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Multistatic radar

Multistatic radar is a radar system that incorporates two or more spatially separated transmitting or receiving antennas, with separations large compared to the radar wavelength, to detect and track targets through the combination of signals from multiple perspectives.^[1] This setup enables the centralized or decentralized processing of data, often combining target information coherently or noncoherently to form a unified detection and localization output.^[2] Unlike monostatic radars, where the transmitter and receiver are co-located at a single site, multistatic configurations exploit geometric diversity to enhance overall system performance.^[3] The core components of a multistatic radar typically include multiple transmitters (which may share waveforms or operate independently) and receivers with overlapping coverage areas, along with a central fusion processor for data integration.^[3] Systems can range from simple bistatic setups (one transmitter and one remote receiver) to complex networks with numerous nodes, such as distributed aperture radars.^[4] Synchronization among nodes is critical, often achieved through GPS-disciplined oscillators or other timing mechanisms, to ensure accurate signal correlation.^[5] Multistatic radars offer significant advantages over conventional monostatic systems, including superior target resolution, expanded coverage, and inherent spatial diversity that improves detection probability and tracking accuracy.^[6] They provide enhanced information on target signatures, such as micro-Doppler effects and scattering profiles from multiple angles, which aids in classification and discrimination.^[4] Additionally, the separation of transmit and receive functions enables covert operations, greater resistance to electronic countermeasures like jamming, and better performance against low-observable (stealth) targets.^[7] These benefits have driven applications in military surveillance, air defense, maritime monitoring, and even passive radar systems using opportunistic illuminators like FM radio broadcasts.^[8] Historically, multistatic concepts evolved from bistatic experiments, with early demonstrations in planetary radar during the Apollo missions (1971–1972) and the Clementine lunar orbiter (1994), where multiple ground receivers captured signals reflected from spacecraft transmitters.^[9] Modern implementations, validated through field tests like those with the NetRAD system, confirm practical feasibility and performance gains in real-world scenarios.^[4]

Introduction

Definition and Configurations

Multistatic radar refers to a radar system employing multiple non-collocated transmitters and receivers to detect and track targets, leveraging spatial diversity for enhanced performance.^[10] This setup extends beyond monostatic radar, where the transmitter and receiver are co-located at a single site, by distributing the antennas over significant distances relative to their physical dimensions.^[11] Configurations within multistatic radar include bistatic systems, which use one transmitter and one receiver; multistatic systems with multiple transmitters and/or receivers; and netted architectures that coordinate disparate radar nodes for joint operation.^[12] Key configurations of multistatic radar exploit specific geometric arrangements to optimize detection. In forward scatter setups, the receiver is positioned such that the target lies between the transmitter and receiver, with the bistatic angle approaching 180 degrees, enabling effective detection of stealthy targets due to the increased radar cross-section in the forward direction.^[13] Sidelobe configurations utilize the sidelobes of a primary transmitter's main beam, paired with off-axis receivers, to form opportunistic sensing networks without requiring dedicated illuminators.^[14] Distributed aperture configurations involve wide-area networks of sensors that synthesize a large virtual aperture, improving resolution and coverage through coordinated multistatic processing.^[15] The operational foundation of multistatic radar adapts the classical radar equation to account for separated sites, incorporating propagation losses over distinct transmitter-to-target and target-to-receiver paths. A core geometric element is the bistatic range R_b = R_t + R_r, the sum of distances from the transmitter to the target (R_t) and from the target to the receiver (R_r), which defines ellipsoidal constant-range contours with foci at the transmitter and receiver positions.^[16] The transmitter-receiver baseline distance D, derived via the law of cosines, is given by

D = \sqrt{R_t^2 + R_r^2 - 2 R_t R_r \cos \theta},

where \theta is the bistatic angle at the target; this relation influences signal strength and resolution in the adapted radar equation.^[17] These configurations provide multistatic radar with advantages such as expanded coverage areas and resilience against single-point failures, as the distributed nature mitigates vulnerabilities inherent to centralized systems.^[2]

Comparison to Monostatic and Bistatic Systems

Monostatic radar systems feature a co-located transmitter and receiver at a single site, relying exclusively on backscattered signals from targets for detection.^[18] This configuration makes them particularly vulnerable to jamming and anti-radiation missiles, as the shared location exposes both components to interference and targeting.^[19] The performance of monostatic radar is fundamentally described by the radar range equation, which relates received power P_r to transmitted power P_t, antenna gain G, wavelength \lambda, target radar cross-section \sigma, and range R:

P_r = \frac{P_t G^2 \lambda^2 \sigma}{(4\pi)^3 R^4}

This equation highlights the fourth-power dependence on range, emphasizing the signal attenuation in backscatter scenarios.^[20] In contrast, bistatic radar employs a single transmitter and a separate receiver, typically separated by a distance comparable to the target range, allowing for forward or side scatter geometries that enhance detection of stealthy targets.^[21] Forward scatter, in particular, can significantly increase the effective radar cross-section for low-observable objects by exploiting diffraction effects when the target crosses the transmitter-receiver baseline.^[21] However, bistatic systems exhibit limited scalability due to their reliance on a fixed pair of sites, constraining coverage to specific geometries without additional infrastructure. Early bistatic experiments were conducted in the 1930s by UK researchers, laying foundational work for non-collocated radar operations.^[22] Multistatic radar extends these concepts by incorporating multiple transmitters and receivers, forming a network that improves the three-dimensional ambiguity function through spatial diversity across sites.^[23] This configuration enables superior velocity resolution via Doppler diversity, as varying geometries provide multiple radial velocity measurements that resolve ambiguities inherent in single-pair systems.^[24] Key advantages include the option for passive receivers that do not emit signals, reducing detectability, and broader illumination areas achieved by coordinating multiple transmitters to cover extended regions.^[11] Nonetheless, multistatic setups introduce greater complexity in signal correlation, requiring advanced processing to synchronize and fuse data from disparate sites while mitigating interference from cross-terms.^[25]

