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Proof of authority

Proof of Authority (PoA) is a blockchain consensus mechanism that authorizes a limited set of trusted validators, selected based on their identity, reputation, and pre-approval, to create new blocks and validate transactions, thereby achieving network agreement without relying on energy-intensive proof-of-work mining or probabilistic proof-of-stake staking. Introduced in 2017 by Gavin Wood, co-founder of Ethereum and Parity Technologies, PoA prioritizes efficiency and scalability over decentralization, making it particularly suitable for permissioned networks, private blockchains, and test environments where participants are known entities.^[1] In PoA systems, validators operate in a round-robin fashion, taking turns to propose blocks within fixed time intervals, often called "steps" or "rounds," to ensure timely finality and minimize latency.^[2] This process typically involves a predefined list of authorities who sign blocks, with mechanisms to detect and penalize misbehavior such as issuing multiple blocks or proposing out-of-turn, thereby maintaining network integrity through reputation stakes rather than economic penalties. Common implementations include Aura (Authority Round), developed by Parity for its Ethereum client, which divides time into discrete steps where the primary validator for each step is determined modulo the number of authorities, allowing for block times as short as one second and finality once more than half the authorities have signed a chain.^[2] Another variant is Clique, standardized in Ethereum Improvement Proposal 225 (EIP-225), which uses a similar signer-based approach but incorporates voting mechanisms among signers to dynamically adjust the validator set, enhancing flexibility for enterprise use.^[3] PoA networks offer significant advantages in performance, including high throughput, low resource requirements, and resistance to spam attacks common in public testnets, as demonstrated by its adoption in the now-deprecated Kovan Ethereum testnet to replace vulnerable proof-of-work systems.^[1] However, its reliance on a small, trusted group of validators introduces centralization risks, such as potential collusion or single points of failure, limiting its applicability to scenarios where participants can be vetted, such as consortium blockchains involving organizations like those in supply chain management (e.g., the POA Network) or enterprise platforms. Despite these trade-offs, PoA remains a foundational mechanism for hybrid and permissioned blockchain deployments as of 2025, influencing subsequent developments in scalable distributed ledger technologies.^[2]

Overview

Definition

In blockchain networks, consensus mechanisms are protocols that allow a distributed set of nodes to agree on the validity of transactions and the state of the ledger without a central authority, ensuring security and consistency in decentralized systems. Proof of Authority (PoA) is a consensus algorithm that relies on a small, pre-approved group of validators—identified by their verifiable identity or reputation—to validate transactions and produce new blocks, rather than through competitive resource expenditure. This approach is designed for efficiency in environments where trust can be established among participants, making it distinct from permissionless networks that permit open, anonymous involvement and instead aligning with permissioned networks where access is controlled and identities are known.^[4] At a high level, PoA operates by having these authorized validators take turns signing blocks in a predetermined sequence, with the network accepting blocks that receive sufficient endorsements from the majority of validators to maintain integrity and resolve any discrepancies.^[5] This reputation-based validation prioritizes the validators' accountability over proof of computational effort or economic stake, enabling faster transaction processing suitable for private or consortium blockchains.

Key Features

Proof of Authority (PoA) distinguishes itself through its emphasis on efficiency, achieving low energy consumption by eliminating the need for resource-intensive computational puzzles or staking requirements typical of other consensus mechanisms. Instead, block production is handled by a pre-selected group of validators, minimizing hardware demands and environmental impact compared to energy-heavy alternatives. This design enables high transaction throughput, with implementations capable of processing up to 10,000 transactions per second (TPS), far exceeding the limitations of many public blockchains. Additionally, PoA supports fast block finality, often confirming transactions in under one second, due to the streamlined process among a limited number of validators operating in a round-robin fashion.^[6]^[7] At its core, PoA's trust model centers on identity verification rather than economic penalties or proof of computational effort, where validators stake their reputation by linking public keys to verifiable real-world identities, such as through know-your-customer (KYC) processes or affiliations with established organizations. This approach fosters accountability, as malicious behavior risks damaging a validator's professional standing, thereby incentivizing honest participation without relying on token burns or slashing. The mechanism's permissioned nature makes it particularly suited for private or consortium blockchains, where all participants are pre-vetted and known entities, ensuring controlled access and reduced risk of anonymous attacks.^[6]^[3] PoA enhances scalability by significantly reducing network overhead, as the absence of competitive mining or broad staking participation limits the number of nodes involved in consensus to a small, efficient set. This results in lower bandwidth usage and faster propagation of blocks across the network, allowing for seamless operation in environments with dozens rather than thousands of participants. Overall, these features position PoA as an optimal choice for enterprise-grade applications requiring reliability and performance without the decentralization trade-offs of permissionless systems.^[6]^[5]

History and Development

Origins

Proof of authority (PoA) emerged in the mid-2010s as a consensus mechanism designed to address the computational inefficiencies and high energy demands of proof of work (PoW) in permissioned blockchain environments, where participants are pre-identified and partially trusted. This approach was particularly suited for private or consortium networks, offering faster transaction finality without the need for resource-intensive mining. Influenced by established Byzantine fault tolerance (BFT) protocols from distributed systems research, PoA shifted the trust model from computational puzzles to verifiable identities, enabling consensus among a limited set of authorized validators while tolerating a fraction of faulty or malicious nodes.^[8] The concept was first articulated in late 2015 by Gavin Wood, co-founder of Ethereum and Parity Technologies, in a GitHub document outlining "PoA Private Chains." In this early proposal, Wood described PoA as a lightweight alternative for non-public Ethereum networks, emphasizing identity-based validation to achieve high throughput in controlled settings, such as enterprise applications. This drew from broader ideas in distributed systems regarding reputation and authority as stakes, adapting them to blockchain's decentralized ledger requirements.^[9] By 2016-2017, the Ethereum developer community formalized PoA through Ethereum Improvement Proposal (EIP) 225, titled "Clique: Proof-of-Authority Consensus Protocol." Authored by Péter Szilágyi and others, this proposal detailed a simple, embeddable protocol for private chains, building on Wood's ideas to shadow Ethereum's mainnet design while prioritizing ease of implementation for testing and enterprise use. Early discussions in Ethereum forums highlighted PoA's potential as a PoW alternative for scenarios requiring scalability and low latency, such as internal corporate blockchains.^[3]^[10]

