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Point reflection

In geometry, point reflection, also known as central inversion or point symmetry, is a transformation that maps every point P to a point P' such that a fixed center O serves as the midpoint of the line segment PP'.^[1] This operation inverts the position of points relative to the center; in two dimensions, it is equivalent to a rotation by 180 degrees around O, producing a congruent figure.^[2] As a rigid transformation and isometry, point reflection preserves distances between points, angle measures, parallelism of lines, collinearity, and midpoints of segments; in even dimensions, it maintains the orientation of the figure.^[1] In the Cartesian coordinate plane, if the center is at the origin (0, 0), the transformation is explicitly given by (x, y) \mapsto (-x, -y).^[3] For a general center at (h, k), the image of a point (x, y) is (2h - x, 2k - y), ensuring the center acts as the midpoint.^[1] Point reflection is fundamental in studying symmetries, appearing in structures like parallelograms and centrosymmetric crystals, where the figure coincides with its image under the transformation.^[2] It forms part of the dihedral group in two dimensions and the full orthogonal group in higher dimensions, contributing to classifications of geometric symmetries and isometries.^[2] Unlike line reflections, which reverse orientation, point reflection preserves orientation in even dimensions, making it useful in applications ranging from computer graphics to crystallographic analysis.^[1]

Definition and Terminology

Core Definition

Point reflection, also known as central symmetry, is a geometric transformation in Euclidean space that maps any point \mathbf{P} to a point \mathbf{P}' with respect to a fixed point \mathbf{O} (the center) such that \mathbf{O} is the midpoint of the segment \mathbf{PP}'. Formally, this is expressed in vector notation as \mathbf{P}' = 2\mathbf{O} - \mathbf{P}.^[4]^[5] This transformation is an isometry, preserving distances between all pairs of points.^[6] It reverses orientation in odd-dimensional spaces, classifying it as an improper isometry in those cases.^[4] In contrast to line reflection, which inverts points through a line as the perpendicular bisector, point reflection inverts through a single point as the midpoint.^[4]

Historical and Alternative Terms

The concept of point reflection developed within the broader study of symmetries and transformations during the 19th century, particularly through foundational works on projective and affine geometry. August Ferdinand Möbius's 1827 publication Der Barycentrische Calcul advanced affine geometry via barycentric coordinates, facilitating the study of transformations like affinities, which include point reflections as special cases.^[7] Similarly, Jean-Victor Poncelet's contributions around 1822 on homologies and similitudes contributed to understanding central projections and similarities, where homothety with ratio -1 corresponds to point reflection.^[7] Felix Klein's Erlangen Program of 1872 classified geometries according to their underlying transformation groups, incorporating point reflections as isometries (orientation-preserving in even dimensions, reversing in odd) in Euclidean symmetry groups, alongside direct isometries like rotations.^[8] The formal study of point reflection as a transformation gained prominence in the late 19th century through group-theoretic approaches, though the specific terminology "point reflection" is more common in 20th-century geometry education.^[9] Alternative terms for point reflection include central inversion, point inversion, central symmetry, and point symmetry, reflecting its role as an inversion through a fixed center that maps each point to its antipode relative to that center.^[10] In specific contexts, such as spherical geometry, it is known as antipodal mapping, where points are paired across the sphere's center.^[4] Additionally, it is equivalent to a homothety (or dilation) with ratio -1, a terminology rooted in studies of similitudes.^[7] The etymological root of "reflection" traces to the Latin reflectere ("to bend back"), borrowed from optical principles of light bouncing off surfaces, and adapted in 19th-century mathematical texts to describe symmetry operations that "fold" space back onto itself, with "point reflection" specifically denoting the central case as opposed to linear mirror reflections.^[11]

