] Additionally, their sensitivity to pollutants, such as heavy metals and ammonia, positions them as bioindicators of relatively clean freshwater systems, with embryonic stages particularly vulnerable to pH shifts or contaminants.^[39]^[44]

Life history and behavior

Reproduction

Species of the genus Lymnaea are simultaneous hermaphrodites, possessing both male and female reproductive organs within the same individual. This reproductive strategy allows for flexibility, with a strong preference for cross-fertilization achieved through penis intromission during mating, which enhances genetic diversity. However, in cases of isolation or low population density, self-fertilization becomes possible, enabling reproduction without a partner.^[40]^[45] Egg-laying in Lymnaea involves the deposition of jelly-like egg masses, typically containing 20–200 eggs, which are firmly attached to aquatic vegetation or other submerged substrates. These masses provide protection during development, and the incubation period varies from 10 to 30 days, primarily depending on environmental temperature—warmer conditions accelerate hatching. Embryos undergo direct development, hatching as juveniles without a free-swimming larval stage, which is characteristic of pulmonate gastropods in this genus.^[46]^[5] Upon hatching, juveniles closely resemble miniature adults in form and proportion, undergoing gradual growth through incremental shell coiling and tissue expansion. Sexual maturity is typically reached within 4–12 weeks, depending on factors such as food availability and temperature. The overall lifespan ranges from 1 to 4 years in natural and laboratory settings, with individuals capable of multiple reproductive cycles.^[47]^[48] Spawning in Lymnaea is modulated by environmental cues, including photoperiod and population density, which influence the timing and frequency of egg-laying. Longer photoperiods stimulate reproductive activity by promoting the release of ovulation hormones, while higher densities can increase mating opportunities and thus cross-fertilization rates. The genus, especially L. stagnalis, is a prominent model in neuroendocrinology research, where studies elucidate how these triggers regulate gamete production and oviposition through neuroendocrine pathways.^[49]^[50]^[51]

Feeding and movement

Lymnaea species, such as L. stagnalis, are primarily herbivorous, feeding on algae, detritus, and decaying plant matter scraped from substrates using the radula, a chitinous ribbon-like structure equipped with teeth for rasping food.^[52] They exhibit nonselective grazing, consuming a variety of benthic microalgae and cyanobacteria, which support growth rates comparable to or exceeding those from single-prey diets when mixed.^[53] Although mainly herbivorous, these snails display omnivorous tendencies, occasionally engaging in carnivory by consuming smaller conspecifics or their eggs, particularly under resource-limited conditions.^[54] Foraging in Lymnaea typically occurs during nocturnal or crepuscular periods, allowing the snails to avoid diurnal predators while exploiting food resources in low-light conditions.^[55] They follow mucus trails laid by conspecifics to locate food patches efficiently, reducing energy expenditure on exploration and mucus production during movement.^[56] Laboratory studies have demonstrated associative learning capabilities, where Lymnaea can form conditioned taste aversion to initially palatable but subsequently unpalatable foods, such as sucrose paired with tactile stimuli, leading to long-term suppression of feeding responses.^[57] Locomotion in Lymnaea involves gliding across surfaces via the muscular foot, augmented by ciliary beating on the foot's sole for propulsion and mucus lubrication to minimize friction.^[29] This mucociliary mechanism enables variable speeds, typically up to 2 cm/min under normal conditions, with muscular waves contributing to faster gliding when needed.^[58] For respiration, individuals periodically surface to open the pneumostome, a respiratory pore on the mantle, allowing air intake into the lung cavity during periods of low oxygen.^[59] Under stress, such as predation risk, they may burrow into sediment for concealment, altering their typical surface-oriented movement.^[60] Sensory integration plays a key role in directing these behaviors, with chemotaxis guiding foraging toward food odors detected by tentacles, enabling oriented navigation in stagnant or flowing water.^[61] Juveniles exhibit geotaxis, a gravity-mediated orientation that influences habitat settlement by directing downward movement toward suitable benthic substrates.^[29]

Ecological interactions

Trophic role

Lymnaea species function primarily as herbivores and detritivores in freshwater ecosystems, grazing on periphyton, algae, and decaying organic matter to regulate primary production. By consuming benthic algae and biofilms, they help control algal blooms, thereby enhancing water clarity and preventing excessive eutrophication in ponds and lakes.^[62] Their feeding activities also facilitate nutrient recycling; undigested material in feces promotes microbial decomposition and nutrient remineralization, supporting bacterial growth and nutrient availability for other organisms. These snails occupy a basal trophic position but face significant predation pressure from various aquatic and semi-aquatic predators, including fish such as perch (Perca fluviatilis) and three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus), waterfowl like ducks (Anas spp.) and rails (Rallus aquaticus), amphibians, and invertebrates like leeches and crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus).^[63]^[64] In response, Lymnaea exhibit behavioral adaptations such as rapid shell withdrawal triggered by shadows or predator kairomones, reducing exposure to visual and chemical cues of threat.^[65]^[64] In eutrophic waters, Lymnaea populations can achieve high densities, reaching up to 125 individuals per square meter with biomass exceeding 8 g/m², significantly influencing benthic community structure and phytoplankton dynamics through top-down control on algae.^[66] Their abundance contributes to ecosystem services, including biofiltration in constructed ponds where grazing reduces suspended particles and organic load, while shifts in population density serve as indicators of trophic status changes due to nutrient pollution.^[67]^[68]