Key Milestones

In 2017, the Clique proof-of-authority (PoA) consensus protocol was formally introduced through Ethereum Improvement Proposal 225 (EIP-225), enabling efficient validation by pre-approved nodes for private and test networks.^[3] This mechanism was quickly adopted for Ethereum testnets, with the Rinkeby testnet launching in April 2017 as one of the first to utilize Clique for cross-client synchronization and development testing.^[11] The following year, the Goerli testnet was announced in May 2018 at the ETH Berlin conference and launched in January 2019, further establishing PoA as a standard for public test environments compatible with major Ethereum clients like Geth and Nethermind.^[12] From 2018 to 2020, PoA saw increased adoption in enterprise platforms and real-world applications. VeChain launched its mainnet in July 2018, employing a PoA consensus to facilitate supply chain traceability, with early pilots demonstrating enhanced transparency in logistics and product authentication.^[13] In August 2019, Hyperledger Besu was announced as an open-source Ethereum client under the Hyperledger Foundation, integrating Clique PoA alongside other protocols like IBFT 2.0 to support permissioned networks for enterprise use cases.^[14] These developments marked PoA's shift from testing to practical deployment, with supply chain pilots—such as those by VeChain with partners like PwC—highlighting its efficiency in tracking goods without the energy demands of proof-of-work.^[15] Between 2021 and 2023, PoA experienced growth through hybrid consensus models and applications in private chains for decentralized finance (DeFi). Research advanced hybrid approaches combining PoA with elements of proof-of-stake or proof-of-work to balance security and scalability, as detailed in comprehensive reviews of consensus mechanisms.^[16] Private PoA chains, often EVM-compatible, became popular for DeFi testing and controlled environments, enabling faster transactions while maintaining regulatory compliance.^[17] Ethereum's transition to proof-of-stake via The Merge in September 2022 indirectly influenced sidechains, as networks like xDai (now Gnosis Chain) transitioned to proof-of-stake in December 2022 via its own "Merge," enhancing decentralization and interoperability with the PoS mainnet while aiming to maintain efficiency.^[18] In 2024 and 2025, PoA integrated into emerging sectors like Internet of Things (IoT) blockchains and public health applications. Variants such as Proof of Random Leader (PoRL) emerged, using verifiable random functions for leader selection in permissioned networks to resist manipulation and improve fairness.^[19] For IoT, trust-weighted PoA mechanisms were proposed to secure data transmission in resource-constrained devices, as seen in frameworks for scalable IoT networks.^[20] In public health, PoA-based systems advanced secure data sharing, with blockchain frameworks employing PoA and smart contracts for asset tracking and monitoring in healthcare supply chains, ensuring ethical, transparent operations.^[21] In November 2025, VeChain announced a transition from PoA to Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS), with mainnet activation scheduled for December 2, 2025.^[22] These innovations underscored PoA's adaptability for privacy-sensitive, high-stakes environments up to late 2025.

Technical Mechanism

How PoA Works

In Proof of Authority (PoA), the consensus mechanism operates through a predefined set of trusted validators, known as signers or sealers, who are responsible for proposing and authenticating blocks in a permissioned blockchain network. The process is designed for efficiency in private or consortium environments, such as Ethereum testnets, where computational waste is minimized by relying on identity-based authorization rather than resource-intensive computations.^[3] The core algorithm begins with transaction collection by the currently designated validator. This node aggregates pending transactions from the network's mempool, constructs a block header—including the parent hash, state root, transactions root, and other metadata—and prepares the block for sealing within a configurable block period, such as 15 seconds in Clique implementations.^[23]^[24] Next, the validator signs the block header using its private key, based on the secp256k1 elliptic curve standard, to produce a 65-byte signature that serves as the block's seal. This signature is embedded in the block's extraData field, confirming the validator's authority and preventing unauthorized alterations. The signed block is then broadcast to all other nodes in the network.^[23]^[3] Upon receipt, other nodes verify the block by checking the signature against the list of authorized validators, ensuring the signer's identity matches and the block complies with protocol rules—such as the timestamp advancing by at least the block period from the parent and the difficulty level (2 for in-turn proposals, 1 for out-of-turn). Valid blocks are accepted and added to the local chain; invalid ones, including those from unauthorized sources, are discarded.^[23]^[24] Validator rotation follows a deterministic schedule, such as by block number modulo the number of validators in Clique or slot number in Aura, ensuring equitable turns. In Clique, a validator is restricted from signing more than \lfloor N/2 \rfloor + 1 consecutive blocks, where N is the number of validators, after which the turn passes to the subsequent validator at the end of the seal interval.^[23]^[3]^[25] Block finality in PoA is generally achieved quickly through acceptance by a majority of validators, with short-lived forks resolved by prioritizing the chain with the most valid blocks, without the lengthy probabilistic confirmations required in mechanisms like Proof of Work. Any short-lived forks, which may arise from network delays or out-of-turn proposals, are resolved quickly by prioritizing the chain with the most in-turn blocks, leveraging the trusted validator set for rapid convergence.^[24]^[26]

