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Linear polarization

Linear polarization is a fundamental property of transverse electromagnetic waves, such as light, in which the electric field vector oscillates in a single, fixed plane that includes the direction of wave propagation, while the magnetic field oscillates in a perpendicular plane.^[1]^[2] This contrasts with circular or elliptical polarization, where the electric field vector traces a circle or ellipse, and unpolarized light, where the oscillations occur randomly in all planes perpendicular to propagation.^[3] In linear polarization, the orientation of the plane—often specified by the angle of the electric field relative to a reference axis—determines the specific polarization state, which remains constant along the wave's path in isotropic media.^[4] The discovery of polarization traces back to 1669, when Danish physicist Erasmus Bartholinus observed double refraction in Iceland spar (calcite) crystals, revealing that light could split into two rays with orthogonal polarization states, though the transverse nature of light was not yet understood.^[5] In 1808, French physicist Étienne-Louis Malus extended this by noting that sunlight reflected off glass at certain angles appeared brighter or darker when viewed through a calcite crystal, leading him to coin the term "polarization" and recognize it as a wave property.^[6] Further advancements came in 1815 with David Brewster's identification of the angle (Brewster's angle) at which reflection maximizes linear polarization, and in the 19th century, the electromagnetic theory of James Clerk Maxwell confirmed polarization as arising from the transverse oscillations of electric and magnetic fields.^[7] Linear polarization can be produced through several mechanisms, including passage through a polarizer, which selectively absorbs or transmits one polarization component; reflection at Brewster's angle from a dielectric surface, where the parallel component is preferentially reflected; and scattering of unpolarized light, as seen in the blue sky where single scattering polarizes light perpendicular to the scattering plane.^[8]^[6]^[3] Detection typically involves a second polarizer (analyzer), where transmitted intensity follows Malus's law: I = I_0 \cos^2 \theta, with \theta being the angle between polarization planes, yielding maximum transmission when aligned and extinction when crossed.^[1] Applications of linear polarization span optics and technology, including liquid crystal displays (LCDs) that use polarizers to modulate light for image formation; polarizing sunglasses and filters that reduce glare by blocking horizontally polarized reflected light; and scientific instruments like polarimeters for analyzing material birefringence or molecular chirality.^[5] In lasers, Brewster windows align the cavity to produce inherently linearly polarized output, enhancing beam quality for applications in spectroscopy, holography, and precision cutting.^[5] More advanced uses include polarization-sensitive imaging in astronomy to study interstellar magnetic fields and in biomedical optics for detecting tissue anomalies via polarized light scattering.^[9]

Introduction

Definition

Linear polarization is a form of polarization exhibited by electromagnetic waves, where the electric field vector oscillates along a single fixed direction, resulting in the entire field varying within a constant plane that includes the direction of wave propagation.^[1] This distinguishes it from other polarization states, such as circular or elliptical, where the electric field rotates over time.^[2] Electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature, meaning their electric and magnetic field components are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation, which allows for the possibility of polarization perpendicular to the propagation axis.^[10] In linear polarization, the electric field specifically confines its oscillations to one axis within the plane defined by the propagation direction and that oscillation axis, while the magnetic field oscillates in the direction perpendicular to both the electric field and the propagation direction.^[11] The orientation of linear polarization is specified by the direction of the electric field oscillation relative to a chosen reference, commonly described as horizontal, vertical, or at an angle such as 45 degrees.^[12] This term, originally "polarisation rectiligne" in French, was coined by Augustin-Jean Fresnel in 1822 as part of his investigations into double refraction.^[13]

Historical Development

The earliest observations of phenomena related to polarization date back to the 17th century, when Isaac Newton examined double refraction in Iceland spar (calcite crystals) in his work Opticks (1704), noting how light split into two rays but interpreting it through a corpuscular theory without recognizing its implications for wave transverse vibrations.^[14] These findings built on earlier descriptions by Erasmus Bartholinus in 1669, who first documented the double images produced by the crystal, though the underlying polarization mechanism remained unexplained.^[15] Christiaan Huygens advanced the understanding in 1678 by using his wave principle to geometrically explain the double refraction as arising from anisotropic wave propagation, hinting at the transverse nature of light waves, but full comprehension awaited later developments.^[15] A pivotal advancement occurred in 1808 when Étienne-Louis Malus discovered that light reflected from a dielectric surface at certain angles becomes polarized, as observed through Iceland spar, leading to the formulation of Malus's law quantifying intensity variation with angle.^[15] This reflection-based polarization spurred further inquiry into light's wave properties. In 1822, Augustin-Jean Fresnel proposed the concept of linear polarization in a memoir to the French Academy of Sciences, explaining birefringence in crystals as resulting from the transverse vibration of light waves confined to a plane, thereby coining the term "linear polarization" and integrating it into the wave theory of light.^[16] Fresnel's model resolved longstanding puzzles in interference and refraction, demonstrating that unpolarized light consists of transverse vibrations in all directions perpendicular to propagation, rapidly varying in orientation.^[15] In the early 19th century, Jean-Baptiste Biot and Dominique François Jean Arago developed polarimetry techniques to measure rotation and interference of polarized light, with Biot establishing laws for optical activity in 1815–1818 and Arago identifying chromatic polarization in 1811, both contributing evidence for light's transverse character through experiments on quartz and liquids.^[17] Their work, including Biot's confirmation of polarization in rainbows and sky light, solidified the experimental foundation for Fresnel's theoretical framework, shifting consensus toward the wave theory over Newton's particle model.^[18] By the 20th century, classical descriptions of linear polarization were refined through quantum mechanics, interpreting it as the alignment of photon spin angular momentum along a fixed direction, with linear states as superpositions of circular polarizations corresponding to helicity ±1.^[19] This quantum perspective, emerging in the 1920s–1930s alongside the quantization of the electromagnetic field, provided a deeper unification but retained the classical transverse wave essence established by 19th-century pioneers.^[20]