Historical Development

Early Concepts and Prototypes

The theoretical foundations of multistatic radar trace back to the early 1930s, building on initial observations of radio wave interference effects for aircraft detection. In 1930, L.A. Hyland at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory conducted the first documented detection of an aircraft using wave-interference principles in a continuous-wave radar setup.^[26] Similarly, Soviet researchers developed bistatic continuous-wave (CW) radars in 1932, employing acoustic-inspired methods to detect aircraft altitude and direction by separating transmission and reception sites, addressing limitations in monostatic designs for low-observable targets.^[27] These early concepts emphasized the advantages of spatial separation to enhance detection geometry, though practical implementation was constrained by the era's technology. During World War II, the first operational bistatic prototypes emerged, particularly in response to low-altitude threats. German engineers developed the Klein Heidelberg system starting in 1941, with operational deployments from 1943 to 1944, exploiting transmissions from the British Chain Home network as an illuminator source for forward-scatter detection of low-flying Allied aircraft. This passive configuration allowed reception over the horizon, achieving ranges greater than 200 km (maximum 398 km) with baselines of approximately 160 km between the exploited transmitter and receiver sites, and proved effective for early warning in 1944 despite jamming.^[28] The system highlighted multistatic potential through opportunistic multi-site coordination, though it relied on enemy signals and suffered from jamming vulnerabilities. Post-war developments in the 1950s saw a resurgence in interest in bi- and multistatic radars, driven by Cold War threats and the need to enhance detection against non-cooperative targets.^[29] By the late 1960s and 1970s, efforts at Lincoln Laboratory advanced distributed sensor fusion and netted radar architectures to improve tracking accuracy and coverage, with demonstrations such as SAGE-like netting in 1978.^[30] Early demonstrations of multistatic principles also appeared in planetary radar applications. During the Apollo missions (1971–1972), multiple ground-based receivers captured signals reflected from spacecraft transmitters, enabling combined processing for improved localization. Similarly, the 1994 Clementine lunar orbiter mission utilized multistatic configurations with separated transmit and receive sites for enhanced imaging and tracking.^[2] Early multistatic prototypes faced significant challenges, primarily due to the absence of adequate computing power for real-time data fusion across sites, necessitating manual synchronization techniques such as wired timing links or operator coordination.^[10] This limited scalability, as phase and timing alignment between separated transmitters and receivers often required laborious adjustments, restricting systems to short baselines and simple geometries until digital processing emerged later.^[31]

Modern Implementations and Milestones

During the Cold War era, the Soviet Union advanced multistatic over-the-horizon (OTH) radar capabilities in the 1970s with systems like the Duga array, a bistatic configuration featuring a massive transmitter near Chernobyl and a separate receiver site approximately 60 km away, designed for long-range missile detection up to 3,000 km. This implementation highlighted early multistatic advantages in spatial diversity for early warning, though it suffered from high interference and was decommissioned in the 1980s due to technical limitations and the Chernobyl disaster.^[32] The 1990s marked a digital shift in multistatic radar, driven by the adoption of phased array antennas and emerging software-defined radios (SDRs), which facilitated adaptive signal processing and reduced hardware dependencies for multi-site coordination. A key milestone was the 1991 publication of Nicholas J. Willis's Bistatic Radar, which synthesized theoretical foundations and practical designs, influencing subsequent integrations of digital beamforming in multistatic networks for improved resolution and anti-jamming.^[33] By the early 2000s, U.S. naval systems like AEGIS upgrades began incorporating multistatic elements via cooperative engagement capability (CEC), enabling data fusion from distributed radars for enhanced tracking in Baseline 7 configurations.^[34] In the 2010s, European efforts advanced passive multistatic imaging through the NetRAD project, a coherent S-band system developed by University College London with three nodes for sea clutter analysis and vessel detection, demonstrating sub-meter resolution in bistatic geometries up to 10 km baselines.^[35] This initiative underscored the viability of low-cost, commercial-off-the-shelf hardware for multistatic applications in maritime surveillance.^[36] The 2020s have seen AI-driven data fusion in multistatic systems, exemplified by China's YLC-8E, a mobile UHF phased-array radar deployable in netted configurations for anti-stealth detection, integrated into air defense networks as of 2023.^[37] Concurrently, DARPA's Distributed Radar Image Formation Technology (DRIFT) program, with solicitation in 2022 and contracts awarded in 2023, explores multistatic synthetic aperture radar (SAR) using satellite constellations in formation for high-resolution imaging.^[38] Recent trends emphasize integration with UAV swarms to form dynamic multistatic networks, addressing spectrum congestion in contested environments through distributed apertures and edge computing for real-time fusion. These developments enhance robustness against electronic warfare.^[39]

Operating Principles

Signal Transmission and Reception

In multistatic radar systems, signal transmission involves multiple geographically separated transmitters emitting waveforms designed to be orthogonal to prevent mutual interference at the receivers. Orthogonal waveforms ensure that signals from different transmitters can be distinguished upon reception, facilitating accurate separation and processing. Common techniques include Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA), where each transmitter operates on a distinct frequency sub-band, and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), which employs unique orthogonal codes to modulate the signals from each transmitter.^[40]^[41] These methods assume familiarity with basic radar waveforms, such as pulsed or continuous wave (CW) signals, which form the basis for these orthogonal designs.^[42] The composite signal received at any receiver is the superposition of contributions from all transmitters, accounting for propagation delays and channel effects. Mathematically, this can be expressed as

s(t) = \sum_{i} A_i h_i(t) \ast x_i(t - \tau_i),

where A_i represents the amplitude from the i-th transmitter, h_i(t) is the channel impulse response for that path, x_i(t) is the transmitted waveform, \tau_i is the propagation delay, and \ast denotes convolution. This model captures the delayed and attenuated replicas of each transmitted signal arriving at the receiver.^[43]^[15] At the receivers, which are also spatially distributed, the incoming signals include the direct path from nearby transmitters, multipath components due to environmental reflections, and weaker target echoes scattered from the object of interest. The direct path often dominates in strength, necessitating careful mitigation to isolate the target returns, while multipath can introduce ambiguities that must be resolved through signal processing. To suppress unwanted clutter in the received signals, space-time adaptive processing (STAP) is applied, which adaptively weights the data across spatial channels (from antenna arrays) and temporal samples (across pulses) to null out interference while preserving target signals. This technique exploits the spatio-temporal structure of clutter to enhance the visibility of echoes.^[44] Propagation in multistatic setups is influenced by the bistatic geometry between each transmitter-receiver pair, particularly through the radar cross-section (RCS), which varies with the bistatic angle \theta (the angle at the target between the incident and scattered directions). The bistatic RCS \sigma_b(\theta) can be approximated as \sigma_b(\theta) = \sigma_m \cdot G(\theta), where \sigma_m is the corresponding monostatic RCS and G(\theta) is a geometry-dependent gain factor that typically peaks near forward scatter (\theta \approx 180^\circ) and diminishes for larger angles.^[45]^[46] The specific paths are shaped by the overall geometric configurations of the transmitters and receivers.