Geometric Interpretation

In Two Dimensions

In two dimensions, point reflection, also known as central symmetry, is a geometric transformation that maps every point P in the plane to a point P' such that the center O is the midpoint of the segment PP'.^[6] This operation can be visualized as an inversion through the point O, where the entire figure is "turned inside out" relative to O, effectively repositioning each element to the opposite side at an equal distance. A key intuitive visualization of point reflection in the plane is its equivalence to a 180-degree rotation around the center O. For instance, consider a square centered at O; under point reflection, the square maps onto itself, but the positions of its vertices are interchanged such that opposite vertices swap places, resulting in the figure appearing unchanged yet with its internal structure rotated halfway around O. This half-turn preserves distances and shapes, classifying it as a rigid transformation or isometry.^[6] The effects of point reflection on common geometric shapes further illustrate its behavior. A circle centered at O maps directly onto itself, as every point on the circumference is equidistant from O and its image lies on the same circle. Lines passing through O remain fixed as sets, mapping to themselves under the transformation, while lines not passing through O map to distinct parallel lines positioned at an equal distance on the opposite side of O. For example, a line parallel to the x-axis above O would reflect to a parallel line equidistant below O.^[6] Regarding orientation, point reflection in two dimensions preserves the handedness of figures, meaning a clockwise traversal of a shape's boundary remains clockwise after transformation, unlike line reflections which reverse it. This preservation aligns with its rotational nature, distinguishing it from orientation-reversing isometries while maintaining congruence to the original figure.^[12]

In Higher Dimensions

In three dimensions, point reflection with respect to a center O maps every point P to the point P' such that O is the midpoint of the segment PP', effectively inverting the object's configuration through O. This transformation preserves distances and volumes, making it an isometry, but it reverses the handedness of chiral objects, such as mapping a right-handed coordinate system to a left-handed one. For example, applying point reflection to a cube centered at O yields the identical cube, as the cube possesses central symmetry, with each vertex mapping to the opposite vertex across O.^[13]^[14] In general n-dimensional Euclidean space, point reflection extends this vector-based interpretation: relative to coordinates centered at O, it sends every position vector \mathbf{v} to -\mathbf{v}, inverting the entire configuration. This central inversion transforms simplices or polytopes into their centrally symmetric counterparts when O is suitably chosen, such as the centroid, thereby highlighting symmetry properties in higher-dimensional geometry. The operation maintains the overall scale and shape but alters the arrangement in a way that emphasizes antipodal relationships among points.^[4] The effect on orientation depends on the dimension: point reflection preserves orientation in even dimensions (where it behaves like a rotation) but reverses it in odd dimensions, flipping chirality as indicated by the determinant (-1)^n of the associated linear transformation. An intuitive analogy in three dimensions compares this to turning a glove inside out through the point O, which converts a right-handed glove to a left-handed one without tearing, underscoring the reversal of handedness.^[15]^[14]

Mathematical Formulation

Coordinate-Based Formula

In coordinate geometry, the point reflection of a point P with position vector \vec{p} over a center O with position vector \vec{o} is given by the vector equation \vec{p'} = 2\vec{o} - \vec{p}.^[16]^[17] This formula expresses the transformation algebraically, where \vec{p'} is the position vector of the reflected point P'. The derivation follows directly from the defining property that O is the midpoint of the segment joining P and P'. Using the midpoint formula in vector terms, \vec{o} = \frac{\vec{p} + \vec{p'}}{2}. Solving for \vec{p'}, multiply both sides by 2 to obtain $2\vec{o} = \vec{p} + \vec{p'}, then subtract \vec{p} from both sides, yielding \vec{p'} = 2\vec{o} - \vec{p}.^[18] This formulation demonstrates translation invariance: by shifting the coordinate system so that O coincides with the origin (i.e., setting \vec{o} = \vec{0}), the formula simplifies to \vec{p'} = -\vec{p}, which is the negation of the position vector.^[17]^[18] In this centered case, each coordinate component is simply multiplied by -1, as seen in two dimensions where a point (x, y) maps to (-x, -y).^[18]

Matrix Representation

In the case where the fixed point O coincides with the origin, point reflection is a linear transformation represented by multiplication with the negative identity matrix -I_n in n-dimensional Euclidean space.^[13] This matrix takes the diagonal form