Physical Principles

Electromagnetic Waves and Polarization

Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves consisting of oscillating electric (E) and magnetic (B) fields that are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation.^[21] This transverse nature arises from the fundamental properties of the fields, where the electric field vector oscillates in a plane perpendicular to the wave's travel direction, and the magnetic field follows suit in an orthogonal plane.^[22] In vacuum, these waves propagate at the speed of light, carrying energy without requiring a medium.^[23] The behavior of electromagnetic waves, including their polarization, emerges directly from solutions to Maxwell's equations, which describe the interplay between electric and magnetic fields in free space.^[22] These equations predict wave solutions where both E and B fields are transverse, meaning they have no components parallel to the propagation direction, allowing the fields to vary sinusoidally as the wave advances.^[23] For plane waves propagating along the x-axis, for instance, the E field comprises only y- and z-components, while the B field is correspondingly perpendicular, ensuring the Poynting vector (indicating energy flow) aligns with the propagation direction.^[23] Natural light sources, such as the sun or incandescent bulbs, produce unpolarized light, in which the electric field vectors oscillate in random directions perpendicular to the propagation path, with no preferred orientation.^[24] In contrast, polarized light restricts these oscillations to specific patterns, enabling applications in optics and technology.^[24] Polarization types are broadly categorized into linear, circular, and elliptical, depending on the relative amplitudes and phase differences between the transverse field components; linear polarization occurs as a special case when the phase difference between orthogonal components is zero.^[1]

Characteristics of Linear Polarization

In linear polarization, the electric field vector of an electromagnetic wave oscillates along a fixed straight line perpendicular to the direction of propagation, maintaining a constant amplitude and direction throughout the wave's progression.^[1] This results in the field tracing a uniform linear path in the plane defined by the propagation direction and the oscillation axis, distinguishing it from other polarization states where the vector may rotate or trace an ellipse. The magnetic field vector similarly oscillates in phase and perpendicular to both the electric field and the propagation direction, ensuring the wave's transverse nature.^[7] A key observable behavior of linearly polarized light is its intensity dependence on the orientation relative to a polarizer: it experiences maximum transmission when the polarization direction aligns with the polarizer's transmission axis and complete extinction when perpendicular, as the polarizer absorbs the misaligned component.^[25] This directional selectivity arises because the wave's electric field projection onto the polarizer's axis determines the transmitted amplitude, leading to zero output for crossed configurations in ideal cases.^[2] When linearly polarized light propagates through anisotropic media exhibiting birefringence, such as uniaxial crystals, it decomposes into two orthogonal components: the ordinary ray, polarized perpendicular to the optic axis, and the extraordinary ray, polarized parallel to the plane containing the optic axis and propagation direction.^[26] These rays travel at different speeds due to distinct refractive indices, emerging as separate linearly polarized beams with perpendicular vibration directions, which can produce interference patterns or spatial separation depending on the crystal's cut.^[27] Unlike circular polarization, where the electric field vector rotates in a circle due to a π/2 radian phase difference between orthogonal components, linear polarization features no such rotation because the phase difference between these components is either 0 or π radians, keeping the resultant vector fixed in direction.^[28] This phase alignment ensures the field remains collinear at all times, avoiding the helical trajectory observed in circularly polarized waves.^[29]

Mathematical Description

Vector Representation

Linear polarization of an electromagnetic wave is described by the electric field vector oscillating in a fixed direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Electromagnetic waves are transverse, meaning both the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the wave's propagation direction. For a plane wave propagating along the positive z-axis, the time-dependent electric field can be expressed as \mathbf{E}(z, t) = E_0 \cos(kz - \omega t + \phi) \hat{\mathbf{e}}, where E_0 is the amplitude, k is the wave number, \omega is the angular frequency, \phi is the phase constant, and \hat{\mathbf{e}} is the unit vector along the fixed polarization direction in the x-y plane.^[3] An equivalent complex representation, which simplifies calculations for linear polarization, is \mathbf{E}(\mathbf{r}, t) = \mathrm{Re} \{ \mathbf{E_0} e^{i(\mathbf{k} \cdot \mathbf{r} - \omega t)} \}, where \mathbf{E_0} is a real-valued constant vector perpendicular to the wave vector \mathbf{k}, ensuring the field oscillates along a straight line.^[7]^[30] The associated magnetic field maintains the linear polarization and is given by \mathbf{B} = \frac{1}{c} \hat{\mathbf{k}} \times \mathbf{E}, where c is the speed of light and \hat{\mathbf{k}} is the unit vector in the propagation direction, ensuring \mathbf{B} is also perpendicular to both \mathbf{E} and \mathbf{k}.^[30]^[3] To facilitate analysis, the coordinate system is typically chosen such that the polarization direction \hat{\mathbf{e}} aligns with one of the axes, for example, the x-axis for horizontal polarization, simplifying the vector components.^[7]

