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Mastery learning

Mastery learning is an instructional approach and educational philosophy pioneered by Benjamin S. Bloom in 1968, which posits that nearly all students (over 90%) can achieve high levels of mastery in any subject given sufficient time, appropriate instructional quality, and individualized support to address learning differences.^[1] Rooted in John B. Carroll's 1963 model of school learning, it redefines aptitude not as innate ability but as the time required for mastery, challenging traditional grading curves that assume normal distribution of achievement.^[2] The model emerged amid 1960s U.S. educational critiques, including concerns over equity, family background's influence on success, and the need for broader access to high-quality learning in response to societal shifts like economic demands for skilled workers.^[3] At its core, mastery learning organizes instruction into discrete units with clearly defined learning objectives, followed by formative assessments to gauge progress against a mastery criterion (typically 80-90% accuracy).^[4] Students who do not meet the standard receive targeted corrective activities, such as alternative resources, small-group tutorials, or reteaching, before parallel retesting, while those who master the material engage in enrichment to deepen understanding.^[1] This cycle emphasizes feedback, perseverance, and instructional alignment, drawing from influences like B.F. Skinner's programmed instruction and Jerome Bruner's spiral curriculum to simulate the effectiveness of one-on-one tutoring in group settings.^[2] Implementation requires breaking content into manageable segments, providing varied learning materials, and allowing flexible time, aiming to foster not only academic competence but also positive self-concepts through repeated success.^[3] Empirical evidence supports mastery learning's efficacy, with meta-analyses indicating moderate to large effect sizes (e.g., 0.59) on academic performance, often shifting average grades from C to B+ or higher across diverse subjects and age groups.^[4] Studies spanning over 40 implementations have shown consistent gains in achievement and student attitudes, particularly for underrepresented learners, though success depends on teacher training and resource availability.^[2] In recent applications as of 2025, such as pharmacy and medical education, it integrates with cumulative testing, baseline assessments, and AI-driven tools to promote long-term retention and adaptive expertise, underscoring its enduring relevance in competency-based systems.^[4]^[5]

Introduction

Definition

Mastery learning is an instructional strategy that requires students to demonstrate a high level of competence, typically 80-90% proficiency, in prerequisite material before progressing to subsequent topics.^[1]^[6] This approach presumes that most students, potentially over 90%, can achieve mastery of educational content when provided with appropriate instructional methods and sufficient time to learn.^[1] Originating from Benjamin Bloom's 1968 formulation, mastery learning aligns closely with competency-based education by focusing on skill acquisition rather than normative comparison.^[1] Central to mastery learning is the emphasis on individualized pacing and corrective feedback, allowing students to advance at their own rates while addressing learning gaps through targeted remediation.^[1] Instructors use formative assessments to identify difficulties early, providing alternative resources or enriched activities to ensure comprehension before moving forward, thereby accommodating initial differences in student aptitude and prior knowledge.^[6] This personalized process aims to equalize outcomes, enabling all learners to reach high standards regardless of starting points.^[1] Unlike traditional time-based learning, where student progression is uniform and dictated by fixed calendar schedules, mastery learning treats time as a flexible variable adjusted to individual needs.^[1] Conventional methods often result in a normal distribution of achievement, with only a minority excelling, whereas mastery learning seeks to shift this toward near-universal success through iterative cycles of instruction, assessment, and correction.^[1] The ultimate goal is for nearly 100% of students to attain mastery, fundamentally altering the expected distribution of learning outcomes.^[6]