Symbiotic and parasitic relationships

Lymnaea species host a variety of commensal epibionts on their shells, including algae and protozoan ciliates such as Epistylis niagarae, which attach to the shell surface without apparent harm to the host, potentially benefiting from the snail's mobility for dispersal.^[69] Algal communities on shells of Lymnaea stagnalis and related species consist primarily of diatoms and green algae, forming biofilms that vary by habitat and may provide minor nutritional supplements through grazing by the snail.^[70] Additionally, oligochaetes like Chaetogaster limnaei engage in commensal to mutualistic associations by residing on or within the snail's mantle, where they feed on detritus and occasionally prey on incoming trematode larvae, reducing parasite loads in the host.^[71] Mutualistic bacteria in the gut of Lymnaea contribute to digestion by breaking down complex plant fibers and aiding nutrient absorption, with genera such as Proteobacteria and Bacteroidetes dominating the microbiota and enhancing host fitness under varying environmental conditions.^[72] These microbial symbionts also modulate immune responses, potentially influencing susceptibility to infections.^[73] Non-medical parasites of Lymnaea include trematodes like Echinostoma revolutum, which infect species such as Lymnaea elodes and induce gigantism through accelerated host growth and size-selective mortality, alongside parasitic castration that redirects energy from reproduction to somatic development.^[74] Cestodes and nematodes occasionally parasitize Lymnaea, though less commonly than trematodes, with effects including reduced host mobility and chronic tissue damage.^[75] Trematode infections often lead to behavioral manipulation, such as increased surfacing and activity in Lymnaea stagnalis to facilitate transmission to bird predators, while castration suppresses egg production entirely in heavily infected individuals.^[76]^[77] Parasite prevalence in Lymnaea populations can reach up to 50% in dense, wetland habitats, where high host aggregation promotes transmission and contributes to population regulation by elevating mortality and reducing reproductive output.^[78] This dynamic helps maintain ecological balance, as infected snails serve as vectors to predators, indirectly controlling snail densities. Evolutionary adaptations in Lymnaea against generalist parasites include immune responses such as hemocyte encapsulation, where circulating hemocytes aggregate around invading larvae to form melanin-based capsules, limiting parasite development through phagocytosis and fibrous barriers.^[80] Shell morphology may also adapt, with infected individuals showing altered shapes or increased thickness in some cases to deter further penetration, reflecting host-parasite co-evolution.^[81]

Medical and veterinary significance

Role as intermediate hosts

Lymnaea species serve as the first intermediate hosts in the complex life cycles of numerous digenean trematodes, facilitating the asexual reproduction of the parasite within their tissues. The infection begins when free-swimming miracidium larvae, hatched from eggs excreted in the feces of the definitive vertebrate host, actively penetrate the snail's soft body parts, such as the foot or mantle region, through cytolysis of the epithelial layer using secretory enzymes from apical and accessory glands.^[82] Once inside the connective tissues, the miracidium rapidly metamorphoses into a sporocyst, extruding a new syncytial surface to establish itself, often evading the host's initial hemocyte-mediated immune response.^[83] The sporocysts then undergo asexual multiplication, developing into rediae in some species or directly producing daughter sporocysts, which generate infective cercariae that are eventually shed from the snail into the aquatic environment to seek the next host.^[84] Compatibility between digenean trematodes and Lymnaea hosts is highly specific within the Lymnaeidae family, driven by the parasites' ability to evade or modulate the snail's innate immune defenses, such as phenoloxidase activity and reactive oxygen species production.^[83] For instance, species like Lymnaea truncatula and Radix natalensis exhibit high susceptibility to Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gigantica, respectively, due to compatible physiological barriers and reduced immune recognition, whereas other gastropod families show lower infection success.^[85] Infection rates are modulated by host factors, including snail size—larger individuals (>5 mm shell height) supporting higher parasite burdens and cercarial output—and environmental conditions, with optimal water temperatures of 20-25°C promoting miracidial penetration and larval development while inhibiting host encapsulation responses.^[86] Integration into the trematode life cycle occurs externally, as miracidia hatch in water and target Lymnaea snails based on chemotactic cues, rather than direct ingestion of eggs by the host.^[82] Post-infection, the parasite's intramolluscan development typically spans 4-8 weeks, during which sporocysts migrate to the digestive gland and gonads, leading to host castration and reduced reproductive output as resources are redirected toward parasite proliferation.^[87] Infected snails often display altered behaviors, such as changes in thermoregulation—preferring cooler waters (around 17-18°C) for certain trematodes like notocotylids to extend host lifespan and maximize cercarial release, or warmer conditions (24-26°C) for echinostomes to accelerate transmission—further integrating the parasite's fitness with host ecology.^[88] Lymnaea snails, particularly Lymnaea stagnalis, are widely employed as experimental models to investigate host-parasite co-evolution, leveraging their accessible neurobiology and genetic tractability to dissect immune-parasite interactions.^[89] Techniques such as RNA interference (RNAi) have been applied to silence immune-related genes, like those involved in nitric oxide signaling or hemocyte recruitment, revealing how trematode infections alter host gene expression in the central nervous system and suppress defensive pathways.^[90]^[91] These studies highlight reciprocal evolutionary pressures, where parasite manipulations of host behavior and immunity drive adaptations in both lineages, providing insights into broader molluscan-parasite dynamics.^[92]

