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Quicksand

Quicksand is a non-Newtonian fluid consisting of fine granular material, such as sand, mixed with water (or sometimes air), that appears solid under normal conditions but liquefies and loses its load-bearing capacity when subjected to stress, such as the weight of a person or vibration.^[1]^[2] This phenomenon occurs due to liquefaction, where saturated loose grains—typically with 30-70% void space compared to 25-30% in ordinary sand—have reduced inter-particle friction, allowing the mixture to behave like a viscous liquid rather than a solid.^[1]^[3] The density of quicksand, approximately 2 g/mL, exceeds that of the human body (about 1 g/mL), which limits sinking to around waist-depth in most cases, though escape can be difficult without proper technique.^[2] Quicksand forms in areas where underground water flow saturates and agitates loose sediments, often near natural springs, riverbanks, alluvial fans, marshes, or beaches at low tide; it is less common in deserts but can occur as "dry quicksand" from air or wind effects.^[1]^[2]^[3] While popular media often exaggerates quicksand as a deadly trap that engulfs victims entirely, the primary dangers include entrapment leading to drowning in tidal areas, hypothermia from prolonged exposure, or secondary risks like dehydration or animal attacks, rather than complete submersion.^[2]^[3] To escape, individuals are advised to remain calm, float by spreading weight, and slowly maneuver toward solid ground without sudden movements that worsen the liquefaction.^[2]

Definition and Formation

Definition

Quicksand is a colloid consisting of fine granular material, such as sand, silt, or clay, mixed with water to form a saturated, non-Newtonian fluid-like state. This mixture traps objects or individuals by becoming unstable under applied stress, initially liquefying before collapsing.^[4] Key characteristics of quicksand include its apparent solidity when undisturbed, which transitions to a fluid state upon agitation, as water forces suspend the particles and prevent rapid settling.^[5] This suspension arises from the saturation level, where water fills the voids between grains, reducing inter-particle friction.^[6] Unlike regular sand, which relies on particle-to-particle contact for stability, or mud, which may retain cohesion without full liquefaction, quicksand specifically demands high water saturation and shear stress to exhibit its fluid behavior.^[6] It forms a shear-thinning mixture, where viscosity decreases under increasing stress, allowing it to flow more readily during movement.^[4] Typically, quicksand comprises 30-50% water by volume within fine-grained sediments, creating the unstable colloidal structure.^[7]

Formation Processes

Quicksand primarily forms in environments featuring standing water or upward-flowing groundwater, such as artesian springs, riverbanks, or marshy areas, where hydrostatic pressure from the water counteracts gravity and suspends fine-grained soil particles, preventing them from settling. This upward seepage creates a buoyant force that loosens the sediment structure, transforming otherwise stable sand into a semi-fluid state.^[3]^[7] The critical role of saturation is central to this process: loose, fine-grained sediments, typically sands or silts, transition to quicksand when water content reaches approximately 30-50% by volume, filling the pore spaces and eliminating inter-particle friction through full saturation. In sandy soils, pore volumes often comprise 35-40% of the total, and once these voids are occupied by water with minimal air remaining (less than 5%), the effective stress between grains drops significantly, allowing particles to move freely like a viscous fluid.^[7] Agitation serves as the key trigger for liquefaction, where natural disturbances increase pore water pressure and temporarily disrupt particle contacts; examples include seismic shaking from earthquakes, cyclic tidal flows, or localized disturbances from human or animal movement across the surface. This dynamic input exacerbates the saturated conditions, causing rapid loss of shear strength and the characteristic fluid-like behavior of quicksand. The "quick" condition, as described in geotechnical terms, arises precisely when pore pressures equal or exceed the overlying load, rendering the soil unstable.^[8]^[7] Various environmental contexts yield distinct types of quicksand. Coastal variants develop through tidal saturation, where ocean or estuarine waters periodically inundate and agitate beach sands or estuarine deposits. Inland formations occur near underground springs or in low-lying wetlands, driven by artesian pressure in unconsolidated sediments.^[3]

