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Manning Clark

Charles Manning Hope Clark (3 March 1915 – 23 May 1991) was an Australian historian whose six-volume A History of Australia (1962–1987) provided an ambitious, narrative-driven account of the nation's development from pre-colonial times to the mid-20th century, emphasizing ideological struggles between Protestantism, Catholicism, and the Enlightenment, alongside themes of character, dispossession of Indigenous peoples, and national identity formation.^[1]^[2]
Born in Sydney to an Anglican clergyman father, Clark was educated at the University of Melbourne, where he earned a BA with honors in 1938, and later at Oxford's Balliol College, interrupted by World War II service teaching at Geelong Grammar School.^[1] His academic career culminated as the inaugural Professor of History at the Canberra University College (later part of the Australian National University), a position he held from 1949 until his retirement in 1974, after which he served as emeritus professor.^[1]^[2] Among his achievements, Clark received the Companion of the Order of Australia in 1975, was named Australian of the Year in 1980, and became a Fellow of the Australian Academy of the Humanities in 1981, reflecting his role in elevating Australian historiography to international prominence through influences from literary giants like Dostoevsky and Tolstoy.^[1]
Clark's historiographical style incorporated dramatic elements, including occasional fictionalized details and a focus on inner psychological motivations, which drew both acclaim for its epic scope and sharp criticism for factual inaccuracies, overwrought prose, and interpretive pessimism—labeling Australian progress as marred by tragedy and failure.^[1] Controversies intensified posthumously, with allegations of fabricated anecdotes (such as a disputed 1938 Bonn incident) and unproven claims of Soviet sympathies from his 1950s travels, fueling debates over his promotion of a "black armband" view of history that conservatives argued unduly emphasized colonial flaws while downplaying achievements.^[1] Despite such critiques, which highlighted empirical shortcomings amid broader academic defenses potentially influenced by prevailing institutional orientations, Clark's work endures as a foundational, agenda-setting text in Australian studies, commemorated through institutions like Manning Clark House at ANU.^[1]

Early Life and Education

Family Background and Childhood

Charles Manning Hope Clark was born on 3 March 1915 in Burwood, Sydney, the second of three children to Charles Hervey William Clark, an English-born Anglican clergyman from a working-class family in Gravesend, Kent, and his wife Catherine Hope Clark (née Mackintosh), a schoolteacher descended from early pastoralists and missionaries in New South Wales.^[1] His father had trained for the ministry at Wycliffe Hall, Oxford, and adhered to Anglo-Catholic traditions within the Church of England, while his mother embodied a pious Protestant outlook.^[1] The Clark family's circumstances reflected the modest income typical of an Anglican vicar's household, marked by "genteel poverty" as they relocated frequently between parishes in Sydney and Melbourne during Manning's early years. These moves exposed him to varied urban and suburban settings in New South Wales and Victoria, fostering an initial awareness of Australia's social and regional divides, compounded by the underlying schism between his parents' differing religious emphases and class origins.^[1] Childhood activities included outdoor pursuits on Phillip Island, where Clark joined his father in playing cricket, fishing, and rabbit-shooting, activities that evoked a bucolic idyll amid the family's itinerant clerical life.^[1] The household's devout Anglican environment, centered on his father's ministry, emphasized faith, moral discipline, and a sense of missionary heritage linked to his mother's forebears, shaping early impressions of ethical and historical continuity in Australian settlement.^[1]

Formal Education and Early Influences

Clark attended Melbourne Grammar School on a scholarship before entering the University of Melbourne in 1934, where he studied history and political science at Trinity College. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1938, earning first-class honours.^[1]^[3] In 1938, Clark departed Australia for Oxford University on a scholarship to Balliol College, intending to pursue advanced studies in history with a focus on imperial themes. His time there was curtailed by the outbreak of World War II; he married fellow student Dymphna Lodewyckx, daughter of a Belgian academic, and undertook travels in Europe, including a visit to Nazi Germany shortly before the war's commencement. These experiences exposed him to the ideological tensions of interwar Europe, including the rise of totalitarianism and the lingering effects of economic hardship, which later informed his critical perspective on liberal democratic systems.^[4] Returning to Australia in 1940 amid the global conflict, Clark, deemed medically unfit for military service, took up a teaching position at Geelong Grammar School, an elite institution, where he instructed history to privileged students until 1943. This role immersed him in Australia's social divides, contrasting the affluence of his pupils with broader wartime privations and pre-war depression legacies, nurturing an early disillusionment with unchecked capitalism and prompting reflections on alternative societal models.^[2]

Academic Career

Early Appointments and Teaching Roles

Following his return to Australia in July 1940, Clark was appointed to teach history at Geelong Grammar School, a position he held until 1943.^[2]^[5] In this role, he instructed secondary students and contributed to the school's extracurricular activities, including coaching cricket.^[1] In 1944, Clark joined the University of Melbourne as a lecturer in political science, later transferring to the history department in 1945.^[1] Under the guidance of department head Max Crawford, he developed and taught undergraduate courses focused on Australian history, addressing the scarcity of specialized instruction in the field at the time.^[1] These appointments provided Clark with foundational experience in both secondary and tertiary education, honing his pedagogical approach amid Australia's post-war emphasis on national identity and historical self-understanding.^[1] By 1949, this groundwork positioned him for his subsequent role at the Canberra University College.^[1]

Establishment at the Australian National University

In 1949, Clark was appointed the foundation Professor of History at Canberra University College, a teaching institution that merged into the Australian National University's School of General Studies upon amalgamation on 1 October 1960, thereby establishing him as a key figure in ANU's early undergraduate history program.^[1]^[3] As head of the Department of History from October 1960 until December 1971, Clark oversaw its expansion amid ANU's transformation into a premier national research university during the 1960s, recruiting scholars such as Ken Inglis and John Molony to strengthen expertise in Australian and related fields.^[1]^[6] Clark's leadership emphasized rigorous scholarship grounded in primary sources, exemplified by his editorial work on Select Documents in Australian History, 1788–1850 (1950) and its companion volume to 1900 (1955), which compiled settler-era records to illuminate colonial society's formative dynamics, including governance, economy, and social structures.^[2]^[7] These efforts informed departmental research priorities, fostering analysis of Australia's settler foundations through archival evidence rather than secondary interpretations alone. He mentored postgraduate students, including Stuart Macintyre, whose doctoral work under Clark advanced critical examinations of labor and political history within the settler context.^[1] In 1972, Clark resigned as head to assume Australia's first dedicated Chair of Australian History at ANU, a position he held until retirement in 1974, consolidating the department's focus on national historiography as ANU solidified its role in postgraduate training and interdisciplinary research.^[8] This appointment underscored his institutional legacy in elevating Australian historical studies from peripheral status to a core academic discipline, supported by ANU's expanding resources for source-based inquiry into colonial and post-settler developments.^[1]