Associated diseases and control

_Lymnaea species serve as intermediate hosts for several trematode parasites that cause significant diseases in humans and animals. Fascioliasis, primarily transmitted by Fasciola hepatica and F. gigantica, leads to liver damage in livestock such as sheep and cattle, as well as in humans through ingestion of contaminated aquatic vegetation or water.^[93] Paramphistomiasis, caused by species of the genus Paramphistomum, affects ruminants by attaching to the rumen and reticulum, resulting in anemia, weight loss, and reduced productivity.^[94] Additionally, certain Lymnaea snails, such as L. stagnalis, host avian schistosomes like Trichobilharzia species, whose cercariae penetrate human skin during water contact, causing cercarial dermatitis or swimmer's itch—a pruritic rash that can lead to secondary infections.^[95] The epidemiology of these diseases highlights a substantial global burden, with fascioliasis alone affecting an estimated 2.4 million people across more than 70 countries, predominantly in regions with high livestock density and poor sanitation.^[96] Hotspots include the Andean highlands of Bolivia, where prevalence can reach 21%, as well as parts of Europe and Asia where the disease has emerged or intensified in recent decades.^[97] Climate change exacerbates transmission by altering temperature and precipitation patterns, enabling Lymnaea populations to expand into higher altitudes and new areas, such as southern South America and temperate Europe, thereby increasing the risk of fascioliasis outbreaks.^[98] Control strategies for Lymnaea-transmitted diseases emphasize integrated approaches targeting the snail intermediate hosts and the parasites. Chemical molluscicides, such as niclosamide, are widely used to reduce snail populations in endemic water bodies, often applied selectively to minimize environmental impact.^[99] Biological controls include introducing predator snails or using plant-based molluscicides derived from species like Senna alata, while habitat management involves draining wetlands and fencing waterlogged areas to limit snail habitats and access by livestock.^[100]^[101] Vaccination trials in livestock, such as those using multivalent antigens or recombinant cathepsin L1 from F. hepatica, have shown partial efficacy in reducing fluke burdens in sheep and cattle, offering promise for sustainable control.^[102]^[103] Monitoring efforts rely on regular snail surveys combined with molecular techniques to detect early infections. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays, including duplex and multiplex variants, enable sensitive identification of Fasciola DNA in field-collected Lymnaea species like L. columella and L. truncatula, facilitating targeted interventions.^[104]^[105] Integrated pest management in agriculture incorporates these surveys with environmental modifications and selective treatments to suppress snail populations and interrupt parasite transmission cycles.^[106]

Diversity

Species count and systematics

The genus Lymnaea comprises approximately 100 valid species and subspecies worldwide, although the taxonomy is highly fluid owing to more than 1,500 described names, including over 200 synonyms arising from historical misidentifications and morphological variability. Recent molecular phylogenetic analyses, particularly those conducted after 2018 including major revisions in 2024, have frequently merged cryptic species complexes, thereby reducing the recognized count and refining species boundaries within the genus.^[107]^[108] These revisions highlight the limitations of traditional shell-based morphology and underscore the need for integrated approaches combining genetics and anatomy. A 2024 nomenclator of Lymnaeidae species-group taxa confirms the extensive synonymy and supports ongoing taxonomic refinements.^[107] Systematic challenges persist due to widespread cryptic speciation, often uncovered through cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) barcoding, which identifies genetically distinct lineages indistinguishable by external traits. Hybrid zones, such as those formed by anthropogenic introductions between European and North American populations (e.g., in L. stagnalis), add further complexity by blurring species limits and promoting gene flow. In some contemporary classifications, subgenera like Galba—exemplified by Galba truncatula—have been elevated to full genus status based on molecular evidence of deep phylogenetic divergence. Diversity within Lymnaea is highest in the Palearctic realm, where over 50 species occur, reflecting ancient radiations in temperate freshwater habitats; in contrast, the Neotropics support fewer species, attributed to relatively recent historical dispersals and limited adaptive radiation. Few Lymnaea species are globally threatened, with most maintaining stable populations, but certain local endemics remain vulnerable to habitat degradation from pollution, drainage, and climate change.