Validator Selection and Roles

In Proof of Authority (PoA) networks, validators are typically pre-approved by network administrators or governance mechanisms based on established reputation, identity verification processes such as know-your-customer (KYC) requirements, or affiliation with trusted organizations like corporations. This selection emphasizes accountability, as validators stake their identity rather than computational resources or tokens, often requiring public key certificates or multi-signature approvals to join a limited set, commonly ranging from 5 to 25 participants to ensure manageability and fault tolerance.^[3] For instance, in implementations like Ethereum's Clique protocol, the initial list of authorities is defined in the genesis configuration and maintained through on-chain voting.^[3] Validators fulfill distinct roles to maintain network integrity, with a primary validator selected in each round to propose and sign new blocks, ensuring timely block production within fixed intervals. Secondary validators, comprising the rest of the approved set, verify proposed blocks by checking signatures and transaction validity, and they can report or vote against misbehavior such as unauthorized signing or double-spending attempts.^[3] In protocols like Authority Round (Aura), the primary role rotates deterministically among the authority list based on the current slot number modulo the number of validators, promoting equitable participation.^[25] Validator management involves periodic rotation among the approved set to distribute computational load and improve resilience against failures, often implemented via round-robin scheduling in Aura or epoch-based updates in Clique every 30,000 blocks.^[25]^[3] In implementations supporting dynamic sets like Clique, misbehavior, including prolonged downtime or offline status, can lead to removal through majority voting by other validators, effectively revoking the offender's authority without traditional stake penalties; for example, in Clique, votes use special nonce values in block headers to add or evict signers once a threshold is met.^[3] This democratic removal process enhances fault tolerance while keeping the validator pool dynamic yet controlled.^[26]

Comparisons with Other Mechanisms

Versus Proof of Work

Proof of Authority (PoA) and Proof of Work (PoW) represent contrasting approaches to achieving consensus in blockchain networks, with PoA prioritizing efficiency through trusted validators and PoW emphasizing computational competition for security.^[27] In terms of resource efficiency, PoA avoids the energy-intensive mining puzzles central to PoW, requiring only negligible computational resources from a limited set of pre-approved validators, making it far more environmentally sustainable and cost-effective for operation.^[28] In contrast, PoW relies on miners solving complex hash-based cryptographic challenges with adjustable difficulty, which demands substantial electricity and hardware, as exemplified by Bitcoin's network consuming energy comparable to entire countries.^[27]^[28] Regarding decentralization, PoA inherently trades off broader participation for speed and reliability by restricting block production to a fixed group of authorized entities, such as reputable organizations, resulting in a more centralized structure that limits open access.^[27] PoW, however, enables greater decentralization through its permissionless model, where any participant with sufficient computing power can compete to validate blocks, fostering a wider distribution of influence but at the cost of higher coordination overhead.^[27]^[28] This makes PoA particularly suitable for private or consortium blockchains, while PoW underpins public networks like Bitcoin. The security models of PoA and PoW differ fundamentally in their trust assumptions. PoA depends on the reputation and identity of validators, who stake their credibility as collateral against misbehavior, tolerating faults from fewer than half of the nodes (p < n/2) through mechanisms like voting to remove malicious actors.^[27]^[28] PoW, by comparison, enforces security via economic disincentives, where attacks like a 51% majority require controlling over half the network's hash rate, imposing high financial costs due to the wasteful computation involved.^[27]^[28] While PoW resists Sybil attacks through proof of computational effort, PoA's reliance on trusted identities heightens risks if validators are compromised or collude.^[27] Performance-wise, PoA delivers superior throughput and latency by eliminating competitive mining, enabling block times as low as under 1 second and supporting higher transactions per second (TPS), such as around 60 TPS in certain implementations, which scales well with fewer nodes.^[28] PoW networks, constrained by the time needed to solve puzzles and propagate solutions, achieve lower rates, with Bitcoin processing approximately 7 TPS and block confirmations averaging 10 minutes, leading to more frequent forks and reduced scalability in public settings.^[28]^[27]

Versus Proof of Stake

Proof of Authority (PoA) and Proof of Stake (PoS) are both designed to achieve consensus in blockchain networks with lower energy consumption than Proof of Work, but they differ fundamentally in their validation models. PoA relies on a pre-selected group of trusted validators identified by their reputation and identity, whereas PoS selects validators based on the economic stake they lock into the network.^[3]^[29] This contrast leads to distinct approaches in incentives, participation requirements, fault handling, and performance under varying network conditions. In terms of incentive structures, PoA motivates validators through reputational stakes rather than financial ones; validators risk removal from the authority set for misbehavior, preserving their standing in permissioned environments without direct economic penalties like token slashing. In contrast, PoS employs an economic model where participants lock up cryptocurrency as collateral, earning rewards proportional to their stake while facing slashing—partial or full forfeiture of staked assets—for violations such as double-signing or downtime, aligning incentives with network security through financial risk.^[3]^[30] This reputational focus in PoA suits controlled settings, while PoS's token-based incentives promote broader participation in public networks.^[29] Entry barriers also diverge significantly. PoA operates in a permissioned framework, requiring rigorous identity verification and vetting by network administrators to join the validator set, which limits participation to approved entities and ensures accountability but centralizes control. PoS, often permissionless, lowers technical barriers by allowing anyone with sufficient cryptocurrency to stake and participate, though this introduces a wealth-based threshold that can favor larger holders and lead to stake concentration.^[3]^[30] For instance, Ethereum's PoS requires a minimum of 32 ETH to become a validator, creating an economic entry point absent in PoA's identity-driven selection.^[29] Regarding fault tolerance, both mechanisms provide Byzantine fault tolerance, but their implementations yield different thresholds and risks. PoA implementations like Ethereum's Clique can tolerate up to approximately 49% malicious validators (N/2 - 1, where N is the total validators) through mechanisms such as block minting limits and signer voting, allowing honest majorities to outpace faulty ones and evict misbehaving nodes. PoS systems, such as Ethereum's, typically tolerate less than one-third faulty validators under their BFT protocols, relying on slashing to penalize faults in larger, dynamic pools that reduce collusion risks but increase vulnerability to stake centralization. PoA's fixed, smaller validator sets can mitigate collusion in trusted environments, though they heighten dependence on initial selection integrity compared to PoS's distributed economic disincentives.^[3]^[8]^[30] For scalability, both PoA and PoS offer low computational overhead, enabling higher throughput than Proof of Work without intensive mining. PoA achieves this through efficient round-robin or voting-based block production among a limited set of authorities, making it particularly suitable for private networks where stake volatility does not affect performance; for example, Clique resolves forks quickly with minimal messaging. PoS enhances scalability via techniques like sharding and randomized selection, handling larger validator pools effectively, though it can suffer from stake price fluctuations impacting security. In practice, PoA often excels in low-to-moderate transaction volumes, such as 17-30 transactions per second in Ethereum test environments, while PoS scales better for high loads, reaching up to 67 TPS in similar setups.^[3]^[29]^[30] Overall, PoA's stability in controlled settings contrasts with PoS's adaptability to public, variable-scale networks.^[8]