Major Works

A History of Australia: Initial Volumes and Methodology

The first volume of A History of Australia, subtitled From the Earliest Times to the Age of Macquarie, appeared in 1962 from Melbourne University Press, spanning pre-colonial Indigenous societies, the British arrival in 1788, and the foundational decades of settlement through the Macquarie governorship ending in 1821.^[3]^[9] Clark framed this era as a tragic unfolding of European inheritance in an alien land, where convict transportation and authoritarian governance clashed with aspirations for reform and moral redemption, setting patterns of conflict between tradition and progress.^[10] Volume II, New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land, 1822–1838, followed in 1968, detailing the expansion of pastoral settlement, abolition of transportation in New South Wales by 1840, and administrative reforms under governors like Richard Bourke, which introduced elements of representative government amid wool-driven economic growth and frontier violence.^[9]^[11] The narrative emphasized inheritance of British class structures alongside nascent quests for local autonomy, portraying these years as a bridge from penal origins to proto-civilizational stirrings marked by both achievement and ethical failings.^[10] Volume III, The Beginning of an Australian Civilization, 1824–1851, published in 1973, chronicled the intensification of colonial maturity through gold rushes commencing in 1851, the separation of Victoria from New South Wales in 1851, and early democratic experiments like elective councils, while underscoring the collapse of idealistic visions for harmonious society under pressures of rapid immigration and resource booms.^[12]^[13] Clark depicted these developments as a pivotal shift toward self-conscious nation-building, fraught with utopian disappointments as egalitarian rhetoric yielded to materialistic and sectional interests.^[10] Clark's methodological innovation lay in subordinating rigid empiricism—such as exhaustive archival tabulation—to a literary narrative style that evoked dramatic tension and human agency, drawing on Hegelian dialectics of historical forces and Tocqueville's insights into democratic pathologies for causal explanations of colonial evolution from dependency to incipient independence.^[14]^[15] This approach prioritized thematic coherence and psychological realism over positivist detachment, enabling analysis of how inherited European intellectual currents interacted with local contingencies to drive institutional change.^[1]^[14]

Meeting Soviet Man

In November 1958, Manning Clark joined fellow Australian writers Judah Waten and James Devaney for a three-week visit to the Soviet Union, organized under the auspices of the Fellowship of Australian Writers and hosted by the Union of Soviet Writers.^[3] The itinerary, funded by Soviet authorities, included stops in Moscow and other locations, where the delegation engaged in guided tours, factory inspections, and discussions with intellectuals and officials.^[16] ^[17] Clark's firsthand observations from these interactions formed the basis of Meeting Soviet Man, a slim volume published by Angus & Robertson in 1960.^[16] The book recounts specific encounters with Soviet citizens, portraying daily life in Moscow through details of urban routines, public transport, and communal facilities amid post-Stalin recovery efforts.^[18] It highlights industrial sites visited, such as steel mills and machinery plants, emphasizing output figures like annual production quotas and technological installations demonstrated during the tour.^[19] Throughout, Clark reflects on cultural transformations, noting the shift toward state-driven secularism and material provision, which he contrasted with emerging patterns of consumerism and irreligion in Australia based on conversations with Soviet academics.^[19] These accounts convey an appreciation for the Soviet system's capacity to mobilize resources for collective welfare, framed against the backdrop of Cold War ideological divides, though Clark also recorded instances of bureaucratic rigidity observed in person.^[17]

Later Volumes of A History of Australia and Other Writings

Volume IV of A History of Australia, subtitled The Earth Abideth for Ever and covering the period from 1851 to 1888, was published in 1975 by Melbourne University Press. This installment examined the gold rushes' transformative effects on colonial society, the separation of Victoria from New South Wales in 1851, and the consolidation of self-governing colonies amid economic booms and social upheavals.^[20] Clark depicted these years as a phase of material progress shadowed by persistent moral and spiritual stagnation, emphasizing cycles of aspiration followed by complacency among the emerging bourgeois class.^[10] Volume V, The People Make Laws: 1888–1915, appeared in 1981 and chronicled the lead-up to and immediate aftermath of Federation in 1901, including the Boer War and Australia's involvement in World War I, particularly the Gallipoli campaign of 1915.^[21] The narrative highlighted legislative efforts toward nation-building, such as the establishment of compulsory voting and old-age pensions, juxtaposed against deepening class divisions and imperial loyalties that strained colonial unity.^[22] Clark portrayed this era as one of unfulfilled democratic promise, where egalitarian ideals clashed with entrenched hierarchies, fostering a sense of recurring tragedy in national development.^[10] The final volume, VI, subtitled The Old Dead Tree and the Young Tree Green and spanning 1916 to 1988, was published posthumously in 1987 after Clark's death in 1991, with editorial completion handling the extension to contemporary events.^[23] It addressed the interwar depression, World War II's impacts, postwar immigration and economic growth, and the cultural identity crises of the late 20th century, including debates over republicanism and multiculturalism.^[21] Clark concluded with a pessimistic assessment of post-1945 Australia, viewing it as trapped in bourgeois materialism and spiritual vacuity, where initial hopes for renewal after global conflicts devolved into complacency and unachieved aspirations for a distinct national ethos.^[10] Among Clark's supplementary writings, Select Documents in Australian History comprised two volumes edited with L.J. Pryor: the first (1788–1850) issued in 1950 and the second (1851–1900) in 1955, both by Angus & Robertson.^[24] These compilations assembled primary sources, including government dispatches, explorer accounts, and Aboriginal contact records, to furnish raw materials for scholarly analysis of early colonial administration, transportation, immigration, and federation precursors.^[25] The volumes prioritized documentary evidence over interpretive narrative, aiding researchers in tracing causal patterns in Australia's formative socio-political structures.^[24] In 1989, Clark published The Puzzles of Childhood, an autobiographical work reflecting on his early life in interwar Melbourne, family dynamics, and formative intellectual encounters.^[26] Drawing from personal vignettes, it explored themes of alienation, religious upbringing under Methodist influences, and the psychological tensions of youth, offering introspective glimpses into the historian's worldview without direct linkage to his broader historical corpus.^[27] The book, released by Viking, provided anecdotal insights into Clark's development rather than systematic historiography.^[28]