Jones Calculus

The Jones calculus, developed by R. Clark Jones in the early 1940s, provides a matrix-based framework for describing the polarization state of fully polarized light and the effects of linear optical elements on it.^[31] It represents the electric field components of a plane electromagnetic wave propagating along the z-axis as a two-dimensional complex vector, known as the Jones vector, which captures both amplitude and phase information.^[32] This approach facilitates the analysis of polarization transformations through matrix multiplication, enabling straightforward computation of output states after passing through optical devices such as polarizers or retarders.^[33] For linear polarization, the Jones vector assumes equal phases between the x- and y-components of the electric field, resulting in a straight-line oscillation of the field vector. The general form for linearly polarized light at an angle \theta from the x-axis (horizontal) is given by

\begin{pmatrix} \cos \theta \\ \sin \theta \end{pmatrix},

normalized such that the total intensity is 1, where the components represent the relative amplitudes along the orthogonal axes.^[34] Specific cases include horizontal linear polarization as \begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ 0 \end{pmatrix} and vertical as \begin{pmatrix} 0 \\ 1 \end{pmatrix}.^[32] This phase equality distinguishes linear polarization from elliptical, where a nonzero phase difference \delta (neither 0 nor \pi) between components leads to an elliptical trajectory of the electric field vector.^[33] Optical elements in Jones calculus are described by 2×2 complex matrices that act on the input Jones vector to yield the output. For a horizontal polarizer, which transmits only the x-component, the matrix is

\begin{pmatrix} 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 \end{pmatrix},

while a vertical polarizer transmits only the y-component and is represented as

\begin{pmatrix} 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 \end{pmatrix}.

These ideal lossless polarizers project the input field onto their transmission axis, with the output intensity determined by the dot product of the output vector with its conjugate transpose.^[32] Rotations of the coordinate system or device orientation are handled via a rotation matrix \begin{pmatrix} \cos \phi & -\sin \phi \\ \sin \phi & \cos \phi \end{pmatrix}, allowing analysis of angled polarizers as rotated versions of the horizontal or vertical forms.^[33] Phase effects, such as those introduced by retarders, modify the relative phase \delta; when \delta = 0 or \pi, the result remains linear, but other values produce elliptical polarization through superposition of orthogonal linear states.^[32] The Jones calculus assumes monochromatic, fully coherent light with no depolarization, limiting its applicability to scenarios involving partially polarized, unpolarized, or incoherent light, for which the Mueller-Stokes formalism is required instead.^[32] It excels in modeling interference and phase-sensitive effects but neglects statistical averaging over ensembles of waves.^[33]

Generation and Manipulation

Polarizers and Dichroism

Polarizers are optical devices that produce linearly polarized light by selectively transmitting one component of the electric field while attenuating the orthogonal component, primarily through absorption in the case of dichroic materials.^[35] Dichroic polarizers, which rely on anisotropic absorption, represent a key class of these devices and are widely used due to their simplicity and effectiveness in visible and near-infrared wavelengths.^[36] The foundational development of modern dichroic polarizers occurred in 1929 when Edwin H. Land invented a sheet polarizer material, patented as Polaroid, consisting of aligned microscopic crystals embedded in a plastic matrix.^[37] Subsequent refinements in the 1930s led to the commercial production of stretched polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) films doped with iodine, where the polymer chains are unidirectionally aligned during manufacturing by stretching the sheet.^[38] In this configuration, iodine atoms attach to the PVA chains, forming a conjugated system that enables selective absorption: light with its electric field vector parallel to the chain alignment is strongly absorbed due to resonant excitation along the extended molecular structure, while the perpendicular component is transmitted with minimal loss.^[36] The direction of transmission, known as the transmission axis, is thus perpendicular to the alignment of the polymer chains, allowing linearly polarized output light.^[39] These sheet polarizers achieve high performance, with transmission efficiencies exceeding 99.9% for the passed polarization and extinction ratios better than 10,000:1 for the blocked component in optimized designs.^[40] Beyond sheet polarizers, other types of polarizers operate on related principles but differ in mechanism and application. Wire-grid polarizers, particularly suited for microwave and infrared frequencies, consist of fine metallic wires spaced at sub-wavelength intervals on a substrate; electric fields parallel to the wires induce currents that absorb or reflect that component, while perpendicular fields pass through with high transmission.^[41] Birefringent polarizers, such as the Nicol prism invented in 1828, use double refraction in calcite crystals to separate and eliminate one polarization via total internal reflection, though they do not rely on absorption.^[35] These variations expand the utility of polarizers across spectral ranges, from visible light to longer wavelengths. At the quantum level, the selective absorption in dichroic polarizers arises from anisotropic electronic transitions in the oriented molecules, where the transition dipole moments are preferentially aligned along the polymer chains, favoring absorption of light polarized in that direction over the orthogonal one.^[42] This molecular orientation ensures that the device converts unpolarized incident light into a linearly polarized output state aligned with the transmission axis.^[35]