Geometry and Multi-Site Coordination

In multistatic radar systems, the geometric configuration defines the spatial relationships between multiple transmitters (TX) and receivers (RX), enabling enhanced target localization compared to monostatic setups. For individual bistatic pairs within a multistatic network, targets at constant total range (sum of TX-to-target and target-to-RX distances) lie on elliptical loci centered on the TX and RX positions, with the major axis aligned along the baseline separating the sites. This elliptical geometry arises from the bistatic range equation and influences the ambiguity in target positioning, requiring multiple pairs to resolve unique locations.^[23] Extending to full multistatic operation, the collective measurements from multiple TX-RX pairs generate a multistatic ambiguity surface, a 3D representation of range-Doppler ambiguities across the surveillance volume. Intersection of these surfaces from diverse geometries allows precise 3D target positioning by minimizing the volume of possible solutions, often achieving sub-wavelength accuracy in coordinated setups. Signal reception from these geometries serves as the primary input for subsequent coordination processes.^[47] Effective multi-site coordination relies on precise scheduling and synchronization to avoid interference and ensure coherent processing. Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is commonly employed for TX scheduling, where transmitters operate in sequential time slots to transmit orthogonal waveforms, preventing mutual interference while maintaining a shared coverage area. For synchronization, GPS-disciplined oscillators combined with inertial navigation systems (INS) provide timing and phase references across sites, with required error bounds typically less than λ/10 (where λ is the wavelength) to preserve coherence; for example, commercial GPS units achieve timing accuracies of ±4.2 ns, suitable for bandwidths up to 70 MHz.^[48]^[49] Multistatic configurations vary in data handling: centralized architectures fuse raw measurements at a single master site for joint processing, optimizing global performance but increasing communication demands, while distributed (peer-to-peer) approaches perform local processing at each RX before sharing summaries, enhancing scalability and fault tolerance. A key benefit in both is the formation of a virtual array, where the sparse TX-RX placements synthesize an effective aperture spanning kilometers, far exceeding physical array limits and improving angular resolution.^[50]^[51] A primary challenge in long-range multistatic networks is baseline decorrelation, where extended separations between sites (often tens to hundreds of kilometers) lead to phase instabilities and signal fading due to atmospheric variations and multipath effects, degrading coherence and necessitating advanced calibration techniques.

Performance Advantages

Enhanced Detection and Resolution

Multistatic radar systems achieve enhanced target detection by leveraging multiple spatially separated receivers to obtain independent looks at the target, thereby reducing the impact of false alarms and improving the overall probability of detection compared to monostatic configurations. In scenarios modeled using Swerling fluctuation models for target reflectivity, the detection probability P_d can be adapted for multistatic operation as P_d = 1 - (1 - P_{d1})^N, where P_{d1} is the single-receiver detection probability and N is the number of receivers providing independent observations. This formulation assumes low false alarm rates and independent noise across receivers, leading to a compounding effect that significantly boosts reliability, particularly for fluctuating targets under Swerling I or III models.^[52] The diversity in viewing geometries inherent to multistatic setups further contributes to detection gains by mitigating shadowing and multipath effects that plague single-site radars. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves comparing multistatic and monostatic systems demonstrate that multistatic configurations can achieve equivalent detection performance at significantly lower signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), highlighting the efficiency of spatial diversity in resource-constrained environments. This improvement stems from the statistical independence of signals at each receiver, allowing noncoherent integration that enhances weak signal detectability without requiring increased transmit power.^[53] In terms of resolution, multistatic radar excels in cross-range performance through the exploitation of bistatic angle diversity, where the separation between transmitters and receivers forms an effective baseline that surpasses the limitations of monostatic beamwidths. The angular resolution \delta \theta is approximated by \delta \theta \approx \frac{\lambda}{B \sin \theta}, with \lambda as the wavelength, B the baseline length, and \theta the angle subtended by the baseline relative to the target. This formulation enables finer discrimination of closely spaced targets in the cross-range dimension, as the varying bistatic angles provide complementary perspectives that resolve ambiguities unresolved in collinear monostatic geometries. A key advantage for challenging targets, such as low-radar-cross-section (RCS) stealth aircraft, arises from forward scatter geometries in multistatic arrangements, where the receiver is positioned near the transmitter-target line of sight. In these configurations, the forward scatter RCS can exceed the backscattered RCS by up to 10 dB, dramatically improving detectability for objects designed to minimize monostatic returns. This gain is particularly pronounced at low bistatic angles, where the target's shadow or diffraction effects dominate, offering a robust counter to stealth technologies without relying on high-power illumination.^[54]