Historiographical Approach

Philosophical Foundations and Themes

Clark's philosophical foundations drew from a synthesis of European intellectual traditions, framing Australian history as the interplay of three imported "faiths": Protestantism, with its emphasis on discipline and predestination; Catholicism, rooted in sacramental grace and communal authority; and the Enlightenment, embodying rational materialism and individualistic progress.^[29] These elements clashed dialectically in the Australian context, transplanting European civilization into a perceived barbarous landscape and generating ongoing tension rather than harmonious advancement.^[29] Influenced by Dostoevskian literature, Clark infused this framework with Christian pessimism, portraying history not as linear Whig progress but as a tragic narrative of human frailty and inevitable downfall.^[30] Recurring themes in his works centered on moral drama, where individuals and collectives grappled with fate through striving for transcendence amid structural constraints.^[30] A key motif was Australia's inheritance from Britain—embodied in Protestant rigor and imperial philistinism—which stifled authentic national expression and perpetuated cultural ambivalence.^[30] Clark depicted a quest for utopia through democratic institutions and labor movements as an egalitarian experiment fraught with moral failure, evident in betrayals of indigenous peoples, convicts, and radical visions that dissolved into bourgeois complacency.^[30] This romantic nationalist undercurrent critiqued provincial mimicry of Europe while affirming history's role in illuminating the "inner monologue" of the nation's psyche.^[30] Clark balanced empirical events with deeper interpretive layers, stressing individual agency—manifest in prophetic figures or flawed leaders—against inexorable forces like environmental harshness and inherited ideologies.^[29] His approach rejected reductive materialism by prioritizing mythic and philosophical dimensions of human nature, viewing narrative as a vehicle for confronting tragedy and unfulfilled potential rather than detached chronicle.^[30] This worldview underscored skepticism toward Enlightenment optimism, positing that civilizational experiments in Australia repeatedly faltered due to inherent ethical contradictions.^[29]

Empirical Methods and Narrative Style

Clark's empirical methods centered on primary sources drawn from British and Australian archives, encompassing official correspondence, governors' dispatches, personal diaries, and period newspapers, which formed the backbone of his multi-volume A History of Australia (published 1962–1987).^[1] Much of this research occurred at the National Library of Australia and the Public Record Office in London, where he sifted through unpublished manuscripts and colonial records to reconstruct events from the earliest European settlements through the early 20th century.^[2] These materials provided the evidentiary foundation for his accounts, with extensive footnotes in each volume citing specific documents, such as the diaries of explorers like William Dampier or administrators like Lachlan Macquarie, to support narrative claims about decision-making and societal shifts. While comprehensive in archival breadth, Clark's sourcing practices exhibited selectivity, prioritizing evocative anecdotes and personal testimonies that highlighted human agency and contingency over aggregated statistical data or economic metrics.^[30] For instance, in volumes covering convict transportation and early colonial governance, he frequently invoked diary entries revealing individual dilemmas—such as a convict's moral reckoning or a governor's private doubts—rather than systematic tabulations of population movements or trade volumes. Prefaces to volumes like the first (1962), which outlined his aim to trace "the quest for an Australian identity," underscored this qualitative orientation, emphasizing interpretive depth from personal records to discern underlying patterns in social evolution.^[9] In narrative construction, Clark blended factual chronicle with interpretive prophecy, crafting prose that evoked the inexorable march of historical forces through rhythmic, almost liturgical phrasing and allusions to biblical motifs of exile, redemption, and judgment.^[30] This style manifested in passages depicting transformative events, such as the Eureka Stockade of 1854, where he wove eyewitness accounts into a tableau of collective aspiration clashing against imperial authority, using imagery of "darkness" yielding to "light" to signal causal pivots in national character. Limited engagement with quantitative methods—evident in the absence of charts, indices of economic indicators, or demographic models—reinforced a focus on the psychological and ethical "inner life" of protagonists, from authoritarian governors to egalitarian radicals, as the drivers of causal sequences in Australia's development.^[1]

Political Views and Ideological Engagements

Influences from Marxism and Catholicism

Clark encountered Marxist ideas during his postgraduate studies at the University of Oxford, commencing in 1938, amid an intellectual milieu shaped by the Great Depression of the 1930s, which led many scholars to emphasize class conflict as a motor of historical change.^[31] Although drawn to Karl Marx's conception of history as shaped by human agency and contradiction, Clark rejected Marxist economic determinism, viewing it as excessively mechanistic and reductive of spiritual and psychological dimensions.^[31] In interpreting Australian developments, he nonetheless integrated class struggle—evident in tensions between transported convicts and colonial elites, or between pastoral capitalists and itinerant laborers—as a recurrent force propelling social upheaval and incremental progress, without positing it as the exhaustive explanatory framework.^[32] Raised in an Anglican household as the son of a clergyman, Clark repudiated Protestant rationalism in favor of Catholic emphases on human frailty and transcendence, privately embracing the faith in his later decades, as reflected in his 1991 burial rites from Canberra's Roman Catholic cathedral.^[1] This orientation permeated his historiography with motifs of original sin, existential torment, redemptive striving, and providential reckoning against profane overreach, framing Australia's colonial and national trajectory as a flawed pilgrimage rather than a linear triumph of reason or enterprise.^[32] These strands converged in Clark's portrayal of history as a purposeful yet tragic contestation, where material antagonisms underscored by Marxism exposed the illusions of bourgeois self-sufficiency, while Catholic eschatology supplied a transcendent critique of individualism's moral voids, yielding a narrative skeptical of secular liberalism's capacity for genuine renewal.^[31] ^[32]