Other Methods of Producing Linear Polarization

Linear polarization can be produced through reflection at Brewster's angle, where unpolarized light incident on a dielectric interface at this specific angle results in the reflected beam being fully s-polarized, meaning its electric field oscillates perpendicular to the plane of incidence.^[2] For an air-to-glass interface with a refractive index of approximately 1.5, Brewster's angle is about 56°, at which the p-polarized component (parallel to the plane of incidence) experiences zero reflection, leaving only the s-polarized light in the reflected ray.^[43] This non-absorptive method is widely used in optical setups, such as in laser cavities with Brewster windows, to generate high-quality linear polarization without significant loss.^[44] Another natural process involves Rayleigh scattering in the Earth's atmosphere, where sunlight scatters off air molecules, producing partially linearly polarized skylight. The scattered light is maximally polarized (up to 75% degree of polarization) at points 90° from the sun's position, with the electric field vector oriented tangential to a circle centered on the sun and perpendicular to the solar direction.^[45] This phenomenon, first quantitatively described by Lord Rayleigh in 1871, arises because the induced dipole oscillations in molecules favor polarization perpendicular to the scattering plane, making the blue sky a source of linearly polarized light observable through polarizers.^[46] The polarization degree decreases with multiple scattering and closer to the sun, but it remains a key example of polarization generation via scattering.^[45] Birefringent crystals provide phase-based methods to convert or generate linear polarization without absorption. For instance, passing circularly polarized light through a quarter-wave plate—a thin birefringent crystal like quartz with axes oriented at 45° to the incident polarization—compensates the π/2 phase retardation between the fast and slow axes, resulting in linearly polarized output along the direction bisecting the plate's axes.^[47] This reversible conversion relies on the crystal's differing refractive indices for orthogonal polarizations, enabling precise control in optical systems. Similarly, a Savart plate, constructed from two identical calcite crystals cut parallel to their cleavage planes, rotated by 45° relative to each other, and cemented with optic axes at 90°, shears incoming light into two orthogonally linearly polarized beams displaced laterally.^[48] When unpolarized or circularly polarized light enters, the plate separates it into s- and p-polarized components, allowing selection of linear polarization by aperture or analyzer, useful in interferometric polarizers.^[49] Many lasers inherently emit linearly polarized light due to their cavity design, particularly through the use of Brewster-angled elements that favor one polarization state. In helium-neon (HeNe) lasers, for example, Brewster windows at the cavity ends transmit p-polarized light with minimal reflection while suppressing s-polarization, enforcing linear output along the plane of incidence.^[44] This design exploits the same reflection principles as isolated Brewster surfaces, achieving high extinction ratios (>1000:1) without additional polarizers, and is common in gas, solid-state, and fiber lasers where cavity anisotropy selects a stable linear mode.^[43] Such inherent polarization simplifies applications in precision optics and spectroscopy.^[44]

Detection and Measurement

Polarimetry

Polarimetry involves the measurement of the polarization state of light, particularly the orientation and degree of linear polarization, using specialized optical instruments and techniques. A fundamental method for determining the orientation of linear polarization employs a basic setup consisting of an analyzing polarizer placed after the light source or sample. The analyzer is rotated until the transmitted intensity reaches a minimum, known as the extinction position, which corresponds to the polarization direction being perpendicular to the analyzer's transmission axis; this extinction angle directly indicates the linear polarization orientation.^[50] For more precise measurements, advanced polarimeters utilize modulation techniques to enhance sensitivity and accuracy. Photoelastic modulators (PEMs), introduced in the early 1970s, operate by inducing a time-varying birefringence in an isotropic material through mechanical stress at a resonant frequency, typically around 50 kHz, which modulates the polarization state without moving parts. This allows for high-speed detection of small polarization changes by analyzing the modulated intensity with lock-in amplifiers, making PEM-based polarimeters particularly effective for low-light applications and achieving sensitivities down to 10^{-6} in polarization degree. Similarly, polarimeters employing Faraday rotation use a magneto-optic effect where an applied magnetic field rotates the plane of polarization proportionally to the field strength and material's Verdet constant; in these instruments, the rotation is measured by comparing input and output polarization states, enabling precise calibration and real-time monitoring in dynamic environments such as plasma diagnostics.^[51]^[52] The degree of linear polarization quantifies the extent to which light is linearly polarized versus unpolarized, especially for partially polarized beams. It is calculated as the ratio of the intensity of the polarized component to the total intensity, often determined experimentally by rotating an analyzer to measure maximum and minimum transmitted intensities, where the degree equals (I_max - I_min)/(I_max + I_min). This metric is crucial for assessing polarization purity in optical systems, with values approaching 1 indicating nearly complete linear polarization.^[53] In astronomy, polarimetry plays a key role in probing stellar magnetic fields through the Zeeman effect, where magnetic fields split spectral lines and induce polarization signatures in the emitted light. Spectropolarimetric observations measure the circular and linear polarization in these split lines to infer field strengths and orientations, with techniques like least-squares deconvolution enabling detection of fields as weak as a few gauss in Ap stars. Such measurements have revealed global magnetic topologies in hundreds of stars, providing insights into dynamo processes and stellar evolution.^[54]^[55]