Core Principles

Mastery learning is grounded in several foundational principles that shift the focus from uniform pacing and aptitude-based expectations to individualized support and consistent achievement outcomes. These principles, originally articulated by Benjamin Bloom, emphasize adapting instruction to learner needs while maintaining high standards of competence across all students.^[7] A central principle is the aptitude-treatment interaction, which posits that differences in student aptitudes—such as prior knowledge, cognitive abilities, and motivation—significantly influence learning rates under traditional uniform instruction, leading to wide achievement gaps. To optimize outcomes, mastery learning adjusts instructional treatments, including methods and pacing, to accommodate these individual aptitudes, thereby minimizing their negative impact and enabling more equitable results. Bloom argued that by varying instruction to better match learner characteristics, educators can help nearly all students attain high levels of mastery rather than allowing aptitude to predetermine success.^[7]^[8] Time variability represents another key mechanism, inverting the conventional classroom model where time is fixed and mastery levels vary among students. In mastery learning, mastery is held constant at a high criterion (typically 80-90% proficiency), while the time allotted for learning is allowed to vary based on individual needs, ensuring that slower learners receive additional support without penalizing faster ones. This approach acknowledges that learning rates differ but posits that sufficient time, combined with appropriate instruction, can equalize outcomes.^[7]^[9] The structure of learning as modular units forms the instructional backbone, where subject matter is divided into small, sequential segments—often spanning 1-2 weeks—each focusing on specific objectives that serve as prerequisites for subsequent units. Students must demonstrate mastery of one unit before advancing, preventing the accumulation of errors and building cumulative competence. This modular design facilitates targeted reteaching and ensures that foundational knowledge is solid before introducing more complex material.^[7] Feedback and corrective procedures enable the iterative process central to mastery learning, involving regular formative assessments after each unit to identify errors, followed by targeted correctives such as reteaching, additional practice, or alternative explanations tailored to student misconceptions. Enrichment activities are provided for those who master early, while corrective cycles repeat until proficiency is achieved, fostering a self-correcting system that addresses learning gaps promptly. These procedures transform assessment from a summative judgment into a diagnostic tool for ongoing improvement.^[7]^[10] Underpinning these principles is Bloom's hypothesis that, with sufficient time and high-quality instructional support, approximately 95% of students—encompassing the top 5% from traditional systems plus the next 90%—can achieve mastery at levels comparable to the highest performers in conventional settings. This bold claim challenges aptitude-driven limitations, suggesting that variables like perseverance, quality of instruction, and environmental factors play crucial roles in unlocking broad potential when systematically addressed.^[7]^[11]

Historical Development

Early Influences

The basic tenets of mastery learning can be traced to early educators such as Comenius, Pestalozzi, and Herbart, who emphasized sequential learning and individual progress toward mastery.^[2] These ideas evolved into early 20th-century progressive education, which advocated for student-centered approaches over rigid, uniform instruction. John Dewey, a key figure in this movement, emphasized individualized learning experiences tailored to students' interests and needs, arguing that education should foster active engagement and personal growth rather than passive memorization. In works like Democracy and Education (1916), Dewey highlighted the importance of adapting teaching to individual differences to promote deeper understanding and democratic participation in learning.^[12]^[13] Building on these ideas, early experiments in self-paced education emerged in the 1920s, notably through Helen Parkhurst's Dalton Plan. Implemented at the Dalton School in Massachusetts starting in 1919, this system replaced traditional classroom schedules with "contracts" that allowed students to progress at their own pace on assigned tasks, emphasizing responsibility and mastery of subject matter before moving forward. Parkhurst's approach, detailed in her 1922 book Education on the Dalton Plan, aimed to counteract the inefficiencies of lockstep schooling by promoting autonomy and individualized achievement.^[14]^[15] Post-World War II, U.S. military training programs advanced individualized instruction as a means to efficiently prepare personnel for complex roles, requiring demonstrated mastery of prerequisites before progression to subsequent modules. Influenced by wartime needs for rapid skill acquisition, these efforts incorporated modular formats and performance-based advancement, as seen in the evolving Army training doctrines that prioritized competency verification over time-based scheduling.^[16] In the 1950s, behaviorist theories further shaped these developments, particularly through B.F. Skinner's work on operant conditioning and programmed instruction. Skinner advocated for structured, sequential learning with immediate feedback to reinforce correct responses, leading to "teaching machines" that enabled self-paced mastery of material. Complementing this, Norman Crowder developed branching programming, in which learners received remedial paths based on errors in multiple-choice responses, serving as a direct precursor to adaptive mastery systems by allowing progression tailored to individual needs.^[17]^[18] These influences converged in the mid-20th century, setting the stage for later syntheses of mastery-based education.