Notable species

Lymnaea stagnalis, commonly known as the great pond snail, is the largest species in the genus, with a shell height reaching up to 60 mm. Native to Eurasia, it inhabits slow-flowing rivers, canals, ponds, and lakes, and has been introduced to North America and Australia, where it often establishes invasive populations. This species is a prominent model organism in neurobiology, particularly for research on classical conditioning, learning mechanisms, and environmental toxicology. It is also popular in aquariums as a hardy pet due to its ease of maintenance and tolerance of various water conditions.^[6]^[109]^[89] Galba truncatula (formerly classified as Lymnaea truncatula), the dwarf pond snail, is a small species measuring about 10 mm in shell height. It thrives in amphibious habitats such as wet pastures, shallow ditches, and marshy areas across Europe, favoring moist mud and temporary water bodies. As the primary intermediate host for the liver fluke Fasciola hepatica, it plays a critical role in the transmission of fascioliasis, a major veterinary disease affecting livestock, prompting targeted control measures in grazing areas.^[110]^[111]^[112] Stagnicola palustris (formerly Lymnaea palustris), or the marsh pond snail, is a North American species with a variable shell form, typically 20-30 mm in height, adapted to diverse wetland environments including swamps, marshes, and ephemeral ponds. It contributes to wetland ecology by facilitating nutrient cycling through grazing on algae and detritus, and serves as an intermediate host for avian schistosomes, which can cause swimmer's itch in humans.^[113]^[114]^[115] Other notable species include Lymnaea peregra (now often Radix balthica), the wandering snail, which is common in UK ponds and ditches, reaching 15-25 mm and known for its tolerance of polluted waters. Lymnaea auricularia (now Radix auricularia), the ear snail, features a distinctive auricle-shaped shell up to 30 mm and is distributed across Eurasia, preferring large stagnant waters like lakes and canals. Regional endemics such as Lymnaea fuscus (now Stagnicola fuscus) occupy marshy and temporary habitats in Europe, with shells around 20 mm, and occasionally act as secondary hosts for trematodes. These species vary in size from 10 mm in G. truncatula to 60 mm in L. stagnalis, with habitat preferences ranging from permanent ponds to seasonal wetlands, and roles spanning ecological grazers to disease vectors.^[116]^[117]^[118]