Improved Classification and Robustness

Multistatic radar systems enhance target classification by leveraging micro-Doppler signatures captured from multiple spatially diverse viewpoints, which provide richer feature extraction compared to monostatic configurations. In monostatic radar, self-occlusion can obscure portions of the target's motion-induced Doppler shifts, limiting the discernible features for identification. Multistatic setups mitigate this by offering redundant observations from different angles, enabling the extraction of comprehensive micro-Doppler profiles that reveal subtle kinematic details, such as limb movements in personnel or rotor dynamics in drones. For instance, analysis of personnel targets shows that multistatic micro-Doppler signatures yield a probability of correct classification up to 0.99 using multiperspective dynamic time warping, significantly outperforming single-view approaches.^[55] This multi-view capability extends to micro-drone classification, where features like Doppler centroid, bandwidth, and singular value decomposition from time-frequency representations achieve accuracies exceeding 96% for payload discrimination during hovering, with improvements of up to 10% over monostatic systems that struggle with aspect angle variations and clutter interference. For example, in cluttered scenarios for personnel classification, multistatic accuracies often surpass 90%, compared to around 70-84% for monostatic radar, due to the fusion of diverse signatures that reduce false alarms from environmental returns.^[56]^[57] Additionally, multistatic configurations facilitate inverse synthetic aperture radar (ISAR) imaging across multiple baselines, enabling the construction of three-dimensional target models that support advanced classification. By estimating observation angles and associating scattering centers via projective geometry, multistatic ISAR reconstructs geometric structures—such as solar panels on space targets—with errors below 0.075 meters at signal-to-noise ratios above 10 dB, providing a robust basis for identifying target types and orientations beyond two-dimensional projections.^[58] Regarding robustness, multistatic radar exhibits graceful degradation, where the failure of a single transmitter or receiver minimally impacts overall performance due to the distributed architecture. For example, in a network with 10 transmitters, losing one results in only a marginal reduction in tracking accuracy, maintaining operational viability unlike monostatic systems that fail completely upon component loss. This spatial distribution also bolsters resistance to electronic countermeasures through receiver diversity, where multiple sites exploit varying propagation paths to suppress correlated jamming signals via correlation tests on complex envelopes.^[59]^[60] Frequency agility further enhances anti-jamming by allowing rapid carrier frequency shifts across transmitters, complicating jammer adaptation and reducing the effective burn-through range for noise jamming. Polarization diversity in multistatic setups aids material discrimination, as different baselines capture varied scattering responses that distinguish metallic from dielectric surfaces based on dipole moment estimation and polarimetric signatures.

Technical Challenges

Synchronization and Data Fusion

In multistatic radar systems, synchronization ensures phase coherence across distributed transmitters and receivers to enable accurate range and Doppler measurements. Phase coherence is achieved through methods such as pilot tones transmitted in direct breakthrough signals between sites, which allow for calibration of phase offsets when line-of-sight paths exist.^[61] Alternatively, atomic clocks, including chip-scale rubidium or cesium variants, provide long-term frequency stability for syntonization, with GNSS-disciplined oscillators (GPSDOs) offering sub-100 ns time accuracy by referencing satellite atomic clocks.^[62] Time and frequency alignment protocols, such as White Rabbit precision time protocol over fiber optics, deliver sub-nanosecond synchronization with picosecond jitter, combining short-term stability from oven-controlled crystal oscillators with GPSDO long-term holdover.^[62] Timing errors in synchronization directly impact performance, with the error model requiring Δτ < 1/BR, where BR is the signal bandwidth, to maintain range resolution; practical systems target sub-10 ns RMS for enhanced accuracy.^[62] A specific technique for time-of-arrival (TOA) estimation involves cross-correlation of the received signal x(t) with the transmitted signal s(t), yielding the delay estimate

\tau = \arg\max_{\tau} \int x(t) s^*(t - \tau) \, dt,

where * denotes the complex conjugate, maximizing the correlation peak for precise alignment in multistatic geometries.^[63] Data fusion in multistatic radar combines measurements from multiple sites to form coherent tracks, often using centralized approaches like unscented Kalman filtering for track initiation and association. In this method, measurements from transmitter-receiver pairs are grouped via Mahalanobis distance thresholding, fused into position and velocity states, and initiated with nearest-neighbor logic to classify tracks as active or tentative, improving detection probability in clutter.^[64] Distributed fusion employs consensus algorithms, such as labelled multi-Bernoulli consensus arithmetic averaging, where local filters at each node exchange state estimates to resolve label inconsistencies and achieve global multi-target tracking without a central processor.^[65] Challenges in synchronization and fusion arise from non-line-of-sight (NLOS) delays in urban environments, where multipath propagation introduces timing biases exceeding nanoseconds. Machine learning-based compensation, such as support vector machines applied to diffraction signals or particle filters for NLOS target tracking, mitigates these by modeling propagation anomalies and refining delay estimates.^[66] These processes build on the spatial geometry of multistatic sites to provide a foundation for robust signal alignment. Recent advancements highlight additional challenges in integrated sensing and communication (ISAC) systems, including interference management and synchronization errors in networked multistatic configurations.^[67]

Bandwidth and Processing Demands

In multistatic radar systems, bandwidth demands stem from the aggregation of signals across multiple spatially separated sites, where data transmission scales quadratically with the number of nodes. For a configuration with N transmitters and N receivers, the effective data volume grows as O(N^2) due to the pairwise combinations of transmission-reception paths, each contributing independent measurements that must be relayed for fusion.^[68] Real-time processing typically necessitates communication links with bandwidths exceeding 10 MHz per site to accommodate high-resolution waveforms without excessive delay.^[69] To alleviate these requirements, compressed sensing techniques exploit signal sparsity, reducing the transmitted data volume by factors of up to 50% while preserving detection fidelity in multistatic configurations.^[70] Processing demands in multistatic radar are intensified by the need for high-dimensional data fusion, often requiring GPU-accelerated architectures to manage the influx of correlated signals from distributed receivers. Computational complexity for key operations, such as ambiguity function evaluation or backprojection imaging, can scale as O(N^3) in systems with N sites, arising from the volumetric integration over delay-Doppler spaces across multiple baselines.^[71] Synchronization inputs further elevate these demands, as precise temporal alignment of signals from disparate sites is essential prior to fusion, adding overhead to the overall algorithmic pipeline.^[11] Integration with 5G and emerging 6G networks addresses backhaul challenges by providing high-capacity links with end-to-end latencies below 1 ms, enabling efficient data routing in multistatic setups.^[72] However, power consumption is significantly elevated compared to monostatic systems, primarily due to the deployment of distributed amplifiers at multiple remote sites to maintain signal integrity over extended geometries.^[73] Mitigation strategies include edge computing at receiver nodes, where preliminary signal conditioning and feature extraction occur locally to offload central processors and curb bandwidth strain.^[74]

Applications and Systems

Military and Defense Examples

Russia's Nebo-M radar complex, introduced in 2014, functions as a multi-band networked system effective against stealth aircraft. It integrates VHF, UHF, and L-band monostatic radars across distributed sites for data fusion and improved low-observable target detection up to 600 km in the VHF band.^[75] Deployed in air defense networks, it supports early warning and missile guidance, with its modular design allowing rapid reconfiguration for contested environments, though units have faced losses in recent conflicts as of 2025.^[76] The NetRAD multistatic radar system, developed by University College London and validated through field tests since the 2000s, demonstrates practical multistatic applications in maritime surveillance and target classification. It uses a network of low-power transmitters and receivers for high-resolution imaging of small vessels and detection of stealthy targets, enhancing covert operations.^[4]