Applications and Implementations

In Ethereum and Testnets

Proof of Authority (PoA) has been integrated into the Ethereum ecosystem primarily through the Clique algorithm, which serves as the standard implementation since its proposal in EIP-225 in 2017.^[3] Clique enables efficient consensus in permissioned environments by relying on a set of pre-approved validators, known as signers, to produce blocks in a deterministic round-robin manner. This mechanism was adopted for various testnets to facilitate rapid development and testing without the resource demands of Proof of Work (PoW) or the full staking requirements of Proof of Stake (PoS).^[31] In Ethereum testnets, Clique PoA powered networks such as Goerli, launched in 2019 as the first cross-client PoA testnet supporting clients like Geth and Nethermind, and initially Sepolia upon its 2021 debut before its transition.^[31] Goerli, which operated until its deprecation in April 2024, provided a stable environment for smart contract deployment and protocol upgrades, with Sepolia evolving to become the primary lightweight testnet post-deprecation.^[32] These testnets utilized Clique to ensure low-latency block production, making them suitable for simulating mainnet conditions in controlled settings.^[33] Configuration of Clique PoA networks typically includes a fixed block period of 15 seconds, allowing signers to seal blocks sequentially, and a limited validator count—often around 10 to 20—to maintain decentralization while minimizing latency. These parameters are defined in the genesis file and can be adjusted for specific use cases, such as development environments or private Ethereum networks where trusted parties manage validation.^[34] For instance, in Goerli, the epoch length was set to 30,000 blocks, with signers rotating to propose blocks every 15 seconds.^[31] During Ethereum's transition to PoS via The Merge in September 2022, Clique PoA testnets like Goerli acted as bridges by providing hybrid testing grounds that combined execution layers with beacon chain simulations, enabling developers to validate the upgrade without full PoS infrastructure. Post-Merge, PoA's role shifted away from public testnets toward enterprise applications and layer-2 sidechains within the Ethereum ecosystem, where its efficiency supports permissioned scalability solutions.^[24] As of 2025, Clique PoA continues to be employed in development tools like Hardhat for local testing networks, allowing developers to spin up private chains with custom signer sets for rapid iteration on smart contracts and dApps.^[35] This persists in enterprise contexts, such as consortium blockchains, ensuring compatibility with Ethereum's tooling while offering controlled performance.^[26]

Other Blockchains and Use Cases

VeChain employs Proof of Authority (PoA) as its core consensus mechanism to ensure efficient governance and prevent anonymous block production in its blockchain, which is optimized for enterprise applications like supply chain management.^[36] The platform's Authority contract manages candidate proposers, enabling vetted nodes to validate transactions while maintaining accountability through known identities.^[37] Recent upgrades, such as PoA 3.0 in 2025, enhance inclusivity by reducing KYC requirements for validators, further supporting scalable operations; however, as of November 2025, VeChain has announced the Hayabusa upgrade for December 2, 2025, which will transition the network to Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS).^[38]^[39] Hyperledger Besu supports multiple PoA protocols, including Clique, IBFT 2.0, and QBFT, tailored for private enterprise networks where participants are pre-identified and trusted.^[26] These mechanisms facilitate high-throughput consensus in permissioned environments, such as those requiring Byzantine fault tolerance for business collaborations.^[24] Besu’s PoA implementations are particularly suited for sectors demanding low latency and energy efficiency without public exposure.^[40] Polygon Edge defaults to PoA consensus for bootstrapping EVM-compatible blockchains, allowing developers to create customizable networks with pre-approved validators for rapid block production.^[41] It supports seamless upgrades from PoA to Proof of Stake, enabling hybrid setups for evolving private or consortium chains.^[42] This flexibility makes it ideal for building application-specific ledgers with minimal resource overhead.^[43] In Internet of Things (IoT) networks, hybrid PoA variants combine authority-based validation with lightweight elements to address resource constraints, such as in distributed systems where devices authenticate via reputation and honesty metrics.^[44] For instance, trust-weighted PoA integrates edge computing to secure data transmission in IoT ecosystems, reducing computational demands while preventing cloning attacks through randomized leader selection.^[45] These hybrids enhance scalability in constrained environments like sensor networks.^[46] PoA finds application in private financial consortia, where banks and institutions use permissioned blockchains to execute secure, auditable transactions among trusted parties, leveraging validator identities to ensure compliance and reduce fraud risks.^[47] In supply chain tracking, platforms like VeChain apply PoA to verify logistics data across multi-tier networks, enabling immutable provenance records for products from manufacturers to consumers.^[48] This approach supports real-time traceability without the energy costs of public consensus models.^[49] For public health frameworks in 2025, PoA-based blockchains facilitate data privacy by authorizing healthcare providers as validators to manage de-identified patient records, ensuring secure sharing while complying with regulations like HIPAA.^[21] Smart contracts on these networks automate access controls, minimizing breaches in collaborative health data ecosystems.^[21] Recent trends highlight PoA's adoption in the Internet of Blockchained Things (IoBT), particularly for military and battlefield applications, where lightweight PoA secures decentralized device interactions in high-stakes, resource-limited settings.^[50] Additionally, energy-efficient private networks increasingly rely on PoA to cluster validators and optimize consensus, achieving significantly lower power consumption compared to Proof of Work while maintaining fault tolerance.^[51] These developments underscore PoA's role in sustainable, specialized infrastructures.^[52]