References

[1]
Lymnaea - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Lymnaeids participate in the life cycles of at least 71 trematode species belonging to 13 different families whose members use birds and both domestic and ...
[2]
Lymnaeidae | INFORMATION - Animal Diversity Web
This family of pulmonate freshwater snails is found world-wide, and contains many species. It is most diverse in northern North America.<|control11|><|separator|>
[3]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123850287000111
[4]
The pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis | EvoDevo | Full Text
Dec 4, 2020 · Lymnaea stagnalis is a freshwater snail, commonly known as the great pond snail. It belongs to the phylum Mollusca, class Gastropoda and family Lymnaeidae.Missing: genus | Show results with:genus
[5]
Review Lymnaea stagnalis as a freshwater model invertebrate for ...
Lymnaea stagnalis, also referred to as great or common pond snail, is an abundant and widespread invertebrate species colonizing temperate limnic systems.Review · Abstract · The Great Pond Snail Lymnaea...Missing: genus | Show results with:genus
[6]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969719310137
[7]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1567134801000193
[8]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124158238000204
[9]
http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=160345
[10]
World Register of Marine Species - Lymnaeidae Rafinesque, 1815
Apr 5, 2013 · Biota · Animalia (Kingdom) · Mollusca (Phylum) · Gastropoda (Class) · Heterobranchia (Subclass) · Euthyneura (Infraclass) · Tectipleura (Subterclass) ...Missing: hierarchy | Show results with:hierarchy
[11]
MolluscaBase - Lymnaea (Kazakhlymnaea) Kruglov & Starobogatov ...
Lymnaea (Kazakhlymnaea) Kruglov & Starobogatov, 1984 ; Animalia (Kingdom) ; Mollusca (Phylum) ; Gastropoda (Class) ; Heterobranchia (Subclass) ; Euthyneura ( ...
[12]
Bridging gaps in the molecular phylogeny of the Lymnaeidae ...
Dec 9, 2010 · This date is reasonable given the fossil record suggests the divergence of Physidae-Lymnaeidae took place near the Jurassic period (~200-145 Mya ...Missing: Paleocene | Show results with:Paleocene
[13]
Phylogenetic Analysis of Lymnaeid Snails Based on 18s rDNA ...
The 18s rDNA sequences of the six most common European Lymnaeidae species (Mollusca: Gastropoda: Basommatophora) have been obtained by direct PCR cycle ...
[14]
It's all greek(and latin)to me or what do those snail names mean?
An apple living in a swamp,to put it simply. Here is another one:Lymnaea stagnalis: limnaios is greek for pertaining to marshes;stagnum is latin for pool or ...
[15]
Lymnaea Lamarck, 1799 - MolluscaBase
original description Lamarck, J.B.M. (1799). Prodrome d'une nouvelle classification des coquilles, comprenant une rédaction appropriée des caractères ...
[16]
William Benson and the golden age of malacology in British India
Dec 5, 2022 · Benson, W.H. 1843. Description of Camptoceras, a new genus of the Lymnaeadae, allied to Ancylus, and of Tricula, a new type of form allied ...Missing: Lymnaea | Show results with:Lymnaea<|separator|>
[17]
European Lymnaeidae (Mollusca: Gastropoda), intermediate hosts ...
This paper aims to review the European Lymnaeidae basing on the second internal transcribed spacer ITS-2 of the nuclear ribosomal DNA.Missing: Paleocene | Show results with:Paleocene
[18]
Species Richness, Molecular Taxonomy and Biogeography of the ...
Jul 25, 2018 · The pond snails (Lymnaeidae Rafinesque, 1815) represent one of the most diverse and practically important families of freshwater snails, almost ...
[19]
[PDF] The Fossil Record of the Lymnaeidae: Revisiting a 200-Myr-Long ...
Abstract Here, I present a review of the global pre-Pleistocene fresh- to brackish- water fossil record of the gastropod family Lymnaeidae based on a thorough.Missing: divergence | Show results with:divergence
[20]
Identifying British freshwater snails: Family: Lymnaeidae (1)
The shells of this family do not possess an operculum. Many empty freshwater snail shells may be found without an operculum. If your specimen does not have ...
[21]
A comparative study of shell variation in two morphotypes of ...
Sep 18, 2014 · The great pond snail, Lymnaea stagnalis (L., 1758), is a classical model species for studies of different aspects of conchological variation in ...3 Results · 4 Discussion · 4.1 Taxonomic Implications...
[22]
[PDF] Comparative shell morphology of Lymnaea (Bullastra) cumingiana ...
Qualitative shell characteristics were also noted, namely: size, color, shape, surface markings, shell composition, sutures, spire, columella, aperture shape ...
[23]
[PDF] European species of the family Lymnaeidae (Gastropoda: Pulmonata
Synonyms: Lymnaea glabra (O.F. MÜLLER, 1774); Leptolymnaea glabra. (O.F. MÜLLER, 1774); Stagnicola glabra (O.F. MÜLLER, 1774); Galba glabra. (O.F. MÜLLER ...
[24]
On the Ultrastructure and Function of Rhogocytes from the Pond ...
We provide here additional details on the structure and hemocyanin biosynthesis of rhogocytes, and on their response in animals under cadmium and starvation ...
[25]
Evidence for a hemoprotein in glial cells of the pond snail, Lymnaea ...
L. stagnalis is interesting in that its central ganglia are red-pigmented (suggestive of a hemoglobin) yet it uses hemocyanin as its main respiratory pigment.
[26]
Lymnaea - Scholarpedia
Jan 11, 2008 · Lymnaea stagnalis is a pond snail, a model molluscan system used to study neurobiological problems, with a compact central nervous system.Missing: etymology | Show results with:etymology
[27]
Species Richness, Molecular Taxonomy and Biogeography of the ...
Jul 25, 2018 · Type genus: Lymnaea Lamarck, 1799. Subfamily Amphipepleinae Pini, 1877. Type genus: Amphipeplea Nilsson, 1822 = Myxas G.W. Sowerby I, 1822.
[28]
Molecular systematics of the freshwater snail family Lymnaeidae ...
Aug 6, 2025 · A partial, tentative bio-geographical hypothesis was derived from this phylogeny. We propose a Laurasian origin for lymnaeids in the late ...Missing: earliest | Show results with:earliest
[29]
Examining the phylogeny of the Australasian Lymnaeidae ...
The Lymnaeidae have a convoluted taxonomic history, with about 1800 ... fossil record. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, Volume 114, 2017, pp ...
[30]
Cryptic intermediate snail host of the liver fluke Fasciola hepatica in ...
Dec 4, 2019 · The scattered occurrences in South America have been interpreted as recent introductions [14].
[31]