Civilian and Scientific Uses

Multistatic radar systems have found significant applications in environmental monitoring, particularly for weather observation and prediction. By integrating data from multiple receivers with a shared transmitter, such as in setups using the operational WSR-88D network, these systems enable the retrieval of three-dimensional wind fields in severe convective events. For instance, deployments in Oklahoma City have demonstrated improved accuracy in resolving mesocyclones and vertical velocities, with mean errors reduced to -1.3 m/s compared to -2.8 m/s in monostatic configurations, aiding in enhanced tornado prediction capabilities.^[77] In scientific research, multistatic radar contributes to ionospheric studies and space debris tracking. The SuperDARN network employs multistatic operations to monitor ionospheric plasma drifts, nearly doubling geographic coverage and providing additional velocity components for comprehensive reconstruction. This wide-beam approach accelerates scanning by up to 16 times, facilitating detailed analysis of ionospheric phenomena.^[78] Additionally, the European Space Surveillance and Tracking (SST) service utilizes radar sensors, including bistatic configurations developed by consortia like ONERA, to support debris tracking in low Earth orbit and improve collision avoidance for space assets.^[79] Civilian security applications include airport perimeter surveillance using passive multistatic radar, which leverages existing broadcast signals for covert detection without dedicated transmitters. Evaluations show these systems enhance air traffic control by providing wide-area coverage for non-cooperative aircraft and drones, with detection ranges up to 40 km and accuracies below 40 m in urban environments. Multi-station networking further extends surveillance to 50 km × 50 km areas around airports, addressing threats like unauthorized drone incursions.^[80]^[81] Furthermore, multistatic configurations offer cost-effective wide-area coverage in ecological monitoring, such as detecting wildlife to prevent harm during agricultural activities. Low-power multistatic arrays have been developed to identify wild animals like fawns during pasture mowing, promoting environmental protection through non-invasive tracking. Overall, these applications highlight the versatility of multistatic radar in providing robust, economical solutions for non-defense sectors.^[82]

Future Directions

Emerging Technologies

Recent advancements in multistatic radar have increasingly incorporated artificial intelligence and machine learning techniques to enhance data fusion processes, enabling more adaptive and efficient handling of signals from distributed transmitters and receivers. Neural networks, particularly deep learning models, facilitate real-time sensor fusion by integrating multistatic radar data with complementary sources such as optical and LiDAR inputs, improving overall situational awareness in complex environments. For instance, machine learning-enhanced frameworks have demonstrated improved accuracy in air traffic surveillance by fusing multi-sensor data, reducing false positives through adaptive algorithms that dynamically weigh contributions from multiple radar nodes. These integrations address processing challenges by optimizing data association and clutter rejection, with studies showing improved detection rates in cluttered scenarios.^[83]^[84]^[85] Quantum enhancements represent a transformative frontier for multistatic radar, leveraging principles like entanglement to achieve unprecedented synchronization and sensitivity. Entanglement-assisted multistatic configurations use quantum correlations between photons to enable precise timing across widely separated nodes, mitigating classical synchronization errors that degrade performance in distributed systems. Research has proposed dual-receiver schemes where entangled microwave pulses improve range resolution and signal-to-noise ratios, potentially extending effective detection ranges in noisy environments. Theoretical analyses indicate that such quantum radar paradigms could significantly outperform classical counterparts in target detection probability, particularly for stealthy objects, though practical implementations remain in early prototyping stages as of 2025. As of October 2025, China has begun mass production of quantum radar detectors to counter stealth aircraft, while India unveiled an indigenous photonic and quantum radar system in November 2025 for upcoming trials.^[86]^[87]^[88]^[89]^[90] The integration of multistatic radar with 6G networks and satellite constellations is enabling global-scale sensing architectures, where low-Earth orbit (LEO) satellites serve as dynamic nodes in multistatic setups. In 6G frameworks, satellite-based joint sensing and communication systems support bistatic and multistatic radar modes, allowing seamless data sharing across terrestrial and orbital platforms for persistent coverage. Distributed LEO constellations facilitate multi-satellite radar imaging, enhancing resolution through geometry diversity and reducing latency via integrated 6G backhauls. Prototypes involving commercial constellations have explored augmented multistatic operations for wide-area surveillance, with ongoing research highlighting improved localization accuracy in remote regions.^[91]^[92] Miniaturization efforts are driving the deployment of drone-based transmitter and receiver swarms, creating flexible multistatic networks tailored for urban intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) missions. These swarms employ lightweight radar modules on unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to form ad-hoc multistatic arrays, providing persistent monitoring in GPS-denied or cluttered urban canyons. Advances in self-organizing algorithms enable UAVs to dynamically reposition for optimal bistatic geometries, enhancing target tracking amid multipath interference. Recent demonstrations by research organizations have validated drone radar swarms for multiplatform ISR, achieving improved resolution in urban scenarios while maintaining low detectability.^[39]^[93]^[94]

Research and Development Trends

Recent research in multistatic radar has increasingly focused on cognitive radar architectures to enable spectrum sharing with communication systems, allowing dynamic adaptation to congested electromagnetic environments through adaptive waveform design and interference mitigation. These systems leverage machine learning for real-time spectrum sensing and opportunistic transmission, improving coexistence with 5G and beyond networks while maintaining detection performance. However, a notable gap persists in real-world data for multistatic radar performance in urban settings, where multipath propagation, building clutter, and non-line-of-sight obstructions degrade spatial diversity benefits, limiting validation of theoretical models beyond simulations.^[95] Ongoing research and development areas emphasize quantum radar hybrids integrated with multistatic configurations, utilizing entanglement-assisted detection to enhance low-signal-to-noise ratio performance and stealth target identification through correlated photon pairs across distributed receivers.^[96] Bio-inspired networks, drawing from swarm intelligence and neural processing in biological echolocation, are also advancing multistatic coordination for adaptive sensor fusion and waveform optimization in dynamic scenarios.^[97] Post-2020 IEEE publications highlight scalability challenges, proposing resource allocation algorithms for netted multistatic systems to handle increasing node counts and computational loads without performance degradation, as demonstrated in multitarget tracking simulations. Key challenges include the lack of standardized protocols for data fusion in multistatic setups, where heterogeneous sensor outputs require interoperable formats to enable centralized processing, currently hindered by proprietary architectures and varying signal models.^[98] Projections indicate that by 2030, hybrid multistatic-photonic systems will emerge for exascale processing, integrating photonic integrated circuits for high-bandwidth signal distribution and ultra-fast correlation across widely separated nodes, potentially revolutionizing real-time imaging in defense applications.^[99]