Benjamin Bloom's Formulation

Benjamin Bloom, a prominent educational psychologist, introduced a foundational framework for mastery learning in his 1968 paper "Learning for Mastery," published in Evaluation Comment. In this work, Bloom argued that nearly all students could achieve high levels of mastery in academic subjects if provided with appropriate instructional conditions, including sufficient time, feedback, and corrective instruction, challenging the prevailing view that only a small percentage of learners were capable of excellence.^[1] Bloom's formulation built directly on John B. Carroll's 1963 model of school learning, which posited that student achievement depends primarily on the relationship between the time a learner needs to master a task and the time available for learning, with time emerging as the critical variable distinguishing success from failure. Expanding Carroll's model, Bloom identified key variables influencing learning outcomes: aptitude (the initial ability or prior knowledge a student brings to the task), quality of instruction (the effectiveness of teaching methods and materials), ability to understand instruction (the learner's capacity to comprehend presented content), perseverance (the student's motivation and effort), and time allowed (the opportunity to engage with the material until mastery is reached). These factors underscored Bloom's emphasis on optimizing instructional environments to equalize opportunities for mastery across diverse learners.^[1] A pivotal insight from Bloom's research was the "two-sigma problem," detailed in his 1984 paper in Educational Researcher, which demonstrated that students receiving one-on-one tutoring combined with mastery learning techniques outperformed their peers in conventional classroom settings by approximately two standard deviations on achievement tests.^[19] This finding highlighted the potential of mastery-based approaches to dramatically elevate group instruction outcomes to levels comparable with individualized tutoring, though Bloom noted the challenge of scaling such methods without excessive resources. Bloom's ideas on mastery learning were also intertwined with his earlier development of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives in the cognitive domain, first published in 1956 as a handbook for classifying learning goals from simple recall to complex evaluation, providing a structured progression that aligned with mastery principles by ensuring sequential achievement at each level.^[20] This taxonomy was revised in 2001 by Lorin W. Anderson and David R. Krathwohl, who refined the categories into active verbs (e.g., remembering, understanding, applying) to better support mastery-oriented instruction that advances learners through increasingly sophisticated cognitive processes.^[21]

Key Models

Learning for Mastery (LFM)

Learning for Mastery (LFM) is a group-based instructional approach developed by Benjamin Bloom in 1968, designed to enable most students to achieve high levels of mastery in a subject by addressing individual differences through structured diagnostics and corrective feedback within a classroom setting.^[22] The model organizes instruction into small learning units, typically lasting 1 to 2 weeks each, with the entire course divided into 5 to 10 such units to fit within a standard academic term.^[22] It begins with a pre-assessment to evaluate students' mastery of prerequisite knowledge, allowing instructors to identify and remediate gaps before proceeding to new material.^[23] Essential preconditions for implementing LFM include clearly defined learning objectives that specify expected outcomes, division of content into manageable small units to facilitate focused instruction, development of diagnostic tests to pinpoint strengths and weaknesses, and provision of alternative instructional resources such as tutorials or peer study groups to support remediation.^[22] These elements ensure that instruction is targeted and adaptable, emphasizing the importance of precise goal-setting and varied pathways to learning.^[23] The operating procedures of LFM follow a cyclical process within each unit: an initial phase of group instruction presents the core material, followed by a formative quiz to assess understanding, typically requiring at least 80% correct responses for mastery.^[22] Students scoring below 80% engage in corrective activities, such as additional explanations or alternative exercises, while those achieving mastery participate in enrichment tasks to deepen their knowledge.^[22] This cycle repeats as needed until most students meet the criterion, culminating in a final summative test at the end of the unit or course to verify overall mastery.^[23] Bloom identified five key variables influencing success in LFM: aptitude, which primarily predicts the amount of time a student will need to reach mastery; the quality of instruction, which determines the efficiency of the learning process by minimizing errors and maximizing comprehension; the ability to understand instruction, which reflects how well the learner comprehends the presented material; perseverance, representing the student's motivation and willingness to persist through corrective efforts; and the time allowed for learning, which must vary individually to accommodate differences in pace while fitting group schedules.^[22] These variables interact such that high-quality instruction and sufficient time can compensate for lower aptitude, understanding, or perseverance, promoting equitable outcomes.^[22] When implemented effectively, LFM leads to high uniformity in student achievement, with studies cited in the model achieving mastery rates of 75% to 90% across diverse groups, far exceeding traditional instruction's typical 30% success rate.^[22]

Personalized System of Instruction (PSI)

The Personalized System of Instruction (PSI), developed by Fred S. Keller in 1968, is an educational approach grounded in B.F. Skinner's principles of operant conditioning, designed primarily for college-level courses to promote individualized learning through structured reinforcement. Keller outlined PSI as a method to replace traditional teacher-centered instruction with a system emphasizing student autonomy and immediate feedback, drawing on behavioral psychology to shape learning behaviors via positive reinforcement.^[24] At its core, PSI incorporates five essential elements to facilitate mastery-oriented progress. First, self-pacing allows students to advance through the course material at their own speed, accommodating individual differences in learning rates without the constraints of a fixed class schedule. Second, unit mastery requires students to achieve a high level of proficiency—typically 80% or better—on quizzes or tests before proceeding to the next unit, ensuring a strong foundation in each segment.^[25] Third, the use of written proctors, often advanced undergraduate students, provides immediate, on-site administration and scoring of unit tests, along with personalized feedback to reinforce correct responses and correct errors promptly.^[24] Fourth, lectures and discussions serve primarily as motivational tools or supplements, rather than the main source of instruction, which is delivered through carefully sequenced written materials that students study independently. Fifth, credit is awarded based on unit completion, with potential bonuses for faster progress, aligning incentives with behavioral reinforcement principles.^[25] PSI places heavy emphasis on written instructional materials as the primary learning resource, supplemented by proctors who handle testing logistics to minimize delays in feedback and maximize reinforcement opportunities.^[26] Unlike group-based models such as Learning for Mastery (LFM), with which it shares the overarching goal of achieving content mastery, PSI is more highly individualized, eschewing dominant group instruction in favor of one-on-one proctor interactions and a strict behaviorist focus on reinforcement for self-directed progress.^[27]