Physical Properties

Rheological Behavior

Quicksand displays the characteristics of a shear-thinning non-Newtonian fluid, in which its apparent viscosity diminishes as shear stress is applied. At rest, the saturated sand maintains a semi-solid structure supported by frictional forces between particles and surface tension at the water-sand interfaces, preventing flow. However, agitation introduces shear stress that disrupts these interactions, causing the mixture to liquefy and transition to a more fluid state, facilitating sinking. This behavior explains why quicksand supports weight statically but yields dynamically under disturbance, enhancing its trapping effect.^[9] Quicksand exhibits yield-stress behavior, remaining rigid below a critical stress for flow initiation. After liquefaction, the viscosity increases dramatically due to phase separation into a water-rich layer and a dense sand sediment, making escape difficult. This rheology results in a dual nature: solid-like stability at low stress and liquid-like flow at higher stress, followed by increased resistance. The critical stress is on the order of 50,000 Pa, depending on composition.^[9] Rapid agitation exacerbates the shear-thinning response, sharply lowering viscosity and promoting liquefaction, which results in accelerated sinking as the material loses structural integrity. Conversely, minimal and slow movements permit partial recovery of the interparticle network, allowing viscosity to increase and aiding gradual escape. These effects stem from the time-dependent breakdown and reformation of particle contacts under varying shear rates, making sudden struggles particularly hazardous. The viscosity can change by a factor of up to 1,000,000 between static and flowing states.^[9] In contrast to Newtonian fluids like water, where viscosity is independent of shear rate, quicksand's non-Newtonian rheology imposes significant resistance during extraction attempts. The post-liquefaction increase in viscosity due to sediment formation creates substantial drag, underscoring why quicksand hinders withdrawal, unlike the low-drag flow of Newtonian liquids.^[9]

Density and Buoyancy

Quicksand, consisting of a saturated mixture of sand grains and water, typically exhibits an average density of approximately 2 g/cm³ due to the high proportion of solid particles suspended in the fluid. In comparison, the average density of the human body is about 1 g/cm³, particularly when accounting for air in the lungs, which contributes to overall buoyancy in fluids. This density difference is fundamental to understanding interactions with quicksand, as it determines the extent to which objects or bodies will submerge. The behavior of objects in quicksand is governed by Archimedes' principle, which states that the buoyant force acting on a submerged object is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by that object. For a human entering quicksand, this principle ensures that the body cannot sink completely, as the upward force balances the body's weight once a sufficient volume—typically up to the chest—is displaced. Experimental demonstrations using fluidized beds to simulate quicksand confirm that sinking is limited to around half the body's height for densities near 1 g/cm³, preventing full submersion or drowning. The density of quicksand varies based on the water-to-sand ratio and particle size, with a typical solid volume fraction of about 40% contributing to its overall mass per unit volume. Higher water content reduces density slightly by increasing the fluid proportion, while finer sand particles allow for denser packing in suspension, marginally elevating the mixture's density compared to coarser grains. However, these variations maintain quicksand's density well above that of the human body. These properties have implications for various objects immersed in quicksand: dense materials like rocks, with specific gravities exceeding 2.65 g/cm³, displace less volume relative to their weight and sink fully to the bottom. Conversely, lighter objects such as wood, with densities below 1 g/cm³, experience sufficient buoyancy to remain afloat on the surface.

Natural Occurrence

Geological Settings

Quicksand primarily forms in depositional environments rich in fine-grained, unconsolidated sediments where groundwater interacts with loose granular material, such as river deltas, beaches, marshes, and floodplains. These settings feature high water tables and saturated fine sands or silts that accumulate from fluvial or coastal processes, creating conditions for sediment instability when water flow disrupts grain-to-grain friction. For instance, in river deltas and floodplains, periodic sediment deposition from river flows combines with elevated groundwater to foster quicksand development in low-energy zones.^[1]^[10] Geological prerequisites for quicksand include layers of permeable, unconsolidated sediments—often alluvial, fluvio-glacial, or lacustrine deposits—overlying less permeable bases, which trap upward-migrating water and prevent drainage. This configuration allows artesian pressure or seepage to maintain high void ratios (30-70%) in the sediment, keeping grains loosely packed until external stress induces liquefaction. Such strata can reach thicknesses of up to 200 feet in subsurface settings, though surface expressions are typically shallower. In rarer cases, quicksand occurs in desert oases or sinkholes where artesian springs provide the necessary upward water flow through otherwise dry sands.^[10]^[1] Globally, quicksand is prevalent in temperate and tropical regions with seasonal flooding and adequate sediment supply, such as areas with active river systems or coastal wetlands, but it is less common in arid zones lacking reliable water sources beyond localized springs. Environmental factors like tidal fluctuations on beaches, heavy rainfall saturating floodplains, or seismic activity further enhance formation by increasing pore pressure and saturation levels; the latter can trigger quicksand-like liquefaction in susceptible sediments during earthquakes.^[10]^[1]