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[16]
[PDF] EE3-27: Principles of Classical and Modern Radar Bistatic Radar
We can see from the bistatic radar equation that contours of constant. SNR are defined by constant detection range, i.e. by. RTx .RRx = constant. (13). These ...Missing: sources | Show results with:sources
[17]
passive radar - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Monostatic radar has a transmitter and a receiver which are collocated at the same site. In contrast, bistatic radar is a radar that operates with a transmitter ...
[18]
(PDF) Bistatic and Multistatic Radar Systems - ResearchGate
Aug 7, 2025 · In general the bistatic Radar is a radar system in which the transmitter and the receiver are separated by a distance comparable to the target- ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[19]
[PDF] The Radar Equation - MIT Lincoln Laboratory
The Radar Range Equation Connects: 1. Target Properties - e.g. Target Reflectivity (radar cross section). 2. Radar Characteristics - e.g. Transmitter Power, ...Missing: bistatic R_b sqrt( R_t^ R_t R_r cos
[20]
[PDF] Bistatic Radar - Professor A. Manikas - Imperial College London
A radar in which the Rx is in a different location from the transmitter is known as "bistatic radar". Tx. TxK transmitted EM waveform.
[21]
https://skynet.ee.ic.ac.uk/notes/Radar_7_Bistatic_Radar_2pageformat.pdf
[22]
https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7811695
[23]
[PDF] High Doppler Resolution Imaging by Multistatic Continuous Wave ...
IEEE Standard 686-1997 [1] defined the multistatic radar as a radar system having two or more transmitting or receiving antennas with all antennas separated by.
[24]
Signal Processing for Multistatic Radar Systems - ScienceDirect.com
This book presents modern signal processing techniques for multistatic tracking radar systems with the pivotal theme of performance optimization.
[25]
[PDF] Bistatic and Multistatic Radar - Semantic Scholar
Nov 7, 2013 · The first detection of aircraft using the wave-interference effect was made in 1930 by L.A. Hyland of the Naval Research Laboratory in the USA.
[26]
(PDF) A Brief History of Radar - ResearchGate
Aug 6, 2025 · In 1932, using sound methods for aircraft detection, Soviet Union developed bistatic CW radars that could detect an aircraft from the height ...
[27]
Klein Heidelberg: new information and further insight - IET Journals
May 17, 2017 · Klein Heidelberg (KH) was a German WW2 bistatic radar system that used the British Chain Home radars as its illumination source.
[28]
[PDF] Multi-Sensor Systems: Multiplicity Helps - DTIC
Over the years three resurgences at bi- and multistatic radar occurred. The first in the 1950s and the second in the late 1960s, when data link transmitters on ...
[29]
[PDF] Radar Development at Lincoln Laboratory: An Overview of the First ...
This article provides an overview of the first fifty years of radar development at Lincoln Laboratory. It begins by reviewing early Laboratory efforts in ...
[30]
On the design of an optimal coherent multistatic radar network ...
Jan 31, 2022 · This paper identifies and addresses the critical issues for designing a coherent multistatic radar system using conventional coherent radars.
[31]
Bistatic Radar - Nicholas J. Willis - Google Books
The text reviews the basic concepts and definitions, and explains the mathematical development of relationships, such as geometry, Ovals of Cassini, dynamic ...
[32]
AEGIS Combat System [ACS] - GlobalSecurity.org
Jul 7, 2011 · Major Baseline 7 upgrades include but are not limited to: AN/SPY-1D(V) radar upgrade, integration of Cooperative Engagement Capability (CEC) and ...
[33]
(PDF) NetRAD multistatic sea clutter database - ResearchGate
Oct 9, 2025 · This paper describes a multistatic, sea clutter and vessel database, assembled using the three node, S Band radar, known as NetRAD (for, ...Missing: project EU
[34]
Development and performance evaluation of a multistatic radar ...
A novel digital Commercial Off-The-Shelf (COTS) based coherent multistatic radar system designed at University College London, named 'NetRad', has been ...Missing: EU 2010s
[35]
China's two high-mobility anti-stealth radars shine at 15th Airshow ...
Nov 14, 2024 · China's two high-mobility anti-stealth radars shine at 15th Airshow China ... The YLC-8E radar is a mobile UHF stealth target detection radar.Missing: netted 2023
[36]
UAV Swarm Target Identification and Quantification Based on Radar ...
This paper proposes a radar signal processing framework based on complex valued independent component analysis (cICA) for swarm target identification and ...
[37]
[PDF] High Resolution FDMA MIMO Radar - arXiv
Nov 16, 2017 · Another way to achieve orthogonality of MIMO radar wave- forms is FDMA, where the signals transmitted by different antennas are modulated ...
[38]
Sequence optimisation for compressed sensing CDMA MIMO radar ...
Mar 15, 2024 · The authors focus on optimising waveforms for CDMA-MIMO radar systems, particularly for Compressed Sensing (CS) based target estimation.
[39]
[PDF] EuRAD: Orthogonal Waveforms for Multistatic and Multifunction Radar
The orthogonal property is required for the transmitted signals to separate them in reception. A good candidates to design signals that satisfy the orthogonal ...Missing: CDMA avoidance
[40]
On the design of an optimal coherent multistatic radar network ...
Dec 28, 2021 · Ns n¼1, respectively. The received signal is the sum of delayed replicas of the transmitted waveform, ignoring signal attenuation and receiver.
[41]
https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1049/rsn2.12555
[42]
[PDF] Bistatic Radar Cross Section (RCS) Characterization of Complex ...
The purpose of this research was to evaluate Xpatch V2.4d's bistatic predictive capabilities and investigate Kell's and Crispin's monostatic-to-bistatic ...
[43]
Ambiguities in 3D target motion estimation for general radar ...
Oct 1, 2017 · Attempts to localise the target position and to estimate its 3D trajectory and speed profiles can be obtained only through the narrowing of the ...
[44]
Waveform design for TDM-MIMO radar systems - ScienceDirect.com
In this paper, we propose an efficient algorithm based on second order cone programming (SOCP) to design waveform for time-division-multiplexing (TDM) ...Missing: scheduling | Show results with:scheduling
[45]
None