Malus's Law

Malus's law quantifies the intensity of linearly polarized light transmitted through a polarizer, stating that the transmitted intensity I is given by I = I_0 \cos^2 [\theta](/page/Theta), where I_0 is the initial intensity of the incident polarized light and \theta is the angle between the plane of polarization of the incident light and the transmission axis of the polarizer.^[56] This law was discovered experimentally in 1808 by the French physicist Étienne-Louis Malus, who observed the polarization of light by reflection while viewing sunlight reflected from the windows of the Luxembourg Palace through a calcite crystal; he noted that the intensity varied with the crystal's orientation, leading to the formulation of the cosine-squared dependence.^[57] The derivation arises from the vector nature of the electric field in electromagnetic waves: the component of the incident electric field \mathbf{E} parallel to the polarizer's transmission axis is E \cos \theta, and since the intensity is proportional to the square of the electric field amplitude, the transmitted intensity becomes I = I_0 \cos^2 \theta.^[56] In practice, Malus's law is applied to calibrate polarizers by measuring transmitted intensities at known angles to verify alignment and transmission efficiency, and to determine the polarization orientation of unknown light sources by fitting observed intensity variations to the \cos^2 \theta profile.^[56]

Applications

In Optics and Photonics

Linear polarization plays a pivotal role in liquid crystal display (LCD) technology, particularly through twisted nematic (TN) cells, which rely on linear polarizers to modulate light transmission for individual pixels. In a typical TN-LCD configuration, unpolarized backlight passes through a first linear polarizer, producing linearly polarized light aligned with the polarizer's transmission axis. The TN liquid crystal layer, with its helical molecular structure, rotates this polarization by 90 degrees in the absence of an applied voltage, allowing the light to pass through a second crossed linear polarizer to form a bright pixel. When voltage is applied, the helix unwinds, preventing rotation and blocking transmission through the second polarizer, thus creating dark pixels. This polarization-dependent switching enables high-contrast imaging and is fundamental to the operation of most conventional LCD panels.^[58]^[59] Polarizing sunglasses and filters utilize linear polarization to reduce glare from reflective surfaces. These devices incorporate linear polarizers oriented vertically to block horizontally polarized light reflected from horizontal surfaces like water, roads, or snow, which is predominantly horizontally polarized at Brewster's angle. This selective absorption enhances visual clarity, contrast, and comfort, particularly in outdoor activities such as driving or fishing, while also providing UV protection.^[60] In stereoscopic 3D cinema systems, linear polarization is employed to deliver distinct images to each eye using specialized glasses. Projectors emit two orthogonally linearly polarized versions of the left- and right-eye images, typically at 0° and 90° orientations, which are superimposed on the screen. Viewers wear glasses with corresponding linear polarizers—one lens transmitting horizontal polarization for the left eye and vertical for the right—effectively separating the images to create the illusion of depth without crosstalk. This passive polarization-based approach, known as linear polarized 3D, offers simplicity and cost-effectiveness compared to active shutter systems, though it requires viewers to maintain head alignment to avoid ghosting.^[61] Optical isolators utilize linear polarization in conjunction with Faraday rotators to protect lasers from back-reflected light in photonic systems. The device consists of a linear polarizer, a magneto-optic Faraday rotator that induces a 45° non-reciprocal rotation of the polarization plane in the forward direction, and a second analyzer polarizer oriented at 45° to the first. Forward-propagating light, initially linearly polarized, rotates and aligns with the analyzer to transmit efficiently, while backward light undergoes an additional 45° rotation due to the non-reciprocal effect, becoming orthogonally polarized and blocked by the first polarizer. This configuration achieves isolation ratios exceeding 40 dB in high-power applications, such as fiber lasers and amplifiers, preventing feedback-induced instabilities. Materials like terbium gallium garnet (TGG) are commonly used for the rotator due to their high Verdet constants.^[62]^[63] Anisotropic photonic crystals leverage linear polarization to enable selective waveguiding in integrated photonics, exploiting structural birefringence for polarization-dependent light propagation. These structures, often featuring periodic lattices with varying refractive indices along orthogonal directions, support guided modes for specific linear polarizations while suppressing others, functioning as polarization waveguides (PWGs). For instance, in a two-dimensional photonic crystal slab, anisotropic defects or layer orientations can confine transversely electric (TE) or magnetic (TM) polarized light within low-loss channels, with propagation losses below 0.1 dB/cm reported in silicon-based designs. Such PWGs are integral to on-chip polarization multiplexers and filters, enhancing data capacity in photonic integrated circuits by maintaining polarization integrity over millimeter-scale distances.^[64]

In Communications and Radar

In radio frequency communications, dipole antennas are fundamental elements that inherently produce linear polarization, with the electric field oscillating along the axis of the antenna. This characteristic makes them suitable for applications requiring predictable signal orientation, such as mobile base stations and broadcasting systems. Proper matching of transmit and receive antenna polarizations minimizes losses; for instance, a misalignment of 45 degrees in linear polarization can result in up to 3 dB signal degradation due to cross-polarization interference.^[65]^[66] In code-division multiple access (CDMA) systems, orthogonal linear polarizations—typically horizontal and vertical—are employed to enhance channel capacity through polarization diversity. This technique allows simultaneous transmission of independent data streams on the same frequency, effectively doubling the capacity in multipath environments by exploiting the low correlation between horizontal and vertical signal components. As detailed in analyses of CDMA regimes, such diversity reduces fading and improves signal-to-noise ratios, particularly in urban settings with repeaters. Radar polarimetry utilizes linear polarization configurations, such as horizontal-horizontal (HH) and vertical-vertical (VV), to characterize targets via their scattering matrices, which describe how incident waves are reflected based on polarization. These matrices enable distinction between meteorological echoes like rain, which exhibit differential reflectivity (Z_DR = 10 log(Z_HH / Z_VV)) due to oblate raindrop shapes, and non-meteorological targets like aircraft, which produce stronger, more isotropic returns with lower depolarization ratios. This capability improves target classification in weather radar systems, aiding in clutter suppression and accurate detection. In satellite communications, linear polarization is commonly used for links in frequency bands like Ku and C, where ionospheric Faraday rotation—a phenomenon causing rotation of the polarization plane proportional to the total electron content and magnetic field—can be mitigated through pre-compensation techniques, such as adjusting the transmit polarization angle based on predictive models. This approach maintains signal integrity over trans-ionospheric paths, avoiding excessive depolarization losses that could exceed 3 dB without correction, and supports efficient spectrum use in geostationary systems.^[67]