Notable Locations

Quicksand formations are prominent at the mouth of the River Thames in the United Kingdom, particularly along the Essex coast near the Broomway path, where tidal mudflats and shifting sands create hazardous zones exacerbated by rapid incoming tides.^[11] This area, stretching seven miles across Maplin Sands, has been notorious for quicksand traps for centuries, with historical records noting multiple fatalities due to the deceptive stability of the surface.^[12] In the United States, the Paria River in southern Utah features extensive quicksand pits within Paria Canyon, part of the Vermilion Cliffs National Monument, where saturated sands along the riverbed can reach depths sufficient to trap hikers and livestock.^[13] One documented incident involved a National Park Service employee sinking waist-deep in quicksand near the river in 2019, highlighting the risks in this narrow, 38-mile canyon that joins the Colorado River.^[13] Historical accounts from the 1870s describe similar entrapments leading to rare fatalities, underscoring the persistent danger in this arid slot canyon environment.^[14] Inland examples include sites near Lower King Bridge in Western Australia, where high water tables create quicksand hazards along the King River.^[15] Warning signs are posted to alert paddlers and hikers to avoid straying from channels, as the liquefied areas can immobilize vehicles and individuals rapidly. In the Florida Everglades, quicksand-like mud occurs in sinkhole-prone areas and swampy lowlands, where saturated peat and clay trap unwary travelers; a 2009 case involved a hunter sinking neck-deep in such a patch during a four-day ordeal.^[16] Modern observations confirm quicksand in U.S. national parks like Death Valley, where salt flats and muddy playas mimic quicksand conditions after rare rains, as noted in expeditions crossing the valley's brine-soaked basins.^[17] In the Sundarbans mangroves spanning India and Bangladesh, quicksand lurks along riverbanks and tidal channels amid the world's largest mangrove forest, endangering fishers and complicating navigation in this UNESCO World Heritage site.^[18]

Hazards and Risks

Actual Dangers

The primary danger of quicksand arises from panic-induced thrashing, which liquefies the mixture further and can cause a person to sink temporarily up to waist level, exacerbating exhaustion due to the immense force required for movement—equivalent to lifting a medium-sized car to extract a foot.^[19] Immobility following this struggle poses the true threat, potentially leading to dehydration, hypothermia from prolonged exposure to cold or wet conditions, or drowning if the quicksand is near water bodies where tides or surges rise.^[2]^[20] Sinking is inherently limited to partial depths due to the higher density of quicksand compared to the human body.^[19] Secondary hazards include vulnerability to animal encounters, such as insects or reptiles in coastal or wetland environments—for instance, a survivor in Florida quicksand in 2016 reported proximity to snakes during an eight-hour entrapment—and tidal surges that can submerge immobilized victims, as in the 2012 drowning of a woman in Antigua when the tide rose unexpectedly.^[21]^[20] Recent non-fatal incidents as of 2025, such as a man rescued waist-deep from quicksand on a Lake Michigan beach in April and another from a park along the Minnesota River in June, highlight the phenomenon's persistence but emphasize successful escapes without injury when help arrives promptly.^[22]^[23] Rare cases of full burial can occur under external forces, such as collapsing material in unstable terrains, though these are exceptional and not typical of standalone quicksand.^[24] Overall fatality rates remain extremely low, with no documented direct deaths from quicksand entrapment globally from 2020 to November 2025; recorded deaths are exceedingly rare and usually result from secondary factors like tidal inundation or exposure rather than the quicksand itself, representing a negligible fraction of wilderness-related incidents.^[21]