Engagements with Communism and the Cold War

In the late 1950s and 1960s, Clark aligned publicly with the Australian Labor Party's critiques of conservative foreign policy under Prime Minister Robert Menzies, favoring Labor's emphasis on independent Australian interests amid Cold War alignments.^[1] He never joined any political party, including the Communist Party of Australia, but his support for Labor grew evident by the mid-1960s, coinciding with the party's opposition to escalating military commitments that echoed broader anti-imperialist sentiments against unchecked alliances.^[1] A pivotal engagement occurred in November 1958, when Clark traveled to the Soviet Union for three weeks as a guest of the Union of Soviet Writers, accompanied by Judah Waten, a known communist writer, and James Devaney.^[16] This state-sponsored visit, amid heightened Cold War tensions, informed his 1960 book Meeting Soviet Man, where he commended the Soviet system's efficiency in addressing material welfare and centralized planning, contrasting it favorably in some respects with Western individualism while acknowledging ideological divides.^[17] Such writings, alongside reports from associates labeling him pro-communist, prompted the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO) to place him under surveillance from the early 1950s onward, monitoring for potential subversive influences without evidence of espionage or formal affiliations. ASIO files on Clark spanned over two decades, reflecting institutional concerns about academics sympathetic to leftist causes during the era's ideological battles.^[33] Clark's public commentary often framed Australia's role in the global contest between capitalist and communist systems, critiquing the shortcomings of "bourgeois democracy" in perpetuating inequalities and complacency. In lectures and addresses, he argued that Western liberal systems, including Australia's, exhibited structural flaws that limited genuine progress, positioning the nation as embedded in a triumphant yet flawed bourgeois order rather than advocating outright communist adoption.^[34] These views underscored his fellow-traveler stance—admiring elements of Soviet experimentation without party loyalty—amid ASIO's scrutiny of his influence in academic and public spheres.^[35]

Controversies and Criticisms

Allegations of Soviet Sympathies and Fellow-Traveling

In 1958, Manning Clark undertook a three-week visit to the Soviet Union as a guest of the Soviet Union of Writers, during which he formed impressions that he later documented in his 1960 book Meeting Soviet Man.^[16] The work portrayed Soviet society in a largely positive light, emphasizing themes of equality and brotherhood while omitting discussion of the gulags, Stalin's purges, and other documented atrocities under the regime.^[17] Contemporary critics, including reviewers in publications like Quadrant, condemned the book as a pro-Soviet tract that exemplified fellow-traveling by selectively ignoring evidence of communist crimes.^[36] Clark himself expressed enthusiasm in private correspondence, describing the USSR as potentially the first society to achieve true equality.^[37] Allegations of deeper Soviet ties surfaced prominently in 1996 when Chris Mitchell, then editor of The Courier-Mail, published claims that Clark had secretly received the Order of Lenin, the USSR's highest civilian honor, from the Soviet ambassador in Canberra, positioning him as an agent of influence.^[38] Mitchell reiterated this in his 2016 memoir Making Headlines, citing anecdotal reports from figures like poet Les Murray as partial basis, though no official Soviet records or corroborating documentation have emerged to substantiate the award.^[39] Clark's family and widow Dymphna Clark denied the claim outright, asserting that any such honor would have been known within their circle and that Clark never concealed affiliations; defenders argued the allegation relied on unverified rumors amid post-Cold War anti-communist sentiment.^[40] Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO) files, partially declassified after 2000, reveal that Clark was monitored for over two decades due to perceived Soviet sympathies and associations with leftist intellectuals, including travel to communist countries and public expressions of admiration for aspects of Soviet ideology.^[35] However, the files contain no evidence of espionage, recruitment, or direct collaboration with Soviet intelligence, with ASIO assessments noting ambivalence about his influence—viewing him more as an unwitting sympathizer than an active operative.^[33] Historians aligned with conservative perspectives, such as Geoffrey Blainey, critiqued Clark's broader historical output as infused with a fellow-traveler bias that downplayed Western achievements and amplified Marxist-influenced pessimism, though Blainey focused less on personal allegations and more on interpretive distortions in Clark's narratives.^[17] These claims persist in debates over Clark's ideological leanings, balanced against his defenders' emphasis on his Catholic background and rejection of formal communism.^[41]

Critiques of Historical Accuracy and Bias

Critics, including historian M.H. Ellis, have accused Manning Clark of committing numerous factual errors in the early volumes of A History of Australia, such as misstating the departure point of the First Fleet, the ship name transporting the Macarthur family, Governor William Bligh shaking hands with a deceased individual, and Phar Lap winning the Melbourne Cup an excessive number of times.^[30] Ellis's 1962 review in The Bulletin, titled "History Without Facts," compiled a list of such inaccuracies and omissions, arguing that Clark relied on limited primary sources and deviated from empirical rigor, which eroded scholarly trust in the narrative.^[42] These critiques extended to Clark's romanticized portrayals, where he blurred historical facts with mythic elements drawn from literary traditions, exaggerating convict-era brutality and human tragedy while underemphasizing verifiable economic developments like colonial trade growth and infrastructure expansion documented in contemporaneous records.^[30] Clark's interpretive framework has been faulted for a progressive bias favoring the Australian Labor Party as the primary driver of national advancement, portraying it as a moral and social force against conservative stagnation, while downplaying the stabilizing role of non-Labor governments in fostering economic continuity and institutional reforms from the 1890s onward.^[43] Conservative scholars contend this slant neglects evidence of conservative contributions to federation and post-war prosperity, such as tariff policies and state interventions that sustained growth rates averaging 3-4% annually between 1900 and 1940, as quantified in economic histories.^[42] Geoffrey Blainey, in coining the "black armband" label during his 1993 Sir Ernest Latham Lecture, identified Clark's oeuvre as emblematic of an overly pessimistic historiography that emphasized victimhood, failure, and inherited guilt over achievements, fostering a narrative of perpetual moral shortfall rather than empirical progress.^[44] Further challenges highlight Clark's causal attributions, which privileged themes of moral decay and individual ethical lapses—such as national "soullessness" or elite corruption—as explanations for historical setbacks, sidelining institutional and economic factors evidenced by data on rising GDP per capita and urbanization from 1788 to 1988 that contradicted his trajectories of impending collapse or revolution.^[42] In A History of Australia Volume 5, for instance, Clark depicted interwar Australia as teetering on imperial and revolutionary brinkmanship, yet quantitative analyses from economic historians reveal sustained material improvements, including doubled real wages and expanded rail networks, underscoring a lack of rigor in linking moral critiques to verifiable outcomes.^[30] These rebuttals, spanning liberal and conservative perspectives, argue that Clark's moralistic lens, influenced by literary rather than econometric methods, subordinated causal realism to interpretive grandeur, prompting calls for histories grounded in primary data over thematic prophecy.^[42]^[44]