In Other Fields

In biology, linear polarization plays a crucial role in the visual navigation systems of certain insects, particularly bees, which exploit the polarization patterns of skylight to orient themselves. Honeybees and bumblebees detect the e-vector orientation of linearly polarized light from the sky, which varies predictably with the sun's position, enabling compass-like navigation even under overcast conditions where direct solar cues are obscured. This polarization vision is mediated by specialized photoreceptors in the dorsal rim area of their compound eyes, allowing them to distinguish the plane of polarization and use it for tasks such as foraging and returning to the hive. Studies have shown that disrupting these patterns impairs their navigational accuracy, underscoring the evolutionary adaptation of this sensory mechanism.^[68]^[69] In astronomy, linear polarization measurements are essential for studying interstellar magnetic fields. Starlight passing through aligned dust grains becomes linearly polarized perpendicular to the magnetic field direction in the plane of the sky, allowing astronomers to map field orientations and strengths across galactic structures. Recent surveys, such as the Interstellar Polarization Survey, have provided detailed maps using data from thousands of stars, revealing ordered magnetic fields in regions like the Gould Belt and aiding in understanding cosmic ray propagation and star formation.^[70] In biomedical optics, linear polarization techniques enhance imaging of biological tissues by exploiting scattering and birefringence differences. Polarized light microscopy and Mueller matrix polarimetry can differentiate healthy and anomalous tissues, such as tumors, by analyzing depolarization and retardance caused by microstructural variations like collagen fiber alignment or cellular density. These non-invasive methods improve contrast in superficial tissue layers, suppressing multiply scattered light, and have applications in dermatology, oncology, and endoscopy for early detection of pathologies as of 2025.^[71] In chemistry, linear polarization is integral to circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy, a technique for probing the stereochemistry of chiral molecules. In CD instruments, linearly polarized light from a source is passed through a photoelastic modulator, which induces rapid stress-induced birefringence to alternately generate left- and right-circularly polarized components. The sample then differentially absorbs these circular components based on its molecular asymmetry, with the resulting signal revealing structural details such as protein secondary structures or enantiomeric purity. This method relies on the initial linear polarization to precisely control the circular states, enabling sensitive detection of chiral perturbations at concentrations as low as micromolar levels.^[72]^[73] In materials science, linear polarization facilitates photoelasticity, a non-destructive method for visualizing and quantifying stress distributions in transparent materials. When linearly polarized light illuminates a stressed birefringent model, the induced principal stresses create temporary refractive index variations aligned with the stress directions, splitting the light into two orthogonal components that interfere to produce colorful fringe patterns observable through a crossed analyzer. These isochromatic fringes indicate stress magnitude, while isoclinic lines reveal principal stress orientations, allowing engineers to map complex strain fields in components like aircraft parts or bridges. The technique's reliance on linear input polarization ensures high contrast and quantitative analysis via relative retardation measurements.^[74]^[75] In quantum optics, linearly polarized entangled photons serve as a cornerstone for testing Bell inequalities, demonstrating non-local correlations that challenge classical intuitions of reality. Pioneering experiments generated polarization-entangled photon pairs via atomic cascades or parametric down-conversion, where measurements of linear polarization in separated bases yield correlations violating the CHSH inequality by factors exceeding 2, such as S ≈ 2.70 in early setups. These tests, using fast-switching polarizers to select measurement angles, confirmed quantum predictions while closing locality loopholes through spatial separation of detectors. Such demonstrations with linear polarization have validated quantum mechanics in foundational contexts and paved the way for quantum information protocols.^[76]^[77]