-I_n = \begin{pmatrix} -1 & 0 & \cdots & 0 \\ 0 & -1 & \cdots & 0 \\ \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\ 0 & 0 & \cdots & -1 \end{pmatrix},

where each of the n diagonal entries is -1.^[13] The determinant of -I_n equals (-1)^n, resulting in +1 for even n (an orientation-preserving proper orthogonal transformation) and -1 for odd n (an orientation-reversing improper orthogonal transformation).^[13] For a general fixed point O, point reflection becomes an affine transformation, decomposed as the composition T_{\mathbf{O}} \circ (-I_n) \circ T_{-\mathbf{O}}, where T_{\mathbf{v}} is the translation by vector \mathbf{v}. In homogeneous coordinates, this affine map is represented by the (n+1) \times (n+1) matrix

\begin{pmatrix} -I_n & 2\mathbf{O} \\ \mathbf{0}^T & 1 \end{pmatrix},

which applies the operation \mathbf{P}' = 2\mathbf{O} - \mathbf{P} to a point \mathbf{P}.^[19] The linear component of this matrix retains the form -I_n and its associated determinant (-1)^n.^[13]

Properties and Relations

Fundamental Properties

Point reflection, also known as central inversion, exhibits several fundamental properties as a geometric transformation in Euclidean space. These include its status as an isometry, its involutory nature, the uniqueness of its fixed point, and its role in compositions that generate other isometries. As an isometry, point reflection preserves Euclidean distances between points. To see this, consider the transformation centered at the origin for simplicity, where a point \mathbf{P} maps to \mathbf{P}' = -\mathbf{P}. For any two points \mathbf{P} and \mathbf{Q}, the distance between their images is \| \mathbf{P}' - \mathbf{Q}' \| = \| (-\mathbf{P}) - (-\mathbf{Q}) \| = \| -(\mathbf{P} - \mathbf{Q}) \| = \| \mathbf{P} - \mathbf{Q} \| , since the Euclidean norm is unchanged under scalar multiplication by -1. For a general center \mathbf{O}, the mapping is \mathbf{P}' = 2\mathbf{O} - \mathbf{P}, and \mathbf{P}' - \mathbf{Q}' = (2\mathbf{O} - \mathbf{P}) - (2\mathbf{O} - \mathbf{Q}) = \mathbf{Q} - \mathbf{P}, so \| \mathbf{P}' - \mathbf{Q}' \| = \| \mathbf{P} - \mathbf{Q} \| . This preservation of distances follows from the congruence of triangles formed by the center and the segments, as established by the side-angle-side (SAS) criterion.^[2]^[5] Point reflection is involutory, meaning it is its own inverse: applying the transformation twice yields the identity mapping. For a center \mathbf{O}, the second application gives $2\mathbf{O} - (2\mathbf{O} - \mathbf{P}) = \mathbf{P}. Thus, the composition of the reflection with itself returns every point to its original position.^[2]^[5] The only fixed point of a point reflection is the center \mathbf{O} itself. A point \mathbf{P} satisfies \mathbf{P}' = \mathbf{P} if and only if $2\mathbf{O} - \mathbf{P} = \mathbf{P}, which simplifies to \mathbf{P} = \mathbf{O}. All other points are mapped to distinct locations antipodal with respect to \mathbf{O}.^[2]^[5] Compositions involving point reflection generate other elements of the Euclidean isometry group. Specifically, the composition of two point reflections over distinct centers \mathbf{A} and \mathbf{B} is a translation by the vector $2(\mathbf{B} - \mathbf{A}). When combined with translations or rotations, such compositions produce broader symmetry groups, including the full group of orientation-preserving isometries in even dimensions. In matrix form relative to the center, point reflection corresponds to scalar multiplication by -1, resulting in a determinant of (-1)^d where d is the dimension of the space.^[2]^[5]