Lymnaeidae - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Lymnaeidae refers to a family of small freshwater snails that serve as intermediate hosts for liver flukes, particularly species like Galba truncatula, ...
[32]
Two Radix spp. (Gastropoda: Lymnaeidae) endemic to thermal ...
Aug 2, 2017 · Two Radix spp. (Gastropoda: Lymnaeidae) endemic to thermal springs around Lake Baikal represent ecotypes of the widespread Radix auricularia ...
[33]
Characterisation of fascioliasis lymnaeid intermediate hosts from ...
The lymnaeid fauna of mainland Chile shows to be poor, including only two authochthonous species, Lymnaea viator and Pectinidens diaphana, and a third ...<|separator|>
[34]
The Fossil Record of the Lymnaeidae: Revisiting a 200-Myr-Long ...
Here, I present a review of the global pre-Pleistocene fresh- to brackish-water fossil record of the gastropod family Lymnaeidae based on a thorough ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[35]
Effect of environmental factors on the fecundity, hatchability and ...
Lymnaea acuminata breeds round the year. The effect of pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide, light/dark period and clean/polluted water on the ...Missing: genus habitat preferences vegetation adaptations<|control11|><|separator|>
[36]
A Lymnaea stagnalis Embryo Test for Toxicity Bioindication ... - MDPI
Tolerance of various mollusk species to pH in acidic waters is changeable and ranges from 6.5 to 4.0. On average, in water of pH below 5.4 populations of ...Missing: aestivation | Show results with:aestivation
[37]
The unlimited potential of the great pond snail, Lymnaea stagnalis
Jun 16, 2020 · They are light to dark brown in colour and relatively large for pond snail species, with their spiral shells reaching lengths of up to 55 mm ( ...Ecotoxicology And Risk... · Combining Evolution And... · Author ResponseMissing: genus | Show results with:genus
[38]
Effects of Temperature on Growth and Reproduction of Aquatic Snails
The data show that the lymnaeids grow best at about 18°C, with egg production better but viability reduced at 22°C and above.
[39]
The effect of temperature on herbivory by the omnivorous ectotherm ...
Jun 30, 2016 · The test temperatures 15, 20, and 25°C were chosen because the optimal temperature for the growth and reproduction of L. stagnalis is around 20° ...
[40]
[PDF] Population Structure and Dynamics of Lymnaea columella (Say ...
Although no snails were found on or beneath the soil during the dry period, self- burial rather than immigration seems to be a better explanation for their ...
[41]
(PDF) A Lymnaea stagnalis Embryo Test for Toxicity Bioindication of ...
Oct 16, 2025 · Our study showed that the early developmental stages of Lymnaea stagnalis are very sensitive bioindicators, making it possible to detect even ...Missing: aestivation | Show results with:aestivation
[42]
Sex role alternation in the simultaneously hermaphroditic pond snail ...
We studied the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis in which sexual isolation increases male sexual drive. Sex role alternation occurred only in pairs where both ...
[43]
The pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis - PMC - PubMed Central
Dec 4, 2020 · Lymnaea stagnalis is a freshwater snail, commonly known as the great pond snail. It belongs to the phylum Mollusca, class Gastropoda and family ...Missing: porosity | Show results with:porosity
[44]
Development of an embryo toxicity test with the pond snail Lymnaea ...
Oct 1, 2012 · The snails are hermaphrodites and sexual maturity occurs about three months after egg laying.
[45]
Lymnaea stagnalis as a freshwater model invertebrate for ... - PubMed
Jun 15, 2019 · Lymnaea stagnalis individuals are easily maintained in laboratory conditions, with a lifespan of about two years. The snails are hermaphrodites ...
[46]
The Biology of Lymnaea peregra (Muller) (Gastropoda:Pulmonata
... life history traits, such as growth rate, age of maturation and fecundity. ... Effect of temperature on hatching and growth of Lymnaea stagnalis aspressa.
[47]
Photoperiodic control of electrophysiological properties of the caudo ...
Jun 9, 2021 · Egg laying in the pond snail, Lymnaea stagnalis is regulated by the photoperiod; long-day conditions (16L8D) promote egg laying whereas medium-day conditions ( ...Missing: spawning environmental density neuroendocrinology
[48]
Mating rate influences female reproductive investment in a ...
At high mating rates, the promiscuous hermaphroditic pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis experiences depressed female fecundity mediated by seminal fluid compounds. ...
[49]
Neuro-Endocrine Control of Reproduction in Hermaphroditic ...
I provide a comprehensive overview of the neuro-endocrine control of male and female reproductive processes in freshwater snails.
[50]
High dietary quality of non-toxic cyanobacteria for a benthic grazer ...
May 18, 2017 · We conducted a laboratory experiment in which we fed the herbivorous freshwater gastropod Lymnaea ... algae and cyanobacteria by herbivores.
[51]
The Effect of Diet Mixing on a Nonselective Herbivore - ResearchGate
Jul 8, 2016 · We conducted a laboratory experiment in which a nonselective model grazer, the freshwater gastropod Lymnaea stagnalis, was fed benthic green ...
[52]
Effects of snail grazing and nutrient release on growth of the ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis is an omnivore that includes macrophytes in its diet (Elger et al. 2007). Snails prefer filamentous algae over ...
[53]
Interactive effects of risk and parasitism on the circadian rhythm of ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Four experiments were serially carried out conducted to study foraging activity in the freshwater gastropod Lymnaea stagnalis in the absence ...
[54]
The protein and volatile components of trail mucus in the Common ...
May 27, 2021 · Mucus trail following as a mate-searching strategy ... Trail following differs between wild and captive-reared snails, Lymnaea stagnalis.
[55]
Relationship between the grades of a learned aversive-feeding ...
The pond snail Lymnaea learns conditioned taste aversion (CTA) and remembers not to respond to food substances that initially cause a feeding response.Missing: unpalatable | Show results with:unpalatable
[56]
Muscular Waves Contribute to Gliding Rate in the Freshwater ...
Feb 16, 2010 · This study revises the mechanisms of ciliary locomotion and demonstrates muscular contribution to locomotion rate in Lymnaea stagnalis.Missing: pneumostome burrowing speed
[57]
Lymnaea stagnalis - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