The Peter Ryan Affair and Publishing Disputes

Peter Ryan, director of Melbourne University Press from 1971 to 1995, had overseen the publication of five volumes of Manning Clark's A History of Australia between 1962 and 1987, despite growing private frustrations over Clark's manuscript delays, stylistic indulgences, and what Ryan viewed as factual looseness during editorial processes.^[42] Tensions escalated in the late 1980s, particularly after the January 1987 release of Volume 6, when Ryan described the series as a "ghastly flop" in private correspondence around 1988, contrasting with sales figures indicating modest but sustained interest over six weeks.^[42] These clashes culminated in Ryan's decision to end the professional relationship by 1990, amid Clark's increasing dependence on editorial support and episodes of depression that Ryan later cited as impairing Clark's judgment and objectivity in historical narrative.^[42] The dispute erupted publicly on August 27, 1993—sixteen months after Clark's death on May 23, 1991—when Ryan published a scathing essay in the conservative journal Quadrant, titled "Manning Clark," denouncing Clark's History as a "fraud" riddled with unreliability, invention, and ideological bias toward communist sympathies.^[42] Drawing from decades of personal anecdotes, Ryan alleged Clark's chronic alcoholism, manipulative dependencies on publishers, and a worldview shaped by fellow-traveling tendencies, framing these as causal factors undermining the work's scholarly integrity rather than mere personal failings.^[42] Ryan, reflecting a conservative critique wary of left-leaning historiography, positioned Clark as an ideologue whose narrative prioritized moral tragedy over empirical rigor, a perspective rooted in Ryan's wartime experiences and editorial oversight.^[41]^[42] Clark's widow, Dymphna Clark, responded on September 27, 1993, in The Age, dismissing Ryan's account as "cantankerous" and opportunistic, while son Andrew Clark labeled it a betrayal exploiting Clark's posthumous vulnerability.^[42] Although family members contemplated defamation proceedings—evidenced in Ryan's papers referencing "Peter Ryan v Manning Clark" from 1993 to 1998—no formal lawsuit advanced, with actions reportedly dropped due to Clark's death and evidentiary challenges.^[45] The affair fueled two weeks of intense media coverage in outlets like The Australian and The Sydney Morning Herald, amplifying ties to emerging history wars debates without resolving underlying questions of Clark's authorial reliability.^[42] Ryan reiterated and expanded his claims in subsequent Quadrant pieces, including October 1993's "A Reply to my Critics" and October 1994's "The Charge of the Lightweight Brigade," solidifying the dispute's role in questioning Clark's professional legacy.^[42]

Reception and Legacy

Academic and Scholarly Impact

Clark's multi-volume A History of Australia (1962–1987) pioneered a grand narrative approach in Australian historiography, synthesizing broad ideological conflicts—such as those between Protestantism, Catholicism, and the Enlightenment—while shifting scholarly emphasis from an imperial periphery perspective to an autonomous national framework centered on Australia's internal dynamics.^[1] This method incorporated analyses of individuals' inner spiritual experiences and the formative role of the physical landscape, thereby broadening the scope of historical inquiry beyond traditional political and economic narratives.^[1]^[30] At the Australian National University (ANU), where Clark served as professor of history from 1949 to 1974, he expanded the department during the 1950s and mentored influential scholars including Ken Inglis, John Molony, and Humphrey McQueen, instilling a focus on themes of national identity and cultural evolution in historical training.^[1] His edited Select Documents in Australian History (1788–1850, 1950; 1851–1900, 1955) became a foundational text in university curricula, informing pedagogical approaches to primary source analysis for over two decades.^[1] The narrative paradigm Clark advanced stimulated subsequent research in social and cultural history, evidenced by its persistent benchmarking in academic discourse, though it faced supplementation from postmodern interpretive methods and economic determinism in later decades.^[30]^[32] His contributions elevated Australian historiography's professional standards and global visibility, as reflected in the establishment of the Manning Clark Chair of History at ANU.^[1]

Influence on Australian Public Discourse and History Wars

Clark's portrayal of Australian history as a tragic quest for an unattainable utopia, detailed across his six-volume A History of Australia (published 1962–1987), permeated public discourse in the 1970s and 1980s by challenging triumphalist narratives of national progress. This framework, emphasizing moral failings in colonial settlement, convict transportation, and frontier conflicts, aligned with emerging debates on multiculturalism and Indigenous dispossession, fostering a discourse of national self-criticism over unalloyed pride in milestones like the 1901 federation.^[30]^[46] By the late 1980s, Clark's influence extended to media portrayals that amplified his view of Australia as a "flawed paradise," contributing to polarized interpretations in outlets like The Australian and public forums, where his pessimism was contrasted with calls for balanced reckoning of achievements such as economic federation benefits and democratic institutions.^[47] Opposition emerged prominently from historians like Geoffrey Blainey, who in the early 1990s critiqued Clark's narrative for instilling collective guilt that diminished pride in empirical successes, including the 1850s gold rushes' role in population growth to over 1 million by 1861 and the federation's unification of disparate colonies. Blainey's 1993 address labeled Clark's perspective a "black armband" interpretation, arguing it skewed public memory toward tragedy over resilience, as evidenced in debates over school curricula that prioritized colonial violence narratives.^[47]^[30] This counterview, advocating a "three cheers" emphasis on adaptive triumphs, highlighted causal divergences: Clark's ideological lens, drawing from European intellectual pessimism, versus Blainey's data-driven focus on material progress, such as railway expansions linking 80% of the population by 1900.^[48] In political spheres, Labor leaders Bob Hawke and Paul Keating from 1983 onward invoked Clark's historiography to bolster republican advocacy, citing his depiction of monarchical ties as relics hindering independent identity; Keating, in 1992 speeches, referenced Clark's volumes to frame Australia Day 26 January 1788 as a contested "invasion" date warranting reconciliation gestures, influencing policy pushes like the 1991 Native Title Act.^[46]^[49] This usage intensified history wars tensions, with conservative figures decrying it as fostering division; nascent Liberal critiques in the early 1990s, prefiguring John Howard's 1996 stance, rejected Clark's "essentially negative view" for undermining cohesion amid 1980s immigration surges that added 1.2 million residents by 1991.^[49]^[30]