### Summary of Synchronization Using GPS in Multistatic Radar
[46]
[PDF] Performance of Multistatic Space-Time Adaptive Processing
Centralized multistatic radar systems are those that employ one or more radar sensors receiving signals from one or more transmitter platforms. These may ...
[47]
MIMO radar signal processing based on tomographic imaging ...
... kilometers. Such ... virtual array aperture of f-MIMO radar is also investigated. ... However, geometric diversity obtained through multistatic radar ...
[48]
[PDF] Multistatic Detection of Radar Signals for Swerling Models of the ...
This paper deals with the problem of optimum detection of radar signals by means of a multistatic configuration of sensors.
[49]
Overview of detection theory in multistatic radar - IET Digital Library
The detection problem with multistatic radar systems is considered, resorting to the theory of detection of coherent target signals having a Gaussian ...
[50]
Signal characterisation and processing in the forward scatter mode ...
Feb 27, 2013 · ... forward scattering peak is approximately 10 dB stronger than that of the back scattering. In the bistatic (or side) scattering direction ...Missing: multistatic | Show results with:multistatic
[51]
Multistatic micro‐Doppler radar feature extraction for classification of ...
Jan 1, 2017 · This study presents the use of micro-Doppler signatures collected by a multistatic radar to detect and discriminate between micro-drones hovering and flying
[52]
Aspect angle dependence and multistatic data fusion for micro ...
Dec 1, 2015 · Significant improvement of the classification accuracy can be obtained using multistatic rather than conventional monostatic systems, as they ...
[53]
Three-dimensional reconstruction for space targets with multistatic ...
Aug 28, 2019 · In this paper, a three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction algorithm is proposed for space targets with multistatic inverse synthetic aperture ...
[54]
[PDF] Tracking an air target in multistatic radar networks - CORE
radars can still work with acceptable accuracy if one TX is lost or destroyed. (graceful degradation). Losing one TX from a multistatic radar with 10 TXs, means.
[55]
Discrimination of active false targets in multistatic radar using spatial ...
Jun 1, 2016 · In this paper, the target spatial diversity is utilised to counter deception jamming. Due to radar cross section spatial variations, real ...2 Signal Model · 4.1 Correlation Test · 5 Simulation Results
[56]
https://ietresearch.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1049/iet-rsn.2016.0063
[57]
Multistatic Radar Network Distributed Time, Frequency, and Phase ...
OBJECTIVE: Develop and demonstrate an adaptive distributed time, frequency, and phase synchronization system having a clock capable of achieving a stability ...
[58]
None
Below is a merged summary of the time delay estimation using cross-correlation for Time of Arrival (TOA) in multistatic radar, consolidating all information from the provided segments into a single, comprehensive response. To maximize detail and clarity, I will use a table in CSV format to organize key details (e.g., section references, methods, formulas, and applications) and supplement it with a narrative overview for context and additional details that don’t fit neatly into a table.
[59]
[PDF] Efficient centralized track initiation method for multistatic radar
The method mainly consists of a same source association technique and a measurement fusion approach. The main advantage of the new method is its good ...
[60]
Distributed multi‐target tracking via consensus‐based Arithmetic ...
This paper proposes a multi‐target tracking fusion algorithm based on consensus arithmetic averaging to address the limitations of the sensor detection ...
[61]
[PDF] Data Fusion in a Multistatic Radar System - Institute of Acoustics
The AF directly determines the capability of a system to resolve two targets that exist at different ranges from the radar and have different radial velocities.
[62]
LTE-based passive multistatic radar for high-speed railway network ...
Mar 25, 2019 · In this case, the transmitted signal is allocated in a 10 MHz-bandwidth channel at the 800 MHz band. However, the actual bandwidth of the ...Missing: per | Show results with:per
[63]
[PDF] Compressive Sensing for WiFi-based Passive Bistatic Radar
Aug 31, 2012 · Linear Projection CS can reduce the rate at which mea- surements are acquired by projecting the high-bandwidth sig- nal at the receiver onto a ...<|separator|>
[64]
Bistatic and Multistatic Radar Imaging - IEEE Xplore
Apr 22, 2019 · • Target's cross-range resolution is related to Doppler resolution, therefore, to obtain fine cross-range resolution, longer integration ...
[65]
[PDF] The Importance of Backhaul Performance in Wireless Networks
While 3G and 4G network could operate with 10s of milliseconds of backhaul latency, 5G networks now require sub 1ms latency values. While these issues are ...
[66]
[PDF] Monostatic, Bistatic, and Multistatic Radar Scenarios Part 1 - WIPL-D
Jun 21, 2021 · Seeker in a missile operates in passive radar homing regime when radar based on attacking aircraft illuminates the target. The rocket is ...
[67]
An edge computing framework based on OFDM radar for low ...
Jan 13, 2020 · In this paper, a novel adaptive algorithm to detect and track targets with low grazing angle is addressed. For this purpose, an orthogonal ...
[68]
CEC - Cooperative Engagement Capability - Navy.mil
Oct 14, 2021 · CEC is a real-time sensor system for situational awareness and fire control, sharing radar data among units for integrated air defense.
[69]
[PDF] The Cooperative Engagement Capability* - Johns Hopkins APL
CEC allows combat systems to share sensor data, enabling them to operate as one, creating a common picture and enabling engagement of targets not seen locally.
[70]
U.S. Navy's SPY-6 Family of Radars | Raytheon - RTX
SPY-6 is the US Navy family of radars that performs air and missile defense on seven classes of ships and is a giant leap in capability for the fleet.Missing: implementations | Show results with:implementations
[71]
Air and Missile Defense Radar (AMDR) / AN/SPY-6
Jun 23, 2021 · The SPY-6 radar was initiated in the early 2000s and designed to provide air defense, ballistic missile defense, and support surface warfare operations.
[72]
In focus – the Royal Navy's Sampson Radar