To perform aerial respiration, the snail moves to the water surface and when the pneumostome is in contact with the atmosphere, it opens fully. Then, the mantle ...
[58]
Preliminary Study of Multiple Stress Response Reactions in the ...
Grazing, burrowing and bulldozing activities of snails on sediments bed induced changes in physicochemical properties of substratum and modulated the ...
[59]
Navigational behaviour of Lymnaea stagnalis in response to ...
Orientation during chemotaxis requires chemical gradient detection using spatial comparisons of concentration. Chemotaxis in stagnant or laminar conditions ...
[60]
Importance of Herbivore Food Preference and Algal Competitive ...
Moderate grazing allows inferior algal species to persist and intense grazing eliminates most individuals and species. In contrast to pools, on emergent ...
[61]
Great Pond Snail (Lymnaea stagnalis): A Key Aquatic Species in ...
Nov 18, 2024 · After mating, each snail lays gelatinous egg masses on submerged plants or other surfaces in the water. Each egg mass can contain up to 50 eggs, ...
[62]
Predator detection in Lymnaea stagnalis
Dec 1, 2007 · Lymnaea stagnalis responds to both fish and crayfish predator-released kairomones and, depending on the specific predator detected,utilizes a ...
[63]
The shadow-induced withdrawal response, dermal photoreceptors ...
SUMMARYThe shadow-induced withdrawal response in Lymnaea stagnalis is mediated by dermal photoreceptors located on the foot, mantle cavity, and skin.
[64]
Life history and population ecology of Radix swinhoei (Lymnaeidae ...
The annual mean density and biomass were 125.2 ind./m2 and 8.54 g/m2, respectively. The highest average density and biomass occurred at sampling site 2 ...
[65]
The usefulness of Lymnaea stagnalis L. as a biological indicator in ...
Therefore Lymnaea stagnalis might be useful as a test organism in future environmental toxicity studies, although these kinds of experiments have to be ...Missing: ecosystem biofiltration
[66]
The Appropriateness of Using Aquatic Snails as Bioindicators of ...
Jan 6, 2021 · Several ecotoxicological studies have been reported which used freshwater snail species as bioindicators [25]. For instance, Lymnaea stagnalis ...
[67]
(PDF) Occurrence of an Epibiont ciliate, Epistylis niagarae on the ...
Oct 3, 2025 · Occurrence of an Epibiont ciliate, Epistylis niagarae on the freshwater snail (Lymnaea luteola) collected from pond.
[68]
Ecological and geographical characteristics of algal communities on ...
The aim of the research was to determine the ecological characteristics of algal communities on gastropod shells: Lymnaea stagnalis, L. auricularia and ...
[69]
Drivers of symbiont diversity in freshwater snails: a comparative ...
We encountered a total of 24 taxa of symbionts, including both obligatory parasites such as digenetic trematodes as well as more commensal, mutualistic, or ...
[70]
Gut microbiota in parasite-transmitting gastropods
Nov 24, 2023 · Studies have revealed that gut bacteria in gastropods are associated with various biological aspects, such as growth, immunity and host–parasite interactions.
[71]
Review Snail microbiota and snail–schistosome interactions: axenic ...
This review summarizes the characteristics of symbiotic microbes in intermediate snail hosts and describes their interactions with snails, affecting snail ...Review · Highlights · Microbiota In The...
[72]
Echinostoma revolutum parasitism of Lymnaea elodes snails
Furthermore, we show that gigantism occurs among experimentally infected snails due to an accelerated growth rate and size-selective mortality following an ...
[73]
a focus on snail-transmitted parasitic diseases | Parasitology Research
Dec 12, 2023 · A category of parasitic infections, known as snail-transmitted parasitic diseases (STPDs), is harmful to humans and animals and is mainly driven by various ...
[74]
The influence of trematode infections on reproductive potential of ...
Aug 5, 2025 · The effect of larval trematodes on the growth and burrowing behaviour ... manipulations of the host's behavioral repertory are achieved.
[75]
Parasitic castration by the digenian trematode Allopodocotyle sp ...
Jun 26, 2006 · Infection of molluscs by digenean trematode parasites typically results in the repression of reproduction – the so-called parasitic castration.Missing: behavioral manipulation
[76]
Prevalence of infection as a predictor of multiple genotype infection ...
Sep 17, 2012 · Our results show that MGIs are common in aquatic snails with up to 90% of the infected snails carrying MGIs. Parasite prevalence is a good ...Missing: impact | Show results with:impact
[77]
Infestation of Lymnaea stagnalis by digenean flukes in the Jeziorak ...
Aug 7, 2025 · The logistic regression has shown that parasite prevalence increased ... sample, more than 50% of them were infested (Table 1). Another ...
[78]
Cellular and humoral immune response between snail hosts and ...
Nov 10, 2022 · Introduction. Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship between two species in which one species (parasite) is physically and physiologically ...
[79]
Differences in shell shape of naturally infected Lymnaea stagnalis (L ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Greater variability of shell shape was observed among snails parasitized with digenean larvae than in nonparasitized ones. Snails infected with ...Missing: thickening | Show results with:thickening
[80]
the penetration of the miracidium of Fasciola hepatica into its snail ...
Apr 6, 2009 · The miracidium metamorphoses into the sporocyst as it penetrates the snail, by forming a new body surface. The material for this is extruded ...
[81]
Digenean larvae—the cause and beneficiaries of the changes in ...
Jan 7, 2015 · This study investigates parasite-induced changes in the thermoregulatory behavior of first intermediate hosts of Digenea (i.e. Lymnaea ...
[82]
Freshwater snails as the intermediate host of trematodes in Iran
In addition, the most important intermediate hosts of liver flukes are members of the genus Lymnaea, which may be either aquatic or amphibious [7].
[83]
Activation of the immune defence of the freshwater snail Lymnaea ...
The lack of responses in the group of snails injected with trematode-infected gonad tissue is unexpected because a strong immune response could be assumed ...
[84]
Susceptibility of lymnaeid snails to Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola ...
Mar 14, 2025 · Natural infection results showed a strong intermediate host specificity between the two Fasciola spp., where G. truncatula and R. natalensis are ...