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[17]
Arago, Biot, and Fresnel Elucidate Circular Polarization | Cairn.info
With the discovery of circular birefringence, Fresnel extended the concept of polarization, gave the interference principle an unequivocal generality, and ...
[18]
[PDF] 1 Brief History of Light Polarization
In 1811 Arago observed the optical activity of quartz, and Jean Baptiste Biot. (1774-1862) French physicist discovered the high polarization of the rainbow.
[19]
Polarization versus photon spin - Optica Publishing Group
From a quantum perspective there is the widespread idea that polarization is the spin of the photon. Accordingly, the polarization of a light beam should result ...
[20]
The dual nature of light as reflected in the Nobel archives
Dec 2, 1999 · Further contributions were made by many other researchers, among them Augustin Jean Fresnel, who showed that light is a transverse wave.
[21]
16.2 Plane Electromagnetic Waves – University Physics Volume 2
The electromagnetic wave is therefore a transverse wave, with its oscillating electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to its direction of propagation.
[22]
Anatomy of an Electromagnetic Wave - NASA Science
Aug 3, 2023 · He summarized this relationship between electricity and magnetism into what are now referred to as "Maxwell's Equations."
[23]
20 Solutions of Maxwell's Equations in Free Space
Since Maxwell's equations are linear, the general solution for one-dimensional waves propagating in the x-direction is the sum of waves of Ey and waves of Ez.
[24]
Polarization of Light - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
May 29, 2023 · Light can be linearly polarized with a polarizer that selectively transmits light waves in a desired polarization direction while blocking ...
[25]
Crossed Polarizers - HyperPhysics
An ideal polarizer produces linearly polarized light from unpolarized light. Two ideal polarizers would eliminate all light if their transmission directions ...
[26]
Principles of Birefringence | Nikon's MicroscopyU
The polarized light waves then travel through the analyzer (whose polarization position is indicated by the arrow next to the analyzer label), which allows only ...
[27]
[PDF] Polarized Light (Linear & Circular) • Birefringent Materials
Light polarized along the optic axis is called the extraordinary ray, and light polarized perpendicular to it is called the ordinary ray. These polarization ...
[28]
[PDF] 8 Polarization - Xie Chen
If Ex and Ey are in phase with each other, the light wave is linearly polarized. There can be different situations. If Ex = 0, the wave is linearly polarized in ...
[29]
Polarization - AstroBaki - CASPER
Oct 5, 2010 · Linear polarization: when the orthogonal vibrations have the same phase. Amplitudes can be different or the same. Circular polarization: when ...
[30]
[PDF] Section 3: Electromagnetic Waves in Vacuum and Simple Matter
A basic feature of Maxwell's equations for the electromagnetic field is the existence of traveling wave solutions which represent the transport of energy from ...
[31]
https://opg.optica.org/josa/abstract.cfm?uri=josa-31-7-488
[32]
Jones Calculus - SPIE
The Jones matrix calculus is a matrix formulation of polarized light that consists of 2 × 1 Jones vectors to describe the field components and 2 × 2 Jones ...
[33]
[PDF] Chapter 6 - Polarization of Light - PhysLab
If the electric field oscillates in a plane, we say that it is linearly polarized. The electric field can also spiral around while a plane wave propagates, and ...
[34]
https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Optics/BSc_Optics_(Konijnenberg_Adam_and_Urbach)/04%3A_Polarization/4.02%3A_Polarisation_States_and_Jones_Vectors
[35]
Polarization - Newport
Dichroic Polarizers. The mechanism of polarization in a dichroic polarizer is selective absorption and transmission of incident radiation. Dichroic is the ...
[36]
Polarization by Absorption: Dichroism - HyperPhysics Concepts
Dichroism is when materials absorb more light in one plane than another, polarizing light. Tourmaline and Polaroid are examples of dichroic materials.
[37]
Invention of the Polarizer - Edwin H. Land & Polaroid - Baker Library
In 1852, Dr. William Bird Herapath discovered that combining iodine with quinine salt produced tiny crystals with light-polarizing characteristics that could ...
[38]
Polymer Polarizers and Retarders | Edmund Optics
All other orientations of light passing through the polarizer are rejected (or absorbed in the case of dichroic polarizers).
[39]
Introduction to Polarized Light | Nikon's MicroscopyU
In linearly polarized light, the electric vector is vibrating in a plane that is perpendicular to the direction of propagation, as discussed above. Natural ...
[40]
[PDF] 54809486-MIT.pdf
May 9, 2003 · iodine polarizers have efﬁciency around 99.9%, and to succeed, K—polarizer should be at least this good. High efﬁciency polarizers are ...
[41]
The Wire Grid as a Near-Infrared Polarizer - Optica Publishing Group
Wire grids with microscopic elements are shown to be very useful infrared polarizers. They are compact, easily rotatable, and may be used with sharply ...Fig. 1 · Fig. 2 · Fig. 3
[42]
Dichroism - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Dichroism is the phenomenon in which light absorption changes for different directions of polarization.Circular Dichroism In The... · Photo-Orientation By... · 3.6. 3 Photo-Orientation...
[43]
Brewster's angle - RP Photonics
The Brewsters angle is an angle of incidence at which there is no reflection of p-polarized light at an uncoated optical surface.
[44]
[PDF] Generation and Conversion of Transverse Electromagnetic Modes
The Brewster window allows maximum transmission at one linear polarization, thereby polarizing the laser light. This inherent polarization proved to be helpful ...
[45]
The polarization of the sky
As multiple scatterings destroy the polarization of light, blue light is less polarized than other colors in skylight. Thus, by aligning a polarizer so it ...
[46]
Polarization patterns under different sky conditions and a navigation ...
Oct 19, 2018 · According to the Rayleigh scattering theory, the polarization pattern of skylight is mainly determined by the solar position. Therefore the ...<|separator|>