Myths and Misconceptions

One prevalent misconception about quicksand is that it can fully submerge and drown a human victim, as frequently depicted in media where characters sink inexorably to their deaths. In reality, complete submersion is impossible due to the principles of buoyancy: the average density of the human body is approximately 1 gram per cubic centimeter, while quicksand—a saturated mixture of sand, water, and sometimes clay—has a density of about 2 grams per cubic centimeter, causing a person to float once they reach roughly waist- or chest-deep. This physical limitation confines sinking to partial immersion, typically no deeper than the torso, regardless of struggling.^[24] Media portrayals have perpetuated this myth, with nearly 3 percent of films produced in the 1960s—about one in every 35—featuring scenes of characters being swallowed whole by quicksand or similar sinking substances, often in dramatic jungle or desert settings for heightened peril.^[25] Such exaggerations contrast sharply with scientific observations, where experiments using materials mimicking human density demonstrate that objects never submerge more than halfway in simulated quicksand. Another common fallacy is the inevitability of panic leading to certain death upon encountering quicksand, fostering a belief that all such incidents end fatally without immediate rescue. However, calm victims can self-rescue in the vast majority of cases, as direct fatalities from sinking alone are virtually nonexistent; recorded deaths are exceedingly rare and usually result from secondary factors like tidal inundation or exposure rather than the quicksand itself.^[19] Patience allows the mixture to settle and buoyancy to aid extraction, underscoring that panic exacerbates entrapment by increasing viscosity through agitation, but does not doom the victim.^[24] Quicksand is often imagined as a ubiquitous hazard lurking in deserts, jungles, or any sandy terrain, ready to form deadly traps at every step. In truth, it forms only under specific conditions in loose, water-saturated sediments, such as near river deltas, alluvial fans, or beaches at low tide, and is rare elsewhere; for instance, desert occurrences are limited to loosely packed areas like dune leeward sides, where sinking is minimal due to rapid grain compaction.^[1] No natural "quicksand death traps" exist as portrayed, as the phenomenon requires precise hydrological and geological alignments rather than widespread prevalence.^[24] Historical accounts have further amplified these dangers, with early explorers and colonial narratives exaggerating quicksand perils to evoke the terror of unknown landscapes and justify dramatic tales of survival or loss. During the Age of Discovery and 19th-century expansionist literature, such stories symbolized broader anxieties about vanishing into foreign terrains, like African wilds or the American West, often inflating minor hazards into existential threats for narrative impact.^[25] While myths overshadow its realities, quicksand does pose genuine risks of partial entrapment, potentially leading to exhaustion or complicating movement in remote areas.^[1]

Escape and Rescue

Self-Rescue Techniques

When trapped in quicksand, the primary goal of self-rescue is to remain calm and leverage the material's physical properties, such as its higher density compared to the human body (approximately 2 g/cm³ for quicksand versus 1 g/cm³ for humans), which prevents complete submersion and allows buoyancy to aid escape.^[19]^[2] By distributing body weight evenly across a larger surface area, an individual can float more effectively, limiting sinking depth to around waist level in most cases.^[20]^[4] The first step is to lean back slowly into a supine position, akin to floating in water, to maximize buoyancy and reduce pressure on any submerged limbs. This posture spreads the body's weight over a broader area, minimizing localized stress that could further liquefy the mixture and cause additional sinking.^[19]^[2] Once positioned horizontally, avoid any sudden or vertical pulling motions, as these increase the quicksand's viscosity resistance, requiring a force equivalent to lifting a medium-sized car to extract a foot at a speed of 1 cm per second.^[4]^[20] Next, initiate slow, gentle movements by wiggling the legs in small, circular motions to release suction and allow water to flow into the surrounding sand particles, gradually liquefying the mixture around the trapped areas without triggering widespread instability. This technique exploits the quicksand's rheological behavior, where slow motion permits partial viscosity recovery and dilation of the granular structure, facilitating incremental progress toward firmer ground.^[19]^[2] If partially submerged near the edge, incorporate subtle swimming-like strokes with the arms to propel toward solid terrain while maintaining the floating posture. To enhance escape efforts, reach for nearby vegetation, branches, or protruding roots to provide leverage without disrupting the quicksand's stability; grasping such aids allows for gradual pulling while keeping the body horizontal.^[2] Additionally, discard any heavy items like backpacks or clothing to reduce overall weight and improve buoyancy.^[19] If the quicksand borders a water body, coordinated arm and leg motions mimicking swimming can help transition to the water's edge for easier extraction.^[20] With calm and methodical application of these techniques, full self-escape is typically achievable, as the buoyant nature of quicksand ensures high survival rates—approaching 100% from sinking alone—provided panic is avoided and compression-related risks like crush syndrome are not prolonged.^[21]^[2]