Connections to Other Transformations

Point reflection, also known as central inversion, can be interpreted as a specific case of a homothety, which is a transformation that scales objects by a fixed factor relative to a center point. Specifically, it corresponds to a homothety with center O and scale factor k = -1, where every point P is mapped to P' such that the vector from O to P' is the negative of the vector from O to P. This negative scaling distinguishes it from positive homotheties, as it reverses the direction of vectors from the center, leading to an orientation-reversing effect in odd-dimensional spaces while preserving orientation in even dimensions.^[20]^[21] In two-dimensional Euclidean space, point reflection through a point O is precisely equivalent to a rotation by 180 degrees (or π radians) around O, as both transformations map each point P to the antipodal point on the circle centered at O with radius OP. This equivalence holds because the transformation matrix -I in 2D has determinant 1, placing it within the special orthogonal group SO(2), which consists of orientation-preserving rotations. In higher even dimensions, such as 4D or 6D, the central inversion (-I) remains orientation-preserving and can be decomposed as the composition of n pairwise orthogonal 180-degree rotations, each acting in a 2D plane that spans the space, reflecting the structure of rotations in even-dimensional orthogonal groups.^[21] Point reflection differs fundamentally from geometric inversion, which is a transformation with respect to a circle (in 2D) or sphere (in higher dimensions) that maps points inside to outside and vice versa while preserving angles but distorting distances nonlinearly. Unlike geometric inversion, which generally maps circles to circles or lines but does not preserve collinearity of points unless they pass through the center, point reflection is a linear isometry that rigidly maps lines to parallel lines and preserves all affine structures. Point reflection represents a special linear case of inversion, confined to the origin without the conformal but nonlinear properties of circle- or sphere-based inversions.^[22] In the context of projective geometry, point reflection functions as a type of polarity, a correlation that duality maps points to hyperplanes (or lines in 2D) in a reciprocal manner, particularly when considering absolute circle or sphere geometries where reflections generate the transformation group. This role arises in projective metrics, where central inversion aligns with polar mappings that preserve incidence relations across the projective plane or space.^[23]

Group-Theoretic Aspects

Point Reflection Group

The point reflection group is the cyclic group generated by a single point reflection \sigma, consisting of the elements \{\mathrm{id}, \sigma\}, where \sigma^2 = \mathrm{id}. This structure yields a group of order 2, which is isomorphic to the cyclic group \mathbb{Z}/2\mathbb{Z}.^[24] The action of this group on Euclidean space generates central symmetries, transforming each point into its antipodal point relative to the fixed center of reflection. In n-dimensional Euclidean space, the point reflection group forms a subgroup of the orthogonal group O(n), specifically the subgroup generated by the central inversion matrix -I.^[24]^[25] When combined with translations, the point reflection extends to non-abelian structures, forming wallpaper groups in two dimensions or space groups in three dimensions that incorporate inversion symmetry. For instance, among the 17 wallpaper groups, types such as p2mm (or pmm) and cmm include inversion centers alongside translational lattices, resulting in infinite discrete symmetry groups of the plane.