Implementation

Instructional Strategies

In mastery learning, instructional content is systematically divided into hierarchical units, typically spanning one to two weeks, each comprising prerequisite knowledge that builds progressively toward more complex skills. These units are structured around clear, measurable learning objectives that specify both the content and the desired cognitive behaviors, often aligned with levels of Bloom's taxonomy such as knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. For instance, objectives might require students to recall facts at lower levels or synthesize information at higher ones, ensuring that mastery of earlier units serves as a foundation for subsequent learning. This approach allows educators to sequence instruction logically, preventing gaps in understanding and promoting cumulative proficiency. Initial exposure to unit content employs a variety of resources to accommodate diverse learning styles, including lectures for conceptual overviews, textbooks and readings for in-depth exploration, and multimedia elements like audiovisual aids to enhance engagement. Following this introduction, students engage in targeted practice activities, such as workbooks, problem-solving exercises, or guided simulations, which reinforce the objectives through active application and immediate feedback. These practices are designed to be self-paced where possible, enabling students to revisit materials as needed before advancing, thus fostering deeper internalization of the material.^[4] Differentiation is central to mastery learning instruction, with reteaching tailored to diagnostic insights from formative checks. Students who have not achieved initial mastery receive alternative instructional approaches, such as small-group discussions for collaborative clarification, peer tutoring to build relational support, or modular online resources that allow individualized pacing and remediation. These methods vary the engagement style—shifting from whole-class lectures to personalized explanations—to address specific weaknesses, ensuring that reteaching aligns closely with the original objectives while introducing novel perspectives to overcome prior misconceptions.^[4] For students demonstrating early mastery, enrichment activities provide challenging extensions without repeating mastered content, such as advanced problem-solving tasks, interdisciplinary projects, or exploratory investigations that connect the unit to broader applications. These activities maintain momentum and prevent disengagement by offering opportunities for deeper inquiry or creative output, often integrated seamlessly into the unit's progression to reward high performers.^[4] To sustain motivation, mastery learning incorporates strategies that emphasize perseverance through structured success, including progress tracking via visual charts or portfolios that highlight incremental achievements and goal attainment. By framing learning as a series of attainable milestones with positive reinforcement upon mastery—such as verbal affirmation or badges—educators cultivate a sense of competence and autonomy, encouraging students to view challenges as surmountable rather than insurmountable.^[4]

Assessment Techniques

In mastery learning, formative assessments serve as the primary mechanism for evaluating student progress during instruction, typically consisting of short quizzes or tests with 10-20 items administered after each instructional unit, which lasts about one to two weeks.^[8] These assessments focus on identifying specific learning gaps rather than assigning final grades, allowing teachers to differentiate instruction based on individual needs.^[2] A common mastery threshold is set at 80% correct responses, indicating that students have sufficiently grasped the unit objectives before advancing.^[4] Diagnostic pre-assessments occur prior to the start of a unit to evaluate students' existing knowledge and skills, enabling instructors to customize entry points and avoid redundant instruction for those already proficient.^[2] This initial gauging ensures that learning builds on solid foundations, with results informing personalized pathways within the mastery framework.^[8] Following formative assessments, corrective assessments provide parallel versions of the original test for students who fall below the mastery level, targeting remediation through alternative explanations or additional practice activities.^[4] Enrichment assessments, similarly structured as parallel forms, challenge high-achieving students with advanced applications or extensions of the material to maintain engagement.^[2] These parallel assessments verify whether corrective or enrichment activities have effectively addressed or extended learning.^[8] Criterion-referenced grading underpins these techniques, measuring performance against predefined absolute standards of mastery rather than comparing students to one another, thereby emphasizing competence over relative ranking.^[2] This approach aligns assessments directly with instructional objectives, ensuring evaluations reflect true achievement of learning goals.^[4] Central to the process are feedback loops, where immediate and specific analyses of errors from formative assessments guide reteaching or targeted support, treating feedback as a diagnostic tool rather than a punitive measure.^[8] By pairing detailed error identification with corrective actions, these loops facilitate iterative improvement without the stigma of failure.^[2] In models like Learning for Mastery, this cycle of assessment, feedback, and correction repeats until mastery is achieved.^[28]