Advantages and Disadvantages

Benefits

Proof of Authority (PoA) offers substantial energy and cost savings due to its minimal computational requirements, as validators are pre-selected based on identity rather than performing intensive calculations like those in Proof of Work (PoW) systems.^[52] This approach eliminates the need for energy-intensive mining, resulting in operational costs that are significantly lower—often by over 99% in energy consumption compared to PoW networks—while requiring only basic hardware for node operation.^[53]^[54] PoA provides superior speed and reliability, making it well-suited for enterprise applications that demand low latency and consistent performance. With a fixed set of trusted validators, block production occurs rapidly, often achieving block times of around 3 seconds, which supports high-volume private transactions without the delays associated with probabilistic consensus in other mechanisms.^[53]^[55] This efficiency ensures stable network operation, as validators' accountability through verifiable identities minimizes downtime and enhances transaction throughput.^[52] The mechanism facilitates regulatory compliance in permissioned environments by leveraging real-world identity verification for validators, which simplifies adherence to Know Your Customer (KYC) and Anti-Money Laundering (AML) requirements.^[53]^[56] In such settings, the transparent selection process allows for easier auditing and oversight, aligning with standards in sectors like finance and supply chain where regulatory scrutiny is paramount.^[57] PoA's low energy footprint positions it favorably within 2025 sustainability trends in blockchain, where there is growing emphasis on environmentally friendly consensus models to support global decarbonization efforts and reduce the sector's carbon emissions.^[53]^[58] By avoiding the high electricity demands of PoW, PoA contributes to greener operations, resonating with initiatives promoting energy-efficient technologies amid increasing regulatory pressures on environmental impact, as seen in applications like the Energy Web Chain for renewable energy markets as of 2025.^[59]^[60]

Limitations

Proof of Authority (PoA) consensus mechanisms inherently introduce centralization risks due to their reliance on a limited number of pre-approved validators, who are selected based on identity and reputation rather than open participation. This structure can create single points of failure if a validator is compromised or goes offline, potentially disrupting network operations, and raises the possibility of collusion among validators to manipulate transactions or block production.^[28]^[61] In public or open network settings, PoA faces scalability challenges stemming from the overhead of vetting and maintaining a trusted validator set, which involves rigorous identity verification and ongoing reputation monitoring. This process becomes impractical and resource-intensive as participant numbers grow into the thousands or millions, making PoA more suitable for permissioned or private environments rather than fully decentralized public blockchains.^[61]^[62] Governance in PoA networks is constrained by the need for off-chain coordination to add, remove, or rotate validators, as these changes cannot be executed purely on-chain without compromising the system's efficiency. This reliance on external agreements among a small group of authorities limits adaptability and can lead to bottlenecks in decision-making, particularly when consensus on validator updates is required.^[28]^[63] As of 2025, the centralized nature of PoA validator models can amplify systemic risks and attract regulatory scrutiny due to concerns over operational concentration and potential illicit finance facilitation in blockchain applications.^[28]^[64]

Security Aspects

Potential Vulnerabilities

Proof of Authority (PoA) networks are susceptible to validator compromise, where an attacker's theft of a validator's private key or execution of insider attacks can undermine the system's integrity, given that authority is explicitly tied to pre-approved identities rather than computational or economic stakes.^[65] In such scenarios, a compromised validator can propose invalid blocks or facilitate unauthorized transactions, as the consensus relies on the trustworthiness of these fixed identities without inherent cryptographic protections against key exposure.^[24] Cloning attacks exemplify this vulnerability, allowing a malicious actor to duplicate a validator's identity across network partitions, enabling control over multiple instances and disrupting consensus without needing to breach additional nodes.^[66] A variant of the 51% attack in PoA involves gaining control over a majority of the validators, which is more feasible than in Proof-of-Work systems due to the typically small and identifiable set of authorities, potentially enabling double-spending or chain reorganization.^[67] Unlike resource-intensive attacks in other mechanisms, this requires only collusion or compromise among a subset of the limited validators, as their identities are public and the network's security hinges on their collective honesty rather than distributed hashing power. Denial-of-service (DoS) attacks pose a significant threat by targeting specific validators to force them offline, thereby halting block production since PoA requires active participation from a quorum of authorities to maintain liveness.^[69] Attackers can exploit network delays or partitions to isolate validators, preventing message delivery and causing the system to stall, particularly in implementations like Aura or Clique where synchrony assumptions amplify the impact of targeted disruptions.^[66] Over the long term, PoA faces risks of reputation erosion if validators are not periodically rotated, as prolonged reliance on the same authorities can foster complacency, increased collusion potential, or diminished public trust in the network's impartiality.^[70] This decay in perceived reliability stems from the mechanism's dependence on sustained identity-based trust, where static validator sets may accumulate undisclosed conflicts of interest, weakening the overall consensus security without mechanisms to refresh accountability.^[71]