[47]
Introduction to Waveplates - Newport
Quarter-waveplates are used to turn linearly polarized light into circularly polarized light and vice versa. To do this, the waveplate must be oriented so that ...
[48]
Polarization phase stepping with a Savart element
Below, Beam1 and Beam2, as produced from the incoming circularly polarized beam by the Savart element, are linearly polarized in mutually orthogonal directions.
[49]
Savart Plates - Electrical Optical Components, Inc.
When an analyzing polarizer is added after the plate it is possible to measure the relative intensity of the fringes and hence the degree of polarization.
[50]
Polarimeters - RP Photonics
A polarimeter is an optical instrument with which one can accurately measure the angle by which the polarization of light is rotated.Missing: techniques | Show results with:techniques
[51]
Photoelastic-Modulator Polarimeters In Astronomy
Photoelastic-modulator polarimeters, introduced in 1970, have advantages particularly for extreme-sensitivity measurements of linear and circular polarization, ...
[52]
Dual CO2 laser polarimeter for Faraday rotation measurement in ...
Jan 1, 1999 · The first operational results of the dual CO 2 laser polarimeter to measure the Faraday rotation in large tokamaks is described.
[53]
Polarization of Light - RP Photonics
The degree of linear polarization is often quantified with the polarization ... linear polarization measurement will force it into a linear polarization state.Linear Polarization · TE, TM and TEM Polarization · Pure Polarization Rotation by...
[54]
Stellar Magnetic Fields - ADS
In non-degenerate stars, magnetic fields are detected and measured through the Zeeman effect in stellar spectral lines, mainly using the polarization ...
[55]
Review of Zeeman Effect Observations of Regions of Star Formation
The Zeeman effect is the only observational technique available to measure directly the strength of magnetic fields in regions of star formation.
[56]
https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/University_Physics_(OpenStax)/University_Physics_III_-_Optics_and_Modern_Physics_(OpenStax)/01%3A_The_Nature_of_Light/1.08%3A_Polarization
[57]
Etienne Louis Malus - Oxford Reference
He is remembered for his discovery made in 1808 that light rays may be polarized by reflection. He found this while looking through a crystal of Iceland ...
[58]
Improvement of the performance of the twisted-nematic liquid-crystal ...
A twisted-nematic liquid-crystal display (TN-LCD) placed between two linear polarizers (P) generally produces coupled intensity and phase modulations. For the ...Missing: cells | Show results with:cells
[59]
Polarization eigenstates for twisted-nematic liquid-crystal displays
Pezzaniti and Chipman[12] showed experimentally that the polarization eigenvectors for the twisted-nematic LCD are elliptically polarized rather than linearly ...
[60]
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/books/NBK592424/
[61]
N-type InSb 10-μm Faraday isolator - Optica Publishing Group
A Faraday isolator is a 45° Faraday rotator placed between two linear polarizers oriented at 45° to each other. An isolator placed between a laser and ...
[62]
All-fiber optical isolator based on Faraday rotation in highly terbium ...
An all-fiber isolator with 17 dB optical isolation is demonstrated. The fiber Faraday rotator uses 56 wt. % terbium (Tb)-doped silicate fiber, and the fiber ...
[63]
Photonic-crystal structures with polarized-wave-guiding property ...
We propose and demonstrate photonic-crystal structures with polarized-wave-guiding property, called as polarization waveguides (PWGs) in the following. In the ...
[64]
Dipole Antenna - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
It has a linear polarization and a radiation pattern that resembles a donut shape in three dimensions. AI generated definition based on: ZigBee Wireless ...
[65]
Antenna Polarization Measurements - Interference Technology
Apr 6, 2003 · In a linearly polarized system, a polarization misalignment of 45 degrees will degrade the signal up to 3 dB. Polarization misalignment near 90 ...
[66]
[PDF] chapter 9 | descanso - Propagation Effects on Satellite Systems
For systems using linear polarization, uncompensated Faraday rotation can cause a polarization mismatch loss of 20 10 d, where d = cos Oi and 9i is the ...
[67]
Bio-Inspired Polarized Skylight-Based Navigation Sensors: A Review
Insects, such as desert ants and honeybees, for example, utilize polarized skylight pattern-based information in their navigation activities. They reliably ...
[68]
Evidence for instantaneous e-vector detection in the honeybee ...
Jul 6, 2011 · Many insects use the polarization pattern of the sky for obtaining compass information during orientation or navigation.
[69]
Circular Dichroism Spectroscopy - JASCO Inc
Photoelastic Modulator (PEM). In a circular dichroism spectrophotometer, linearly polarized light is created to later produce circularly polarized light. Non- ...The Use Of Cd Spectroscopy... · Secondary Structure Of... · Beer's Law: Sample...Missing: input | Show results with:input
[70]
[PDF] Linear & Circular Dichroism - Hinds Instruments
Circular dichroism is the differential absorption between left and right circular polarized light components. This occurs naturally with chiral compounds, that ...
[71]
Photoelasticity | Harvard Natural Sciences Lecture Demonstrations
To use birefringence in stress analysis, the sample is placed between two crossed Polaroids. The first Polaroid produces a linearly polarized light source for ...
[72]
[PDF] Photoelasticity - University of Washington
Photoelasticity is a whole-field technique for measuring and visualizing stresses and strains in structures.The method utilizes a birefringent model.
[73]
[PDF] Experimental Test of Bell's Inequalities Using Time- Varying Analyzers
Dec 20, 1982 · E*perimen&al Tes& of Bell's Inequalities Using Time-Varying Analyzers. Alain Aspect, Jean Dalibard, 'and Gerard Roger.
[74]
[PDF] Scientific Background on the Nobel Prize in Physics 2022
Oct 4, 2022 · The experimenters used polarization entangled photon pairs and in a test of the CHSH inequality they obtained S = 2.508±0.037, demonstrating ...