Research and Criticisms

Empirical Evidence

Meta-analyses of mastery learning programs have consistently demonstrated moderate to large positive effects on student achievement. A seminal review by Kulik, Kulik, and Bangert-Drowns analyzed 108 controlled evaluations and found an average effect size of 0.52 standard deviations, equivalent to moving students from the 50th to the 70th percentile on examinations, with effects ranging from 0.48 for personalized systems to 0.59 for group-based learning for mastery approaches.^[29] These gains were particularly pronounced for low-ability students, with an effect size of 0.61 standard deviations compared to 0.40 for high-ability students, indicating mastery learning's potential to narrow achievement gaps.^[29] Similarly, Guskey's synthesis of research, drawing on earlier meta-analyses, reported effect sizes around 1.00 standard deviation for mastery learning relative to traditional instruction, underscoring its reliability across diverse educational contexts.^[2] Bloom's foundational work on the "two-sigma problem" highlighted mastery learning's role in approximating the superior outcomes of one-on-one tutoring. In controlled studies, students under conventional group instruction achieved mastery at rates of only 20-30%, whereas those receiving individualized tutoring with mastery techniques reached 90% or higher proficiency, representing a two-standard-deviation gain.^[19] Group-based mastery learning, incorporating formative assessments and corrective procedures, replicated approximately one standard deviation of this effect, enabling 75-90% of students to attain high mastery levels and demonstrating scalable alternatives to personalized tutoring.^[19] Long-term studies further affirm mastery learning's benefits for retention and motivation. Longitudinal evaluations, such as those spanning 16 semesters in K-12 settings, reported mastery rates exceeding 95%, with 98.5% of students achieving A-level proficiency and sustained improvements in grade-point averages over extended periods.^[4] Research on successive relearning within mastery frameworks showed large effect sizes for long-term retention, particularly for conceptual material, as repeated practice with feedback strengthened memory consolidation beyond initial acquisition.^[4] Additionally, mastery approaches enhanced student motivation by fostering autonomy, competence, and relatedness, as evidenced by meta-analyses linking these elements to increased engagement and positive attitudes toward learning.^[4] Recent reviews up to 2023 confirm consistent achievement gains, especially in STEM subjects. A 2023 systematic analysis of 36 studies reported an average effect size of 0.59 standard deviations on academic performance, with stronger outcomes in science and mathematics through personalized mastery pathways that promote equity by accommodating diverse learner needs via universal design principles.^[4] These findings highlight mastery learning's role in reducing disparities, as low-achieving and underrepresented students benefited disproportionately from adaptive pacing and inclusive strategies.^[4] The success of mastery learning is influenced by key variables, including high-quality feedback and sufficient instructional time. Specific, timely feedback yields large effect sizes by guiding remediation and boosting self-efficacy, while flexible time allocation allows students to reach proficiency without artificial constraints, amplifying overall impacts.^[4] Programs emphasizing these elements consistently outperform those with rigid timelines or generic corrections.^[29]

Major Challenges

One major theoretical challenge in mastery learning is the time-achievement equality dilemma, which posits that while the approach assumes equal time allocation can yield uniform mastery across students, it often fails to account for inherent individual differences in aptitude and learning rates. High-aptitude students may underachieve or become disengaged without sufficient challenge or acceleration, as the model prioritizes homogenization of outcomes over personalized pacing for advanced learners. This unresolved tension between time variability and achievement equality underscores limitations in applying collective instruction to diverse classrooms.^[30] Methodological issues in empirical studies of mastery learning further undermine its evidential base, including frequent use of small sample sizes that limit generalizability and increase the risk of confounding variables such as teacher effects. Many investigations span short durations, often less than one semester, which fail to capture long-term retention or broader curricular impacts. Additionally, non-equivalent control groups, with pretest differences favoring or disadvantaging treatments, compromise causal inferences about the model's efficacy.^[31] Concerns with measurement in mastery learning center on its heavy reliance on multiple-choice or experimenter-designed tests, which may assess rote recall rather than deeper conceptual understanding or transfer of skills. The common criterion of 80% accuracy for mastery is often set arbitrarily, lacking robust empirical justification and potentially overlooking nuanced proficiency levels. Meta-analyses reveal variability in outcomes partly attributable to these assessment flaws, with effects diminishing on standardized measures that better reflect comprehensive learning.^[31]^[32] Practical implementation poses significant hurdles, as mastery learning is resource-intensive for educators, demanding extensive feedback, multiple assessment iterations, and progress tracking that strain teacher workloads. Scalability remains problematic in large classes, where individualized remediation for non-mastery students can overwhelm instructional capacity. Remediation processes also risk student boredom, particularly for those repeating content without varied engagement, exacerbating disengagement in group settings.^[4] A specific criticism highlights mastery learning's overemphasis on cognitive domains, which neglects affective and social learning aspects such as motivation, emotional regulation, and collaborative skills essential for holistic development. By prioritizing measurable cognitive mastery, the model may inadvertently sideline the cultivation of attitudes and interpersonal competencies, limiting its applicability in comprehensive educational contexts.^[33]