Mitigation Strategies

To address the centralization risks inherent in Proof of Authority (PoA) networks, where a limited set of trusted validators can lead to single points of failure or coordinated attacks, several targeted strategies enhance security by strengthening identity verification, introducing dynamic elements, and enforcing accountability. These approaches focus on robust identity management, proactive monitoring, hybrid consensus integrations, and foundational network parameters to bolster resilience without compromising PoA's efficiency. Identity management plays a critical role in PoA by ensuring validators' real-world identities are verifiable and protected against compromise. Validators are typically required to undergo rigorous vetting, such as linking blockchain addresses to legal identities through public records or licensed professions, like U.S. public notaries in the POA Network, to prevent anonymous or fraudulent participation.^[72] To secure private keys, hardware security modules (HSMs) are employed for cryptographic operations, enabling secure storage and authentication in permissioned environments; for instance, in medical data systems using PoA with QBFT consensus, HSMs manage keys for self-sovereign identity verification, reducing authentication time while maintaining tamper resistance.^[73] Complementing this, multi-factor authentication (MFA) integrates additional verification layers, such as biometrics or tokens, into validator access protocols; a blockchain-based MFA framework on a PoA-enabled Ethereum network achieves 98.6% accuracy by hashing credentials on-chain and validating via smart contracts, effectively countering unauthorized access attempts.^[74] Validator rotation and monitoring mechanisms introduce variability and oversight to deter collusion among the fixed validator set. Automated shuffling randomizes validator assignments at regular intervals, such as epoch boundaries every 24 hours in Telcoin's consensus, using algorithms like Fisher-Yates with verifiable randomness from prior signatures to ensure fair representation and unpredictability, thereby minimizing opportunities for coordinated misbehavior.^[75] Off-chain monitoring complements this by tracking validator performance through logs and external audits, with governance tools allowing periodic reviews; in POA Network implementations, key rotation ceremonies replace compromised credentials, and continuous identity checks via decentralized applications maintain trust.^[72] Hybrid approaches combine PoA with Byzantine Fault Tolerance (BFT) variants to inject randomness and fault tolerance, addressing predictability in leader selection. The 2025 Proof of Random Leader (PoRL) algorithm, for example, enhances PoA by using a verifiable random function (VRF) for leader election, tolerating up to f < N/2 faulty nodes in a network of N while achieving BFT-like security (though not full f < N/3 resilience), resulting in faster consensus and resistance to manipulation attacks compared to deterministic PoA protocols like Aura.^[19] This integration prevents targeted exploits by making collusion harder to coordinate, as randomness ensures no validator can predict their role. Network design incorporates minimum validator thresholds and penalties to enforce reliability and deter misbehavior. PoA protocols like QBFT in Hyperledger Besu require at least four validators to achieve basic Byzantine fault tolerance, preventing network stalls from single failures and ensuring quorum-based decisions (e.g., 2f+1 approvals).^[76] For accountability, misbehaving validators—such as those missing blocks or spreading invalid data—face removal through governance votes; in Aura-based PoA, a majority ballot via dedicated applications can disable offenders after a 48-hour period, while voting protocols allow bypassing malicious leaders to sustain operations.^[72]^[77] These mechanisms, akin to slashing in stake-based systems but reputation-focused, maintain network integrity by linking validator privileges to ongoing compliance.