[85]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11913016/
[86]
Microhabitat differences surrounding a pond affects the distribution ...
May 14, 2025 · mon among these types of studies (Goater et al., 1989). Most trematode species have pre-patent periods of 4 – 8. weeks, indicating that a ...
[87]
The unlimited potential of the great pond snail, Lymnaea stagnalis
Jun 16, 2020 · This article aims to summarise the applicability of L. stagnalis and points out that this multipurpose model organism is an excellent, contemporary choice.Missing: fossil Paleocene Laurasian
[88]
Altered gene expression in the host brain caused by a trematode ...
A cDNA library of the brain of parasitized Lymnaea was constructed and differentially screened by using mRNA from the brain of both parasitized and ...
[89]
Sympatric versus allopatric evolutionary contexts shape differential ...
Mar 20, 2019 · Selective pressures between hosts and their parasites can result in reciprocal evolution or adaptation of specific life history traits.
[90]
Foodborne parasitic infections: Fascioliasis (Liver fluke)
Jun 22, 2021 · At least, 2.4 million people are infected in more than 70 countries worldwide, with several million at risk, especially where sheep or cattle ...
[91]
Changes in the Prevalence of Natural Paramphistomum Cercariae ...
Feb 3, 2022 · Paramphistomosis is a neglected ruminant parasitic disease caused by trematodes known as Paramphistomum, which has a diheteroxenic life cycle ...Missing: dermatitis | Show results with:dermatitis
[92]
Zoonotic Threats: The (Re)emergence of Cercarial Dermatitis, Its ...
The most commonly observed intermediate hosts are freshwater snails, such as planorbids, lymnaeids, and physids [7]. Lymnaea stagnalis is the most frequently ...
[93]
Neglected tropical diseases: Fascioliasis
Aug 15, 2025 · It has been estimated that over 2.4 million people are affected worldwide (1). How does climate change affect fascioliasis transmission?
[94]
The global prevalence of human fascioliasis: a systematic review ...
Jul 8, 2023 · The prevalence in South America, Africa, and Asia was 9.0%, 4.8%, and 2.0%, respectively. The highest prevalence was found in Bolivia (21%), ...
[95]
Global warming induced spread of the highest human fascioliasis ...
Oct 21, 2024 · Warmer temperatures have enabled lymnaeids to colonize formerly unsuitable higher altitudes, outside the endemicity area verified in the 1990s.
[96]
Molluscicidal property of symbiotic bacteria associated with ...
Using chemicals remains one of the most efficient methods to control the snail. The molluscicides recommended by the World Health Organization is niclosamide ...
[97]
Molluscicidal activities of Senna alata silver nanoparticles against ...
Jul 16, 2025 · Molluscicides have historically played a crucial role in controlling Lymnaea snail populations to mitigate the spread of fascioliasis.
[98]
Combined and alternate control of Lymnaea truncatula Müller
A combined control of Lymnaea truncatula with two applications of a 1-mg/l cupric chloride solution in April and the use of predatory snails in June ...
[99]
Efficacy of a multivalent vaccine against Fasciola hepatica infection ...
Jan 28, 2021 · In this work we report the protection found in a vaccination trial performed in sheep with two different vaccines composed each one by a cocktail of antigens.
[100]
Protection of cattle against a natural infection of Fasciola hepatica by ...
Our results demonstrate the potential of rFhCL1 as a first-generation vaccine for bovine fasciolosis under natural field conditions. Section snippets.
[101]
PCR diagnosis of Fasciola hepatica in field-collected Lymnaea ...
PCR diagnosis of Fasciola hepatica in field-collected Lymnaea columella and Lymnaea viatrix snails ... parasite. MeSH terms. Animals; Argentina; Base Sequence ...
[102]
An optimized DNA extraction and multiplex PCR for the detection of ...
Aug 7, 2025 · ... parasite relationships between new combinations of Fasciola and Lymnaea spp. ... snails, dangerous parasites such as F. gigantica of cattle ...
[103]
Chemical Control of Snail Vectors as an Integrated Part of a Strategy ...
Sep 20, 2024 · Snails can be controlled through various methods: environmental control, biological control, and chemical control. The chemical control of ...
[104]
Identifying British freshwater snails: Lymnaeidae with tall spires (3)
Size: Height: 35 – 50 mm. Breadth: 18 – 28 mm. Habitat: It is found in slow-flowing rivers, canals, ponds and lakes, throughout the British Isles.
[105]
Galba (gastropod) truncatula - GBIF
Galba truncatula can live at a very high altitude such as in the Northern Bolivian Altiplano (an area located between 3800 and 4100 m high altitude).
[106]
Environmental influences on the distribution and ecology of the fluke ...
Dec 3, 2024 · Further research is needed to clarify the impact of biotic and abiotic factors on the snail to create robust risk assessments of fluke ...
[107]
Galba truncatula (O.F. Müller, 1774) (Gastropoda, Lymnaeidae)
It ensures the larval development of this digenean and is therefore an indispensable link in the transmission of the disease due to this parasite.
[108]
Species Profile - Stagnicola palustris
Native Range: Very wide international palearctic distribution, including much of Europe (from Morocco to Norway). May originate from Eurasia (Correa et al ...
[109]
[PDF] Marsh pondsnail (Stagnicola palustris) - U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Native Range Burch (1989) cites New England west to Oregon and California, and south to New Page 2 2 Mexico; it is also widely distributed in the Canadian ...
[110]
Scratching the Itch: Updated Perspectives on the Schistosomes ...
Some snails, such as Stagnicola palustris in European waters are not particularly good hosts for avian schistosomes; what does this or other refractory species ...
[111]
The Biology of Lymnaea peregra (Muller) (Gastropoda:Pulmonata
Aug 7, 2025 · The freshwater snail, Lymnaea peregra (Muller) is widely distributed in the UK and is probably the commonest species in Europe.
[112]
Radix auricularia | NatureServe Explorer
This is a truly globally distributed species occurring across all of Europe, Russia, in eastern Asia, southern China and northern French Indo-China, India, ...
[113]
Lymnaea palustris and Lymnaea fuscus are potential but uncommon ...
Aug 29, 2013 · Increased parasite-induced mortality in juvenile snails infected with trematodes is common [39], and is usually related to i) mechanical ...