Posthumous Evaluations and Debates

Following Clark's death on 23 May 1991, biographical assessments have divided along interpretive lines, with sympathetic accounts portraying him as a pioneering cultural historian whose narrative style reshaped Australian self-understanding, while critics emphasized ideological distortions and factual lapses as disqualifying his legacy. Mark McKenna's 2010 biography, An Eye for Eternity, presents Clark as a tormented intellectual innovator who integrated European philosophical traditions into Australian historiography, arguing that his work's mythic resonance endured despite methodological flaws, drawing on extensive archival access to Clark's papers for a nuanced defense of his contributions to post-colonial historical consciousness.^[50]^[51] In contrast, Peter Ryan, Clark's former publisher, launched pointed posthumous attacks in 1993, alleging pervasive inaccuracies and a "fellow-traveler" sympathy toward Soviet narratives that undermined scholarly rigor, claims echoed in Quadrant magazine pieces through the 2010s that linked Clark's influence to lingering Marxist interpretations in school curricula.^[52]^[53] Debates intensified in the history wars framework, where right-leaning commentators in outlets like Quadrant sustained critiques of Clark's "pessimistic" worldview as propagating anti-liberal biases in education, citing specific errors—such as misrepresented Indigenous-settler interactions or exaggerated class conflicts—uncovered via post-2000 digitized archives and peer-reviewed revisions that prioritized primary sources over interpretive flourish.^[42] Defenders, often from academic left-leaning circles, countered by highlighting empirical validations in Clark's broader causal analyses of empire and federation, while underscoring his stylistic appeal in fostering national introspection amid multiculturalism debates. Doug Munro's 2021 monograph History Wars: The Peter Ryan–Manning Clark Controversy reappraised Ryan's allegations through forensic source comparison, concluding that while Clark's factual vulnerabilities were real, Ryan's interventions reflected personal animus more than disinterested scholarship, thus complicating propagandist labels without fully rehabilitating Clark's methodological standards.^[54]^[55] By the mid-2020s, reflections integrated Clark into broader reevaluations of mid-20th-century historiography, with empirical studies leveraging National Library of Australia digitizations revealing causal overreach in his fatalistic themes—such as inevitable decline narratives unsubstantiated by economic data—but affirming his role in elevating history from antiquarianism to public philosophy, a duality that sustains polarized evaluations absent consensus on his net influence.^[3]^[1]

Honours and Recognition

Australian Awards and Academic Honours

Clark received the Companion of the Order of Australia (AC) on 17 June 1975 for service to historical scholarship through his authorship of A History of Australia.^[1] He was designated Australian of the Year in 1980, recognizing his contributions to national historical understanding.^[1] Academic institutions conferred honorary Doctor of Letters degrees upon him, including from the University of Melbourne in 1974, the University of Newcastle in 1980, and the University of Sydney on 25 May 1988 during a ceremony in the Great Hall.^[1]^[56] At the Australian National University, where he served as the inaugural Professor of Australian History from 1972, Clark held the positions of emeritus professor from 1975 to 1981 and library fellow.^[1] Following his death in 1991, institutional esteem was reflected in the establishment of Manning Clark House in his former Canberra residence, which hosts public lectures such as the annual Dymphna Clark Lectures to promote cultural and historical discourse.^[8]^[57] The Manning Clark Medal, awarded for outstanding contributions to Australian cultural life, was instituted posthumously in his honor as part of state literary and history prizes.^[58]

International Awards and Associated Controversies

In 1996, The Courier-Mail published allegations that Clark had secretly received the Soviet Union's highest civilian honor, the Order of Lenin, during the 1970s, purportedly conferred by the Soviet ambassador in Canberra at the height of the Cold War.^[59]^[30] The claim originated from accounts by Soviet defectors and witnesses, including poet Les Murray, who asserted Clark wore the medal privately, interpreting it as evidence of ideological alignment with communism.^[38]^[60] However, Clark's estate denied the award, and no corroboration has emerged from declassified Soviet archives or the post-Soviet Russian government, which has maintained a stance of anticommunism yet offered no verification.^[61]^[17] Conservative critics, including those in the 1996 exposé, linked the alleged honor to Clark's broader international engagements, such as visiting fellowships and lectures at American and British universities, arguing these reflected Soviet influence rather than scholarly merit.^[62]^[63] These activities, including dissemination of his interpretations of Australian history abroad, were praised by supporters for elevating national historiography globally, though without formal international prizes like the Fulbright explicitly tied to Clark in verified records.^[1] The unproven nature of the Order of Lenin claim has fueled ongoing debates, with skeptics highlighting the reliance on anecdotal testimony over archival proof, while defenders dismiss it as unsubstantiated McCarthyist-style innuendo amid Australia's "History Wars."^[64]^[62] No other major international awards for Clark have been documented beyond honorary academic distinctions primarily from Australian institutions.