Contemporary Relevance

Applications in Education

In K-12 education, mastery learning has been integrated into competency-based education (CBE) systems, where students advance upon demonstrating proficiency rather than accumulating seat time. A prominent example is New Hampshire's statewide CBE initiative, launched in the early 2010s, which requires all public schools to award credit based on mastery of competencies, enabling personalized pacing and reducing reliance on traditional time-based progression.^[34]^[35] This approach has allowed districts to promote students based on skill acquisition, fostering flexibility in curricula across subjects like mathematics and science.^[36] In higher education, mastery learning principles underpin flipped classroom models and modular course designs, particularly in mathematics departments where students revisit material until proficiency is achieved. For instance, the University of Notre Dame's mathematics department implemented mastery-based grading in 2021, allowing retakes on assessments to replace initial scores, which encourages deeper engagement without penalizing early struggles.^[37] Similarly, the University of Michigan has scaled mastery testing in large introductory math courses since the early 2020s, where students must complete problem sets correctly to progress, contributing to improved retention and understanding.^[38] These applications align with broader flipped mastery frameworks, reversing traditional lectures to prioritize active problem-solving in class.^[39] Mastery learning promotes equity by enabling personalized pacing that addresses diverse student needs, thereby closing achievement gaps for underserved populations such as low-income and minority students. Research revisiting Benjamin Bloom's foundational work indicates that mastery approaches reduce variability in outcomes, with moderate to large effect sizes (e.g., 0.59) on academic achievement, contributing to the closing of gaps as students receive targeted support before advancing.^[40]^[41]^[4] In practice, this has led to higher proficiency rates among historically marginalized groups in CBE programs, emphasizing individualized instruction over uniform timelines.^[42] A specific illustration is Khan Academy's mastery-based progressions, adopted in online school programs during the 2020s to support hybrid and virtual learning environments. Through its district partnerships, Khan Academy enables students to unlock subsequent content only after achieving 80-100% proficiency on prior modules, as seen in implementations at schools like Khan Lab School, where this system has boosted completion rates by allowing self-paced advancement.^[43]^[44] This model integrates diagnostic assessments to guide remediation, making it suitable for scalable online curricula in math and other core subjects.^[45] Despite these benefits, implementing mastery learning in educational settings faces practical challenges, including the need for extensive teacher training to shift from time-based to proficiency-based instruction. Educators often require professional development to design flexible assessments and manage varied student paces, as inadequate preparation can lead to inconsistent application.^[46] Additionally, aligning curricula with mastery standards demands revisions to ensure clear, measurable competencies, which can strain resources in districts transitioning from traditional models.^[47] These hurdles highlight the importance of systemic support for sustained adoption.^[4]