Role in Symmetry Groups

Point reflection, also known as central inversion, plays a central role in the structure of the orthogonal group O(n), the group of all linear isometries of \mathbb{R}^n. Represented by the matrix -I, where I is the identity matrix, it belongs to the center of O(n) for n \geq 2, which consists precisely of the elements \{[I, -I](/page/I,_I)\}. This centrality implies that point reflection commutes with every element of O(n), making it a fundamental scalar multiple that preserves the group's defining properties of distance and angle conservation.^[26] For even dimensions n = 2k, the determinant of -I is 1, so point reflection lies within the special orthogonal group SO(n), where it generates the order-2 central subgroup \{[I, -I](/page/I,_I)\}, highlighting its role in distinguishing connected components and quotients of rotation groups. In finite symmetry groups of regular figures, point reflection emerges as a key element in dihedral and polyhedral groups. For the dihedral group D_n, the symmetry group of a regular n-gon, point reflection through the center coincides with the 180-degree rotation when n is even, serving as an essential generator in the cyclic rotation subgroup and contributing to the overall structure that balances rotations and reflections. Extending to three dimensions, in the full polyhedral groups such as the octahedral group O_h for the cube or octahedron, point reflection acts as the inversion i, and the group decomposes as the direct product of the rotational polyhedral group and the inversion subgroup \{1, i\}, enabling the inclusion of improper rotations and reflections while preserving centrosymmetry.^[27]^[28] Crystallographic point groups, which classify the discrete symmetries compatible with lattice translations, incorporate point reflection as a core operation in their 11 centrosymmetric variants out of the total 32 groups. Denoted by the symbol -1 in the International Tables for Crystallography, this operation represents a center of symmetry (or onefold inversion axis) that maps each lattice point to its antipodal counterpart through the origin, ensuring the group's compatibility with periodic crystal structures.^[29] In infinite discrete symmetry groups like frieze and wallpaper groups, which describe repeatable patterns in the plane, point reflection manifests as 180-degree rotations and integrates with glide reflections to form more complex motifs. For instance, in frieze group F_5 (or p211), it combines with glide reflections along the strip direction to generate patterns with alternating orientations, while in wallpaper groups such as pgg, point reflections at lattice points pair with perpendicular glide reflections to produce centrosymmetric tilings without mirror symmetries. These combinations extend the basic point reflection group into translationally invariant structures essential for analyzing periodic designs.^[30]

Applications

In Analytic Geometry

In analytic geometry, point reflection provides a powerful tool for analyzing the symmetry properties of curves and figures, particularly conic sections. Ellipses and hyperbolas possess central symmetry with respect to their center, meaning the curve remains unchanged under point reflection over that point, as substituting (x, y) with (2h - x, 2k - y) (where (h, k) is the center) yields the original equation.^[31] Parabolas, by contrast, do not exhibit this point symmetry, lacking invariance under such a transformation due to their open, non-central structure.^[32] A representative example is the circle, a special case of the ellipse, whose equation x^2 + y^2 = r^2 (centered at the origin) maps to itself under point reflection over the origin, confirming its central symmetry.^[32] This property extends to general ellipses and hyperbolas translated to standard position, where the transformation preserves the quadratic form.^[32] Point reflection also aids in solving locus problems by identifying symmetric positions analytically. For instance, it is useful for constructing perpendicular bisectors in coordinate terms via vector midpoint calculations.^[1] In vector-based applications, such as computer graphics, point reflection enables efficient central flipping of polygons by applying the formula \mathbf{P}' = 2\mathbf{C} - \mathbf{P} to each vertex, where \mathbf{C} is the center, preserving shape while inverting orientation for rendering symmetric models or animations. This linear operation is computationally straightforward, often implemented via homogeneous coordinates for batch transformations.

In Crystallography and Molecular Structures

In crystallography, point reflection manifests as an inversion center, a key symmetry element present in 11 of the 32 crystallographic point groups, enabling the classification of centrosymmetric crystals.^[33] These groups, often denoted by the presence of the \bar{1} operation, describe the external symmetry of crystals and are fundamental to understanding their physical properties, such as optical behavior and piezoelectricity. For instance, the diamond crystal structure, with space group Fd\bar{3}m, incorporates inversion centers at positions like (1/8, 1/8, 1/8), where the operation maps carbon atoms from one face-centered cubic sublattice to the other, contributing to the overall cubic symmetry despite the local tetrahedral coordination lacking inversion.^[34] In molecular structures, point reflection appears in centrosymmetric molecules, where an inversion center ensures that the molecule is superimposable on its mirror image through this operation, often leading to achiral configurations. A representative example is trans-1,2-dichloroethene (\ce{(ClHC=CHCl)}), which belongs to the C_{2h} point group and features an inversion center at the midpoint of the C-C bond, balancing the chlorine atoms on opposite sides.^[35] This symmetry has significant spectroscopic implications: in centrosymmetric molecules, the rule of mutual exclusion applies, rendering vibrations that are infrared (IR) active inactive in Raman spectroscopy, and vice versa, due to the parity selection rules enforced by the inversion center.^[36] For trans-1,2-dichloroethene, this results in only three IR-active modes out of its six vibrational degrees of freedom, simplifying spectral analysis and aiding in symmetry assignment.^[37] Experimental detection of inversion centers in crystals and molecular solids primarily relies on X-ray diffraction, where the technique reveals the space group symmetry through the analysis of diffraction intensities and electron density maps. While inversion itself does not produce systematic absences—those arise from translational symmetries like centering or glide planes—the presence of an inversion center is confirmed during structure refinement when the model fits the data only with centrosymmetric constraints, such as equal intensities for Friedel pairs in the absence of anomalous scattering.^[38] In practice, for structures like diamond, the centrosymmetric space group is validated by the absence of certain reflections consistent with the full symmetry operations, including inversion, ensuring the atomic arrangement aligns with the observed diffraction pattern.^[38] This method has been pivotal in elucidating the symmetries of countless materials, from minerals to pharmaceuticals.