References

[1]
Charles Manning Clark - Australian Dictionary of Biography
Clark was probably the first historian in Australia to write at length about the inner life of his characters. But his feeling was not only for character, it ...Missing: facts | Show results with:facts
[2]
Manning and Dymphna Clark Collection - National Library of Australia
About Manning Clark. Early life and education. Charles Manning Hope Clark (1915–1991) was born in Sydney. His family moved to Melbourne in 1924 and he was ...
[3]
Manning Clark - Wikipedia
Charles Manning Hope Clark, AC FAHA (3 March 1915 – 23 May 1991) was an Australian historian and the author of the best-known general history of Australia.
[4]
Papers of Manning Clark - National Library of Australia
Charles Manning Hope Clark was born in Burwood, Sydney, on 3 March 1915, the second son of the Reverend Charles Clark and his wife Catherine née Hope. When ...
[5]
[PDF] A HISTORY OF MANNING CLARK THE MAKING OF ... - CORE
For many professional historians this was a bad book, full of factual inaccuracies. The most savage review of any history book in Australia was prompted by ...
[6]
https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/items/a612de66-b60f-4393-88f4-1f2baaf4444a
[7]
Manning Clark - Emeritus Professor, Australian historian
Professor Manning Clark was born in 1915 and was educated at Mont Albert Central School, Melbourne Grammar School, the University of Melbourne and Oxford.Missing: Rhodes Scholarship
[8]
Sources of Australian history by Manning Clark | Goodreads
Clark's first significant publication was "Select Documents in Australian History" (2 volumes, 1950-55) which provided a significant examination of primary ...
[9]
Manning Clark House
Born in Sydney 1915, Manning Clark won scholarships to Melbourne Grammar School and the University of Melbourne. He later attended Balliol College, Oxford ...Missing: Rhodes | Show results with:Rhodes
[10]
A history of Australia : Clark, C. M. H. (Charles Manning Hope), 1915 ...
Jun 24, 2022 · A history of Australia ; Publication date: 1968 ; Topics: Australia -- History ; Publisher: [Carlton, Australia] : Melbourne University Press.
[11]
History of Australia - Manning Clark - Google Books
In 1972 he became the first professor of Australian history. In June 1975 Clark was made a Companion of the Order of Australia, in recognition of his writing of ...
[12]
A History of Australia, II: New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land ...
Rating 3.6 (22) In his second volume, Manning Clark continues his vivid and often dramatic narrative of Australian history, covering the period between 1822 and the ...Missing: content | Show results with:content
[13]
A History of Australia Volume 3 - Google Books
Title, A History of Australia Volume 3 ; Authors, Charles Manning Hope Clark, Manning Clark ; Publisher, Melbourne, Melbourne University Press, 1973 ; Length, 491 ...
[14]
A History of Australia, III: The Beginning of an Australian Civilization ...
Rating 4.0 (14) This third volume takes the story of Australia to the momentous discovery of gold and the separation of Victoria from New South Wales.
[15]
ABSTRACT
The remark "great as literature" expresses an important aspect of Manning Clark's approach to historiography. It. Page 299. 295 implies a rejection of the ...
[16]
[PDF] Disciplines & Culd in Australasia - UQ eSpace
I recall sitting beside Professor Manning Clark and Mrs Clark in the Public Record Office, the first reading and the second copying. My early laborious ...
[17]
Meeting Soviet man, 1958-60 | Finding Aids
His impressions and ideas were developed in his book Meeting Soviet man, which was published by Angus and Robertson in 1960. It received a mixed reception and ...Missing: origins | Show results with:origins
[18]
Fellow traveller was mute about Communist crimes
May 2, 2011 · In the first school term of 1944, when Clark was a master at Geelong Grammar School, he gave a special lecture in which he eulogised Lenin, ...
[19]
https://dokumen.pub/download/manning-clark-052286886x-9780522868869.html
[20]
[EPUB] Manning Clark - dokumen.pub
... Clark did teach part-time for the first two terms of 1938. He was responsible for the Leaving and Leaving Honours English classes at Trinity Grammar School ...
[21]
History Of Australia (Volumes 3 & 4) eBook by Manning Clark
A History of Australia: 1824-1888, takes the story of Australia through the momentous discovery of gold and the separation of Victoria from New South Wales ...Missing: 1973 rushes democratic experiments
[22]
A History Of Australia: Volumes 5 and 6, Manning Clark
A$69.99A History of Australia: 1888–1945, covers Federation, the Boer War and World War I's Gallipoli. It finishes with the story of an emerging Australian identity at ...
[23]
History Of Australia (Volumes 5 & 6) eBook by Manning Clark
A History of Australia: 1888-1945, covers Federation, the Boer War and World War I's Gallipoli. It finishes with the story of an emerging Australian identity at ...Missing: summary | Show results with:summary
[24]
A History of Australia - Charles Manning Hope Clark - Google Books
A History of Australia, Volume 6 ... The late Manning Clark aims to bring to attention the foibles and strengths in every person, traits forced to the fore in the ...Missing: content summary
[25]
Select documents in Australian history / selected and edited by ...
Format: Book ; Description: Sydney : Angus and Robertson, 1950-1955; 2 v. ; 22 cm. ; Summary: Includes documents referring to early contact with Aborigines.
[26]
Select Documents in Australian History: 1788-1850 - Google Books
Bibliographic information ; Publisher, Angus and Robertson, 1950 ; Original from, the University of Michigan ; Digitized, Aug 6, 2007 ; Length, 1316 pages.Missing: details | Show results with:details
[27]
The Puzzles of Childhood - Charles Manning Hope Clark
Title, The Puzzles of Childhood ; Author, Charles Manning Hope Clark ; Publisher, Viking, 1989 ; Original from, Indiana University ; Digitized, Jan 28, 2009.Missing: publication | Show results with:publication
[28]
Peter Craven reviews 'The Puzzles of Childhood' by Manning Clark
Peter Craven reviews 'The Puzzles of Childhood' by Manning Clark for the October 1989 issue of Australian Book Review.Missing: publication | Show results with:publication
[29]
The Puzzles of Childhood - Clark, Manning - AbeBooks
In stock Rating 3.4 (18) The Puzzles of Childhood. Clark, Manning. Published by Penguin Books, VIC, 1989. ISBN 10: 0140139370 ...
[30]
The theme of civilization in Manning Clark's History of Australia
Mar 7, 2017 · Civilization in Australia was originally composed of three beliefs imported from Europe: Protestantism, Catholicism and the Enlightenment. Their ...
[31]
Manning Clark: Writing history to understand the world we live in
Manning Clark's A History of Australia has weathered scepticism, criticism and political rebuke, and the same can be said of the author. His A History of ...
[32]
Australia Forums: Manning Clark - ABC listen
Feb 15, 2003 · My father was a clergyman. My brother's a clergyman. My uncle was a clergyman. And in the five generations of my mother's family in Australia, ...
[33]
Manning Clark's Repudiation of Anglicanism and the Appeal of ...
Apr 24, 2023 · There, as a boy, Manning spent his formative years developing a passion for cricket and the typical Australian outdoor life that children in the ...
[34]
ASIO history: chasing Russian spies and local communists