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[PDF] PBFT vs Proof-of-Authority: Applying the CAP Theorem to ...
Proof-of-Authority (PoA) is a new family of Byzantine fault-tolerant (BFT) consensus algorithms largely used in practice to ensure better performance than ...
[9]
guide/poa.md at master · ethereum/guide
**Extracted Content:**
[10]
EIP-225: Clique proof-of-authority consensus protocol
Nov 9, 2018 · The main design goals of the PoA protocol described here is that it should be very simple to implement and embed into any existing Ethereum ...
[11]
Ethereum Goerli Testnet Just Replaced by Holesky - U.Today
Sep 17, 2023 · In 2017, Ethereans launched Rinkeby, a testnet on the top of the Clique proof-of-authority (PoA) consensus mechanism, which is a modified ...
[12]
Goerli deploying last Ethereum upgrade on Jan 17th! - EtherWorld.co
Jan 8, 2024 · At the ETH Berlin Conference in 2018, Ethereum (ETH) developers unveiled Goerli, a multiclient Ethereum (ETH) testnet. It provided a secure ...
[13]
VeChain Thor Blockchain Launches, Token Swap to Take Place Mid ...
Mar 4, 2021 · VeChain utilizes a Proof-of-Authority consensus algorithm, in which approved validators mine blocks to produce faster transaction speeds ...
[14]
Announcing Hyperledger Besu - LF Decentralized Trust
Aug 29, 2019 · Hyperledger Besu includes several consensus algorithms including PoW, PoA, and IBFT, and has comprehensive permissioning schemes designed ...Missing: date | Show results with:date
[15]
An Overview of VEN and Concerns about VeChain's Proof-of-Authority
Jun 26, 2018 · When the network launches on June 30, VEN tokens will be exchanged for VET tokens at a rate of 1:100. VET tokens will be used as a medium of ...
[16]
(PDF) Hybrid Consensus Mechanisms in Blockchain - ResearchGate
Blockchain technology enables decentralized, secure, and transparent transactions but faces criticism for the high energy consumption of traditional consensus ...
[17]
https://www.changelly.com/blog/what-is-proof-of-authority-poa/
[18]
Gnosis Executes Its Own Merge in Shift to PoS in Boost for Staking
Dec 9, 2024 · The upgrade, which went live on Thursday, will unify Gnosis Chain's Proof of Stake Beacon Chain with its Proof of Authority (PoA) mainnet, ...
[19]
Proof of Random Leader: A Fast and Manipulation-Resistant Proof ...
Utilization: This is defined as the ratio of transaction throughput to the transaction arrival rate over the network. It figures out how effectively the network ...
[20]
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ett.70139
[21]
A blockchain framework using proof of authority and smart contracts ...
Sep 23, 2025 · The proposed model in this paper focuses on asset tracking and monitoring in the healthcare industry and it uses blockchain technology.
[22]
Clique PoA protocol & Rinkeby PoA testnet · Issue #225 - GitHub
Mar 6, 2017 · For those not aware of how PoA works, it's a very simplistic protocol, where instead of miners racing to find a solution to a difficult problem, ...
[23]
Hyperledger Besu: Understanding Proof of Authority via Clique and ...
Jun 18, 2021 · In Part 1, we explore the two Proof of Authority (PoA) consensus mechanisms that you can use with Hyperledger Besu: Clique and IBFT 2.0.Missing: history Goerli<|separator|>
[24]
sc_consensus_aura - Rust - Docs.rs
Aura (Authority-round) consensus in substrate. Aura works by having a list of authorities A who are expected to roughly agree on the current time.Missing: validator selection
[25]
Proof of authority consensus | Besu documentation
Aug 4, 2025 · Proof of authority consensus. Besu implements the QBFT, IBFT 2.0, and Clique proof of authority (PoA) consensus protocols.Missing: adoption 2018-2020 supply pilots
[26]
[PDF] feasibility of proof of authority as a consensus protocol model - arXiv
Aug 30, 2021 · ... comparison with current main- stream consensus algorithms. Keywords Consensus · Blockchain · Proof Of Authority · Proof of Work · Proof of stake.
[27]
Proof Of Authority - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Proof of Authority (PoA) is a consensus mechanism used in permissioned networks, where a small group of trusted authorities are selected as transaction ...
[28]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/computer-science/proof-of-authority
[29]
(PDF) Comparative analysis of PoS and PoA consensus in ...
This study provides comparative analysis of PoS and PoA consensus in Ethereum environment specifically focusing on performance and scalability in the context of ...Missing: sidechains | Show results with:sidechains
[30]
eth-clients/goerli: the goerli/prater testnet configurations. - GitHub
Jun 3, 2024 · Goerli Testnet was the first proof-of-authority cross-client testnet, synching Geth, Nethermind, Hyperledger Besu, and others.Missing: milestones | Show results with:milestones
[31]
Goerli Long Term Support Update - Ethereum Foundation Blog
Nov 30, 2023 · As per the original wording of this announcement, this would imply an April 13, 2024 sunset date for the Goerli testnet.
[32]
What is the Sepolia testnet? - Alchemy
Mar 3, 2023 · The Sepolia testnet is a Proof-of-Stake (PoS) testnet that developers can use to deploy and test their smart contracts for free.
[33]
Clique | Besu documentation
Aug 4, 2025 · In Clique networks, approved accounts, known as signers, validate transactions and blocks. Signers take turns to create the next block.Missing: Ethereum count Goerli
[34]
https://besu.hyperledger.org/private-networks/how-to/configure/consensus/clique
[35]
Defining the VeChainThor Blockchain Consensus — Proof of Authority
May 8, 2018 · The designed Proof of Authority (PoA) provides the governance needs of VeChainThors consensus protocol and enables the ability to prevent anonymous block ...Missing: TPS | Show results with:TPS
[36]
Built-in Contracts - VeChain Docs
May 21, 2024 · authority.sol is related to the proof of authority (PoA) consensus mechanism. The Authority contract manages a list of candidate proposers ...
[37]
VeChain's POA 3.0 Is Here—Major Upgrades & No More KYC for All!
Feb 22, 2025 · An analyst breaks down VeChain's Proof of Authority (POA 3.0) upgrade and highlights its potential to improve inclusivity and democratize ...<|separator|>
[38]
Consensus protocols | Besu documentation
Aug 4, 2025 · Besu supports the following consensus protocols: QBFT (proof of authority) - The recommended enterprise-grade consensus protocol for private ...
[39]
How Polygon Edge SDK Improves Every Developer's Experience
Apr 2, 2023 · Proof-of-Authority (PoA). PoA is the default consensus mechanism of Polygon Edge. Here the validators create and validate blocks in the ...
[40]
Polygon Supernets, Powered by Polygon Edge; $100M Ecosystem ...
Apr 22, 2022 · Polygon Edge already offers easy upgradeability from Proof of Authority to Proof of Stake, and the same will be offered for Layer 2 solutions.
[41]
A beginner's guide to Polygon Edge - Zeeve
Dec 30, 2022 · Proof-of-Authority (PoA) acts as the default consensus mechanism, where validators are responsible for creating and adding blocks to the ...
[42]
[PDF] Securing IoT-blockchain applications through honesty-based ...
This is a repository copy of Securing IoT-blockchain applications through honesty-based distributed proof of authority consensus algorithm. White Rose ...
[43]