Advanced Mathematical Contexts

Inversion with Respect to the Origin

Inversion with respect to the origin is the special case of point reflection where the center of inversion coincides with the origin of the coordinate system. In this configuration, the transformation simplifies to negating the position vector of each point, mapping a point \mathbf{P} = (x_1, x_2, \dots, x_n) in n-dimensional Euclidean space to \mathbf{P}' = (-x_1, -x_2, \dots, -x_n). This operation, represented by multiplication by the scalar -1 or the matrix -I (the negative identity matrix), arises directly from the general point reflection formula when the center is at the origin, reducing \mathbf{P}' = 2\mathbf{O} - \mathbf{P} to \mathbf{P}' = -\mathbf{P}.^[21]^[14] Geometrically, this inversion preserves distances and angles as an isometry of Euclidean space, but reverses orientation in odd dimensions (transforming right-handed coordinate systems to left-handed ones) and preserves orientation in even dimensions. Lines and planes passing through the origin are mapped onto themselves, though the direction along these subspaces is reversed—for instance, a ray emanating from the origin in one direction is sent to the opposite ray. Spheres centered at the origin are invariant under this transformation, as the Euclidean norm \|\mathbf{P}\| = \|\mathbf{P}'\| ensures every point on such a sphere is mapped to another point on the same sphere. The origin itself is the sole fixed point, remaining unchanged.^[21]^[14]^[9] In the complex plane, inversion with respect to the origin corresponds to the mapping z \mapsto -z, which negates both the real and imaginary parts of the complex number z = x + iy, sending it to -x - iy. This operation is a 180-degree rotation about the origin, which preserves orientation, distinct from complex conjugation \overline{z} = x - iy (which reflects over the real axis and reverses orientation), but sharing the property of fixing only the origin. It preserves the modulus |z| = |-z|, thus mapping circles centered at the origin to themselves.^[39]