Oct 6, 2014 · ASIO kept files on and monitored academics, including historian Manning Clark, whom it tagged for decades although Horner notes that his ...Missing: sympathies | Show results with:sympathies
[35]
MANNING CLARK, "BOURGEOIS DEMOCRACY" AND STRANGE ...
Mar 26, 2001 · Manning Clark could never submit himself to the dictates of others, whether within a political party or anywhere else. His sympathy was with the ...Missing: surveillance | Show results with:surveillance
[36]
Manning Clark and the Man in Black - Inside Story
May 25, 2015 · ASIO's ambivalence about Manning Clark might not have incited a diplomatic training incident, but Clark's response was uncompromising.Missing: career | Show results with:career
[37]
The long history of Manning Clark | The Australian
Apr 30, 2011 · All of this leads one to question: whether Clark was present at other key events. ... Communist Party of Australia, Gerry O'Day and Jack Legge.<|separator|>
[38]
Double lives: three Australian fellow-travellers in the Cold War.
Clark was so overcome from meeting "Soviet man" that he wrote to his family: "It (the Soviet Union) could be the first to create equality and brotherhood. I ...Missing: critiques | Show results with:critiques
[39]
Chris Mitchell's massive Marxist memory lapse: mate, I could have ...
Sep 15, 2016 · Chris Mitchell's massive Marxist memory lapse: mate, I could have put you right. This article is more than 9 years old. David Marr.
[40]
Mitchell, Murdoch and me - Inside Story
Oct 13, 2016 · Unsurprisingly, Mitchell re-argues various controversies, starting with Manning Clark's alleged Order of Lenin, from his time as editor of ...
[41]
Media reform could save victims of misinformation … like my ...
Mar 19, 2013 · The newspaper had too little evidence to assert that Prof Clark was awarded the Order of Lenin – rather there is much evidence to the contrary.
[42]
TAKING SIDES ON MANNING CLARK - AFR
Mar 20, 1995 · ... 1958 (encapsulated in his 1960 book Meeting Soviet Man) and, of course, the Ryan affair, is a necessary contribution to an assessment of one ...Missing: critiques | Show results with:critiques
[43]
[PDF] History Wars - OAPEN Home
), Ever, Manning: Selected Letters of Manning Clark, 1938–1991, Sydney: Allen & Unwin, 2008, p. 178 (Clark to George Ferguson, 13 January 1961). Instead ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[44]
Being there | The Monthly
To a large extent, Clark earned the ire of conservatives not only because his history cast the Labor Party as the engine of Australia's national progress, but ...Missing: controversies | Show results with:controversies
[45]
[PDF] a critical analysis of the Black Armband debate - API Network
Its application served to present critical history as unbalanced, a misrepresentation of our national heritage.
[46]
Papers of Peter Ryan - National Library of Australia
Manning Clark cuttings, letters and notes, 1993-1994 (File 6). Manning Clark, Quadrant, October (drafts), 1994 (File 7). Manning Clark, 1995 (File 8). Manning ...
[47]
Manning Clark and the Politics of Australian History 1970–2000
Aug 10, 2025 · Although mainly a Labor project, the paper will argue that shifting the basis for voter inequality has also involved the input of the Liberal ...
[48]
Manning Clark, Geoffrey Blainey and the politics of Australian history
Aug 9, 2011 · Manning Clark and Geoffrey Blainey have been so influential. They both tell us a story about ourselves and the influences that matter.Missing: mentorship | Show results with:mentorship
[49]
Manning Clark and the Politics of Australian History 1970–2000
Adopting Geoffrey Blainey's metaphor, Howard rejected the 'black armband' view of Australia's past in favour of a slightly 'blemished' narrative of 'heroic.Missing: critique | Show results with:critique
[50]
Manning Clark, the 'History Wars' and Australian Republicanism
Jun 15, 2011 · In response, Humphrey McQueen argued in Suspect History (1997) that Clark's critics were motivated by political and material self-interest.
[51]
On reading Mark McKenna's biography of Manning Clark - Inside Story
Aug 25, 2011 · Clark's portrait of Australia as an historical theatre in which the competing values of Enlightenment, Protestantism and Catholicism clashed ...Missing: influences family
[52]
[PDF] An Eye for Eternity: The Life of Manning Clark - Reviews in History
May 17, 2012 · As well as multitudinous factual errors and an over-wrought writing style, there were dissatisfactions at lack of context and scant attention to.
[53]
Ross McKibbin · Cursing and Breast-Beating: Manning Clark's Legacy
Feb 23, 2012 · His critics argued, with some justification, that Clark's work consistently denied the significance and worthiness of the British institutions ...Missing: controversies | Show results with:controversies
[54]
[PDF] ALAN GOULDdraws on his experience of - Quadrant Online
of Manning Clark, in a single devastating article in the May 1982 Quadrant titled “Bad History”, inevitably cited whenever Clark's posthumous reputation is ...
[55]
History Wars: The Peter Ryan–Manning Clark controversy
He mocked Clark's literary style as 'bad to the point of embarrassment', and cast his entire multi-volume history as little more than 'a construct spun from ...
[56]
Book Review – History Wars: The Peter Ryan – Manning Clark ...
Dec 16, 2021 · History Wars is a succinct, fast-paced and forensic treatment of the controversy surrounding Clark and Ryan, and it does an excellent job of ...Missing: dispute | Show results with:dispute
[57]
[PDF] Emeritus Professor Charles Manning Hope Clark AC
At a conferring of degrees ceremony held in the Great Hall on 25 May 1988, the honorary degree of Doctor of Letters was conferred upon Manning Clark AC, ...
[58]
Dymphna Clark Lectures | Discover and Engage Today
Explore the Dymphna Clark Lectures at Manning Clark House, featuring distinguished speakers and cultural insights. Join us for enlightening events and ...Missing: lectureship | Show results with:lectureship
[59]
Alex Miller - Dublin Literary Award
... Manning Clark Medal for an outstanding contribution to Australian cultural life. ... It was also short-listed for the Miles Franklin Award, the Christina Stead ...
[60]
The Courier Mail and Manning Clark: 20 years on | Woolly Days
Feb 19, 2016 · A Polish activist also dismissed the likelihood of communist beliefs saying Clark addressed several Solidarity meetings in the early 1980s.Missing: attendance | Show results with:attendance
[61]
https://www.afr.com/companies/media-and-marketing/clark-cut-by-shaky-rewrite-of-history-19960827-k71ni
[62]
Clark cut by shaky rewrite of history - AFR
Aug 27, 1996 · Despite its virulent anticommunism, the current Russian Government has not confirmed that Clark was ever awarded the Order of Lenin, let alone ...
[63]
Manning Clark, agent of influence? - Overland literary journal
Dec 18, 2008 · Kelly claimed that the late Geoffrey Fairbairn had seen Clark sporting his Order of Lenin (as one does) at the Soviet Embassy. He produced ...Missing: Fellowship visit 1958
[64]
Manning Clark, agent of influence? - Crikey
Dec 9, 2008 · Clark's history famously concentrated on the character flaws of significant individuals, a methodology about as removed from Marxism as one ...
[65]
[PDF] Australian Press Council - Network of Concerned Historians
Professor Manning Clark was a Communist and had been awarded the Order of Lenin by the old Soviet Union. The appeal was on two grounds. First, that there ...Missing: engagements | Show results with:engagements<|separator|>