IoT Data Transmission Security Using Blockchain With a Trust ...
May 1, 2025 · This paper proposes a blockchain-based solution with a trust-weighted proof of authority (PoA) consensus mechanism to overcome these limitations and ensure ...
[44]
A lightweight scalable hybrid authentication framework for Internet of ...
Jun 5, 2025 · This study presents a scalable, lightweight hybrid authentication system that integrates blockchain and edge computing within a Hyperledger Consortium network.
[45]
Consensus Algorithms Compared: PoA vs IBFT vs Raft - Kaleido
Sep 1, 2023 · Compare the 3 major types of consensus algorithms used by blockchain protocols: Proof-of-Authority (PoA), Istanbul Byzantine Fault Tolerant ...
[46]
What Is Proof-of-Authority: Blockchain for Supply Chains - Phemex
Oct 17, 2022 · Proof-of-authority (POA) is a consensus mechanism that relies on pre-selected nodes acting as validators of a blockchain's transactions.
[47]
Building a Product Origins Tracking System Based on Blockchain ...
The supply chain model is borrowed from Walmart's and it is implemented based on the Ethereum framework using the PoA (Proof of Authority) consensus algorithm.
[48]
Lightweight consensus mechanisms in the Internet of Blockchained ...
Proof of Authority (PoA): PoA is another consensus mechanism that could be a strong candidate for the Internet of Blockchained Things [64]. This mechanism ...
[49]
Energy-aware proof-of-authority: Blockchain consensus for clustered ...
This research focuses on developing a permissioned blockchain system that incorporates a consensus mechanism known as Proof-of-Authority (PoA) within clustered ...
[50]
What is Proof of Authority (PoA) in Blockchain?
Sep 5, 2023 · Proof of Authority, or PoA, is a consensus algorithm that offers an energy-efficient solution for creating private blockchains.
[51]
What is Proof-of-Authority (POA) Consensus in Blockchain?
May 9, 2025 · Proof-of-Authority (PoA) is a blockchain consensus mechanism that relies on identity and reputation rather than expensive computing or staking coins.What Is Proof-of-Authority (PoA)? · Key Benefits of PoA · Limitations and Criticisms
[52]
Proof of Authority (PoA): Arcual's Environmentally Friendly ...
Sep 20, 2023 · PoA networks like Arcual drastically reduce energy consumption compared to PoW counterparts. The energy-efficient nature of PoA stems from not ...
[53]
Proof-of-Authority Explained - LCX Exchange
Dec 22, 2023 · Proof of Authority (PoA) is a consensus algorithm that focuses on identity, reputation, and trust within a blockchain network.
[54]
Blockchain Permissioning | Avalanche Builder Hub
Permissioned Public L1: Use Proof of Authority with controlled validator additions ... Regulatory Requirements: Do you need to comply with KYC/AML regulations?
[55]
Blockchain KYC: Key Benefits, Challenges, and Implementation
Nov 6, 2024 · To ensure fast and secure KYC processes, you need to choose a consensus mechanism that balances security and speed, such as Proof of Authority ( ...
[56]
S&P Global's Top 10 Sustainability Trends to Watch in 2025
Jan 15, 2025 · Sustainability is here to stay. Here's what you need to know about the trends that will shape strategy in a challenging year.Missing: authority | Show results with:authority
[57]
What is Proof of Authority? - OSL
Jan 26, 2025 · Another advantage of PoA is its energy efficiency. Since there is no reliance on intensive computational tasks, the environmental impact is ...
[58]
Top 5 sustainability trends of 2025 you need to know about | Neste
Jan 15, 2025 · The top 5 sustainability trends of 2025 · 1. The renewables challenge · 2. The rise of circular solutions · 3. Regulation keeps greenwashing in ...Missing: proof authority
[59]
Proof of Authority Explained - LimeChain
Aug 3, 2021 · Proof of Authority is a variant of the Proof of Stake consensus mechanism where instead of tokens, network participants stake their identity and reputation.Missing: Aura Parity
[60]
What Is POA? Proof of Authority Explained in Blockchain Context
Jul 1, 2025 · In 2025, more Layer-2 solutions and interoperability frameworks may incorporate POA for high-speed bridges and enterprise-friendly use cases.
[61]
What is Proof of Authority? PoA Explained for Web3 and DeFi
Rating 5.0 (150) · Free · iOSProof of Authority (PoA) is a family of consensus mechanisms where a limited set of pre-approved validators produce blocks based on verified identity and ...
[62]
DeFi Security: Understanding And Addressing Risks In The Future ...
Jun 30, 2025 · Most times, blockchains with Proof of Staked Authority or Proof of Authority consensus mechanisms tend to have relatively centralized outlooks.
[63]
[PDF] Centralization in Decentralized Finance: Systemic Risk in the Crypto ...
Apr 8, 2025 · Thereafter, Part IV explores potential solutions to the emerging systemic risks and challenges by drawing inferences from existing regulatory ...
[64]
[1902.10244] The Attack of the Clones Against Proof-of-Authority
Feb 26, 2019 · In this paper, we explore vulnerabilities and countermeasures of the recently proposed blockchain consensus based on proof-of-authority. The ...
[65]
An efficient Proof-of-Authority consensus scheme against cloning ...
Dec 1, 2024 · This study proposes a novel randomized authenticator within the PoA framework to mitigate cloning attacks and solve the leader selection bottleneck.
[66]
Proof-of-Authority consensus - Apla Blockchain Platform Guide
Proof-of-Authority (PoA) is a new consensus algorithms family that provides high performance and fault tolerance.<|control11|><|separator|>
[67]
[PDF] The Attack of the Clones Against Proof-of-Authority - Vincent Gramoli
Various companies are now moving towards Proof-of-Authority (PoA) blockchains with more conventional Byzantine fault tolerance, where a known set of n ...
[68]
What Is Proof-of-Authority? - CoinDesk
Jun 2, 2022 · Proof-of-authority is a consensus algorithm that delivers an efficient solution for blockchains, specifically private ones.
[69]
Scaling proof-of-authority protocol to improve performance and ...
Aug 6, 2025 · We highlight the centralization tendency and the main vulnerabilities of Proof of Work (PoW), Proof of Stake (PoS), and their countermeasures.
[70]
POA Network Whitepaper
### Summary of Security Mitigations in POA Network
[71]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/363208220_Scaling_proof-of-authority_protocol_to_improve_performance_and_security
[72]
[PDF] Blockchain-Based Multi-Factor Authentication for Securing IoT Devices
We deployed the framework on a private Ethereum blockchain using the Proof-of-Authority protocol with 15 validator nodes. • Average block confirmation time: 3.4 ...
[73]
TNIP-2 - Telcoin Network Improvement Proposals
Oct 29, 2024 · Randomly shuffling validators into consensus committees not only minimizes the risks of collusion, it ensures a fair representation of the ...
[74]
QBFT | Besu documentation
Aug 4, 2025 · Besu QBFT proof of authority (PoA) consensus protocol implementation. ... Minimum number of validators. QBFT requires four validators to be ...Missing: threshold | Show results with:threshold
[75]
Blockchain Fundamentals: Key Consensus Algorithms - CertiK
Aug 15, 2023 · We can refer to this class of algorithms as Proof of Authority (PoA). ... PBFT has inspired many BFT consensus algorithms, such as IBFT, a ...