Representations in Clifford Algebras

In Clifford algebras, geometric transformations such as reflections are represented using versors, which are products of invertible vectors corresponding to reflections in hyperplanes. A simple reflection of a vector \mathbf{v} across a hyperplane with unit normal \mathbf{n} (where \mathbf{n}^2 = \pm 1) is given by the sandwich product \mathbf{v}' = -\mathbf{n} \mathbf{v} \mathbf{n}, an operation inherent to the geometric product of the algebra.^[40] Point reflection, or central inversion through the origin, maps every vector \mathbf{x} to -\mathbf{x}. This transformation is an element of the Pin group, the group generated by unit vectors under the geometric product, and can be realized as the scalar multiplication by -1, which lies in the center of the algebra for dimensions greater than zero. Equivalently, it arises as the composition of reflections across all n orthogonal hyperplanes in an n-dimensional space, yielding a versor of grade n modulo signs.^[40] In the context of the pseudoscalar I, the unit element of highest grade in \mathrm{Cl}(n,0), the central inversion is represented by the conjugation \mathbf{x}' = I \mathbf{x} \tilde{I}, where \tilde{I} denotes the reverse of I. For Euclidean signature, I^2 = (-1)^{n(n-1)/2}, and the reverse satisfies \tilde{I} = (-1)^{n(n-1)/2} I; this conjugation yields -\mathbf{x} when the dimension n is even and \mathbf{x} when n is odd (as in 3D space, where I = \mathbf{e}_1 \mathbf{e}_2 \mathbf{e}_3 and I^2 = -1, \tilde{I} = -I, but vectors commute with I, so I \mathbf{x} (-I) = -I \mathbf{x} I = -I (I \mathbf{x}) = -I^2 \mathbf{x} = -(-1) \mathbf{x} = \mathbf{x}). In odd dimensions, central inversion is instead achieved via scalar multiplication by -1. This pseudoscalar-based representation highlights the orientation-reversing nature of point reflection in odd dimensions, with determinant \det = (-1)^n.^[40]^[41] For point reflection through an arbitrary center \mathbf{a}, the transformation combines translation with central inversion: first translate by -\mathbf{a} to the origin, apply -\mathbf{x}, then translate back by +\mathbf{a}, yielding \mathbf{x}' = 2\mathbf{a} - \mathbf{x}. In Clifford algebra, translations are even-grade versors (bivectors in the flat subspace), ensuring the full isometry remains a product within the Pin or Spin group extensions. This framework extends naturally to conformal geometric algebra \mathrm{Cl}(n+1,1), where points are represented as null vectors, and inversion through a point corresponds to a spherical inversion versor centered at that point, preserving angles and enabling unified treatment of Euclidean and spherical geometries.^[40]

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[PDF] Classifications of Frieze Groups and an Introduction to ...
May 10, 2019 · ... inversion (ρ → ρ−1). ... One of the features about each of the frieze and wallpaper groups is the construction of a group with certain motions.
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### Summary of Symmetry in Conic Sections
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[PDF] The Conic Sections - Analytic Geometry - BVT Publishing
Symmetry. 448. Symmetry about a line or a point means that the curve is its own reflection about that line or that point. The graph of an equation in x and y ...
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[PDF] Properties of Proper and Improper Rotation Matrices
called a point reflection through the origin (to distinguish it from a reflection through a plane). Just like a reflection matrix, the inversion matrix ...
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[PDF] Symmetry in 3D Geometry: Extraction and Applications - VECG
Abstract. The concept of symmetry has received significant attention in computer graphics and computer vision research in recent years.
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Point and space groups - Mantid
Jun 3, 2021 · In three dimensions there are 32 crystallographic point groups and in 11 of these an inversion center (ˉ1) is present. These so called Laue ...
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[PDF] Assignment 2: Solution - PhysLab
Feb 16, 2021 · g) The diamond structure has a centre of inversion at (1. 8. , 1. 8. , 1. 8. ). Verify this statement. Solution: We can see in the figure that ...
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the C2h point group
a twofold symmetry axis i a center of inversion σh a horizontal mirror plane. A simple example for a C2h symmetric molecule is trans -1,2-dichloroethylene ...
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Raman active modes - DoITPoMS
In fact for centrosymmetric ( centre of symmetry ) molecules the Raman active modes are IR inactive, and vice versa. This is called the rule of mutual ...
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Structural resolution. Crystal symmetry and diffraction symmetry
These inversion centres are thus generated by combining the screw axes and the glide planes, and therefore one can also conclude that P21/c is a centro- ...
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https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Geometry/Geometry_with_an_Introduction_to_Cosmic_Topology_(Hitchman)/03%3A_Transformations/3.01%3A_Basic_Transformations_of_Complex_Numbers
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[PDF] Clifford Algebra to Geometric Calculus - MIT Mathematics
Hestenes, David, 1933-. Clifford algebra to geometric calculus. (Fundamental theories of physics). Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Clifford ...
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[PDF] Clifford Algebra Unveils a Surprising Geometric Significance of ...
May 7, 2012 · groups they generate as spinors if and only if they contain the central inversion. Proof. If the central inversion I is generated by the ...<|control11|><|separator|>