Integration with Technology

Digital tools have significantly modernized mastery learning by enabling real-time personalization and scalable implementation, particularly through adaptive learning platforms that adjust content difficulty based on student performance data. Platforms like DreamBox Learning utilize artificial intelligence (AI) to deliver individualized math lessons for K-8 students, dynamically modifying pathways to ensure mastery of concepts before progression, which aligns with the core principles of mastery-based education.^[48]^[49] Similarly, Duolingo employs AI-driven adaptive algorithms in language learning, tailoring exercises to user errors and progress to promote skill mastery through spaced repetition and immediate feedback.^[50] These systems, emerging prominently in the 2010s and accelerating into the 2020s, address traditional mastery learning's limitations in pacing by providing continuous assessment and remediation.^[51] Learning management systems (LMS) further integrate mastery learning through plugins and built-in features for automated quizzes, progress tracking, and customized learning paths. Moodle and Canvas support mastery-oriented assessments by allowing educators to set competency thresholds, enabling students to retake modules until proficiency is achieved, with automated grading and analytics to monitor advancement.^[52]^[53] For instance, Canvas's quiz tools facilitate adaptive testing where question difficulty scales with performance, enhancing assessment techniques by providing data-driven insights into student readiness.^[54] The COVID-19 pandemic triggered a post-2020 surge in edtech adoption for mastery learning, driven by the shift to remote education, which highlighted the need for flexible, self-paced systems to maintain instructional continuity. This period saw increased investment in digital platforms, with tools like Khan Academy and ALEKS gaining traction for their mastery-based modules that allowed students to advance upon demonstrating 80-100% proficiency, regardless of chronological timelines.^[55]^[5] In vocational training, virtual reality (VR) simulations have emerged as a key innovation, enabling repeated, risk-free practice of hands-on skills until mastery is attained; for example, VR platforms simulate radiographic interpretation or technical trades, allowing learners to iterate on procedures in immersive environments.^[56]^[57] Technology integration in mastery learning offers benefits such as scalability for large cohorts, where AI handles individualized instruction without proportional increases in human resources; data analytics for precise feedback on learning gaps; and gamification elements like badges and leaderboards to foster perseverance and motivation.^[58]^[59] These features make mastery accessible beyond small-group settings, with analytics enabling educators to intervene strategically based on aggregated performance trends.^[60] As of 2025, emerging trends include AI tutors in hybrid models that approximate Benjamin Bloom's two-sigma effect—where one-on-one tutoring yields twice the learning gains of traditional methods—by providing scalable, personalized guidance. Platforms like those developed by Alpha School use AI to deliver mastery-focused tutoring, combining virtual interactions with classroom elements to accelerate skill acquisition and close achievement gaps.^[61] This approach leverages generative AI for real-time remediation, making high-impact tutoring viable for widespread use in diverse educational contexts.^[62]