May 25, 2020 · Here we provide a basic overview of the world-renowned SAMPSON Multi-Function Radar (MFR) that is integral to the air defence capabilities of the RN's Type 45 ...
[73]
Sampson Multi-Function Radar - BAE Systems
Feb 13, 2025 · Sampson is the primary surveillance and dedicated tracking sensor on the UK Royal Navy's Type 45 destroyers. It's fully software-configurable.Missing: SMART- L 2010s
[74]
How effective is Russia's Nebo-M counter-stealth radar? - Sandboxx
Sep 20, 2022 · The Nebo-M actually combines three different radar arrays that broadcast on different frequency bands to detect, track, and target low-observable aircraft.
[75]
How Does Russia's $100 Million Nebo-M Counter-Stealth Radar ...
Jan 26, 2025 · The Nero-M is a multi-band radar detection system that Russia claims can detect the West's stealth jets, so how does it do it?Missing: 2014 | Show results with:2014
[76]
China's frontier anti-drone radars debut at World Radar Expo 2021
Apr 24, 2021 · Dubbed the "spider web," the YLC-48 can detect low-altitude small and slow targets even in cases of strong noise waves close to the ground. And ...Missing: border | Show results with:border
[77]
'Terminator of drones': China unveils stealth-detecting radars
Apr 24, 2021 · The so-called “YLC-48 radar” can “effectively detect and track incoming targets from any angle”, according to its developer, the No 14 ...Missing: multistatic border
[78]
After Ukrainian testing, drone-detection radar doubles range with ...
Sep 10, 2025 · ”) This radar technology, good at detecting small flying objects and differentiating them from fauna, has proven useful in Ukraine's drone war.
[79]
Retrieval and Quantitative Evaluation of Three-Dimensional Winds in Severe Convection with Multistatic Radar
### Summary of Multistatic Weather Radar for Environmental Monitoring
[80]
Application of Wide‐Beam Transmission for Advanced Operations of ...
May 17, 2024 · The wide-beam emission also enabled the implementation of multistatic operations, where ionospheric scatter signals from one radar are received ...
[81]
The European Space Surveillance and Tracking Service at the ...
ESA website and ESA interview, 2015. . The partial vacuum left by the ESA in ... or the Multistatic radar system. It belongs to INAF. . Spain may ...
[82]
Application overview and development trend of passive radar in civil ...
It is pointed out that the passive radar has huge application prospects in general aviation surveillance and drone surveillance of the airport terminal area.<|separator|>
[83]
Evaluation of Passive Multi-Static Primary Surveillance Radar for Operational Use in Civil Air Traffic Control
**Summary of Passive Multi-Static Radar Evaluation for Civil Air Traffic Control:**
[84]
A multistatic radar array for detecting wild animals during pasture ...
A multistatic radar array for detecting wild animals during pasture mowing. Abstract: During pasture mowing in spring time, every year countless animals such as ...
[85]
Machine Learning Enhanced Multi-Sensor Fusion for Air Traffic ...
Jan 3, 2025 · This paper presents a novel machine learning-enabled multi-sensor fusion framework to address these challenges.
[86]
https://arxiv.org/abs/2510.10699
[87]
Deep Learning-Based Fusion of Optical, Radar, and LiDAR Data for ...
Future research priorities will focus on creating comprehensive “space–air–ground” monitoring systems through the AI-powered integration of multi-source data.
[88]
[2510.10699] Quantum Radar: An Engineering Perspective - arXiv
Oct 12, 2025 · Quantum radar has emerged as a promising paradigm that utilizes entanglement and quantum correlations to overcome the limitations of classical ...
[89]
Entanglement-assisted multi-aperture pulse-compression radar for ...
In this study, we propose a dual-receiver radar scheme that employs a high time-bandwidth product microwave pulse entangled with a pre-shared reference signal ...Missing: enhancements | Show results with:enhancements
[90]
Entanglement Assisted Multistatic Radars - University of Arizona
An entanglement assisted (EA) multistatic radar is proposed that significantly outperforms corresponding EA bistatic, coherent state-based quantum, ...Missing: synchronization 2024
[91]
Joint Communications, Sensing, and Positioning in 6G Multi ... - arXiv
Sep 30, 2025 · To meet these ambitious goals, the integration of satellite systems into 6G architectures is being actively pursued, as satellites are ...
[92]
Distributed Integrated Sensing, Localization, and Communications ...
Aug 14, 2025 · The distributed nature of LEO satellites enables coordinated multi-satellite localization. In such setups, multiple satellites simultaneously ...
[93]
STO researchers use drone-based radar to shed light on complex ...
A team of NATO STO researchers recently carried out a demonstration centered on using multiplatform, drone-based radar imaging for military ...Missing: swarms miniaturization<|control11|><|separator|>
[94]
Self-organizing Drone Swarms and the Changing Face of Electronic ...
Oct 7, 2025 · Self-organizing drone swarms redefine electronic warfare. This article discusses how decentralized algorithms transform resilience, ...Missing: miniaturization urban 2024
[95]
(PDF) Radar surveillance in urban environments - ResearchGate
Mar 18, 2016 · Radar surveillance in difficult environments like urban areas can be challenging due to large amounts of both multipath and clutter.
[96]
On Entanglement-Assisted Multistatic Radar Techniques - PMC - NIH
Jul 17, 2022 · We propose an entanglement-assisted (EA) multistatic radar that significantly outperforms EA bistatic, coherent state-based quantum, and classical radars.1. Introduction · Figure 4 · 4. Illustrative ResultsMissing: synchronization 2024 2025
[97]
Bio-inspired Waveform in a Multistatic Configuration - HAL
Waveform diversity is a topic of major interest in the context of multistatic radar. This paper presents a bioinspired waveform in order to potentially ...
[98]
Cooperative Fusion Based Passive Multistatic Radar Detection - PMC
Our aim is detection of target in a passive multistatic radar system. The system contains a single transmitter and multiple spatially distributed receivers.
[99]
The photonic radar: the situation today and the prospects for the future
TL;DR: This review article overviews the different components of microwave photonic radar, different design challenges, and issues pertaining to it, and ...