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ED053419 - Learning for Mastery. Instruction and Curriculum ... - ERIC
PDF on ERIC Download full text. ERIC Number: ED053419. Record Type: RIE. Publication Date: 1968-May ... Learning for Mastery. Instruction and Curriculum ...
[28]
Effectiveness of Mastery Learning Programs: A Meta-Analysis
A meta-analysis of findings from 108 controlled evaluations showed that mastery learning programs have positive effects on the examination performance of ...
[29]
Time, Equality, and Mastery Learning - Marshall Arlin, 1984
It is suggested that issues in this debate illustrate equality, time, and achievement dilemmas which may be inherent to most forms of collective instruction.
[30]
Mastery Learning Reconsidered - Robert E. Slavin, 1987
This article examines group-based mastery learning, finding no evidence of effectiveness on standardized measures, and moderate effects on experimenter-made ...Missing: criticisms | Show results with:criticisms
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[PDF] Mastery criteria and the maintenance of skills in children with ...
Apr 1, 2021 · Practitioners often preset the criteria arbitrarily as there is little empirical evidence about the effects of differing mastery criteria on the ...
[32]
College Quarterly - The Affective Domain: Undiscovered Country
When it comes to mastery of skills, we see that “Learning is essential for students to master skills but if the affective domain is ignored, the cognitive ...Missing: criticism | Show results with:criticism
[33]
From policy to practice: How competency-based education is ...
May 6, 2014 · Students advance upon demonstrated mastery. Competencies include explicit, measurable, transferable learning objectives that empower students.<|control11|><|separator|>
[34]
New Hampshire: Statewide Competency-Based Education
Today, all New Hampshire schools operate on a competency-based system that awards student credit based on demonstrated mastery of knowledge and skills, rather ...
[35]
[PDF] Moving Toward Mastery: Growing, Developing and Sustaining ...
CompetencyWorks is a collaborative initiative dedicated to advancing personalized, competency-based education in K-12 and higher education.
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Math department implements mastery-based grading system | News
Nov 10, 2021 · In a mastery-based grading system, the first percentage that students earn on an exam does not necessarily remain as their final grade.
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Case study: Mastery testing at scale in University of Michigan's ...
Sep 18, 2023 · If a student correctly completes all seven problems on a mastery, they receive full credit towards their final grade. This varies between 7% and ...
[38]
Introduction to the Special Issue on Implementing Mastery Grading ...
Sep 1, 2020 · We provide a broad introduction to mastery grading and describe articles in this special issue that provide a wide range of implementations of mastery grading.
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Revisiting Benjamin S. Bloom's “Learning for Mastery” - Sage Journals
The internationalization of Bloom's learning for mastery: A 25-year retrospective-prospective view. ... Click the button below for the full-text content. 请 ...
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[PDF] Closing Achievement Gaps: - ERIC
The internationalization of Bloom's learning for mastery: A 25-year retrospective-prospective view. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American.<|separator|>
[41]
Evidence-Based Interventions: A Guide for States
Mar 31, 2016 · This brief provides an overview of four commonly used interventions that, when well-implemented, have been shown to raise performance.
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Mastery Learning for Grade-Level Content - Khan Academy Districts
Khan Academy's mastery learning system builds students understanding over time, allowing them to slow down and dig into skills where they need support.Missing: progressions online 2020s
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Putting Mastery-Based Education into Practice - Khan Lab School
In our mastery-based program, it's up to students to set the pace and depth of their learning, so the one-on-one discussions around work habits and mindset with ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[44]
Teachers prefer using mastery learning to close learning gaps
Aug 3, 2022 · From a survey of 639 teachers across K-12 schools in the U.S., 84% support the idea for tackling pandemic-related learning loss. “Mastery ...Missing: term | Show results with:term
[45]
Mastery Learning | WingInstitute.org
Mastery learning is an instructional approach that relies on students successfully mastering material before moving on to the next lesson.
[46]
[PDF] Barriers to effective curriculum implementation - ERIC
Jess et al. (2016) argued that teachers need the capacity to design developmentally appropriate learning tasks that are aligned to curricular expectations. The ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[47]
DreamBox Learning
DreamBox Math and English are resources that combine an engaging curriculum with Intelligent Adaptive Learning™ to provide dynamic, motivating experiences ...Legal · DreamBox Login · DreamBox Math · How DreamBox works at home
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AI in Adaptive Learning | Benefits & Best Practices for 2024
Nov 4, 2024 · Utilizing adaptive machine learning algorithms, DreamBox provides individualized math lessons that respond dynamically to student performance ...
[49]
39 Examples of Artificial Intelligence in Education
Language Learning: AI tools like Duolingo use adaptive algorithms to personalize language learning experiences. The AI adjusts the difficulty of exercises ...
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Artificial intelligence-enabled adaptive learning platforms: A review
Mastery learning structures knowledge into smaller units for gradual learning, followed by assessments. Students receive corrective feedback and remediation ...
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Supporting students with adaptive technology - Pearson
Oct 24, 2025 · Can adaptive tools really improve outcomes? Yes. By promoting mastery learning, retrieval practice and targeted intervention, adaptive tools ...
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Mastery Learning: Redefining Learner Success
Aug 13, 2024 · Mastery learning is an educational philosophy and practice that ensures students grasp a subject or skill thoroughly before moving on to more complex concepts.Missing: K- 12
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The Best Sites for Creating Online Academic Quizzes in 2025
Canvas LMS ... The platform supports adaptive learning with personalized feedback and multiple quiz attempts, making it a strong choice for mastery learning.
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Interest grows in mastery-based learning, though evidence remains ...
May 28, 2020 · Advocates of “mastery-based learning” and purveyors of education technology are arguing that it's the perfect time for schools to allow students ...Missing: post- | Show results with:post-
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[PDF] The evolution of mastery learning: Challenges, technologies, and ...
Sep 12, 2025 · Technology Used in Mastery Learning Over the Years. Years ... Adaptive Learning Platforms, MOOCs. Khan Academy, ALEKS, Coursera used data to.
[56]
Virtual reality simulation for mastery learning of wrist radiograph ...
Virtual reality (VR) simulation is a technology that empowers students and radiographers to engage in radiography practice within a virtual environment, ...Abstract · Initial Radiographic... · DiscussionMissing: vocational | Show results with:vocational
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Virtual Reality in Vocational Education and Training: Immersion ...
Aug 26, 2025 · The BeLEARN VR project used several studies to analyse the uses of immersive virtual reality (VR) for vocational education and training.
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https://www.coursera.org/articles/adaptive-learning-platforms
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8 Adaptive Learning Examples Transforming Education - Mindstamp
Jun 13, 2025 · DreamBox Learning exemplifies adaptive learning in K-8 math education. This innovative platform uses artificial intelligence to personalize ...
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Adaptive Learning Content: Education for the Digital Age
Nov 24, 2024 · Flipped classroom: Students engage with adaptive content before class, allowing for more interactive in-person sessions; Mastery learning ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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2-Sigma in 2 Hours: How Alpha Schools are Using AI to ...
Jun 25, 2025 · MacKenzie Price, founder of Alpha School & 2 Hour Learning, discusses her revolutionary educational model that uses AI to enable students to ...
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How AI Solves Bloom's 2 Sigma Problem - Studient
Oct 3, 2025 · Bloom proved tutoring doubles learning gains but couldn't scale. Discover how Studient's Motivention™ uses AI-powered mastery and motivation ...<|control11|><|separator|>