Professional Rescue Methods

Professional rescue methods for quicksand incidents prioritize victim stabilization, edge security, and extraction using specialized equipment to minimize further sinking or secondary entrapments. Ground-based search and rescue (SAR) teams, such as those from the U.S. National Park Service (NPS), approach methodically by assessing the site's stability and using long poles or thrown ropes to extend reach to the victim without direct contact that could destabilize the non-Newtonian mixture. These teams stabilize surrounding edges with planks or mats to distribute weight and prevent multiple casualties, often coordinating with medical personnel for on-site treatment of hypothermia or exhaustion. In man-made sites like excavations where quicksand-like conditions arise from water saturation, rescuers address water accumulation to facilitate safer extraction.^[26] Aerial and mechanical interventions are essential for remote or inaccessible areas, where helicopters equipped with hoist systems or harnesses enable rapid winching of victims. For instance, the Utah Department of Public Safety (DPS) employs helicopter hoists for technical rescues in rugged terrains, lowering rescuers or directly extracting individuals via winch lines. In coastal or tidal quicksand zones, mechanical aids like inflatable rafts or jet skis may support victims while pumps or excavators remove material from a distance. These methods leverage buoyancy principles, where the mixture's density (often exceeding that of water) allows flotation if the victim's body is horizontally distributed to maximize surface area.^[27] Training protocols for SAR units emphasize operations in non-Newtonian terrains, including simulations of quicksand dynamics to teach risk assessment, equipment deployment, and team coordination. NPS guidelines outline technical rescue procedures that incorporate these elements, requiring certified personnel to undergo annual drills in fluid-like soils to ensure proficiency in rope systems, hoist operations, and environmental hazard mitigation. Similar protocols are followed by Australian state emergency services, such as the South Australian Metropolitan Fire Service (MFS), which train for mud and sand entrapments using ropes, poles, and aerial support.^[28]^[29] Case studies illustrate the efficacy of these approaches. In February 2019 at Zion National Park, Utah, NPS rangers responded to a hiker trapped knee-deep in quicksand along the Left Fork of North Creek during a winter storm; after a three-hour hike to the site and several hours of manual extraction using ropes and stabilization techniques, the victim was freed late at night, followed by a DPS helicopter hoist evacuation the next afternoon once weather improved, completing the operation over two days without further injury. In Australia, during a 2014 incident at West Beach, Adelaide, MFS ground teams extracted a man sunk almost waist-deep in quicksand using ropes and manual support, achieving rescue in about 40 minutes as tides approached.^[27]^[30] More recently, in October 2025, emergency teams in Morecambe Bay, UK, rescued a man trapped in quicksand with only his chest, head, and one arm visible, using ground-based stabilization and extraction just before the incoming tide posed a drowning risk.^[31]

Scientific and Engineering Contexts

Relation to Soil Liquefaction

Quicksand represents a localized manifestation of soil liquefaction, where saturated granular soils temporarily lose their shear strength and behave like a viscous fluid due to an increase in pore water pressure. This phenomenon occurs when the effective stress in the soil is reduced to near zero, preventing the soil skeleton from supporting applied loads, much like quicksand observed in natural settings but on a potentially larger scale during seismic events.^[32]^[33] In seismic contexts, the primary mechanism driving soil liquefaction involves cyclic loading from earthquake waves, which generates excess pore water pressure in saturated, loose sands or gravels. This buildup occurs because the soil particles cannot rearrange quickly enough to dissipate the pressure, leading to a reduction in effective stress (\sigma' = \sigma - u, where \sigma is total stress and u is pore pressure). According to the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, the soil's shear strength is given by \tau = c + \sigma' \tan \phi, where c is cohesion (often zero in clean sands), \sigma' is effective normal stress, and \phi is the friction angle; when \sigma' approaches zero, \tau drops to zero, causing the soil to liquefy and flow like a liquid.^[34]^[35]^[36] Unlike static quicksand, which forms due to steady upward seepage or manual agitation reducing effective stress gradually, seismic liquefaction is dynamic and triggered by rapid cyclic stresses, often affecting extensive areas and compromising infrastructure such as building foundations and bridges. A prominent example is the 1964 Niigata earthquake (magnitude 7.5), where widespread liquefaction of saturated sandy soils led to the tilting of multi-story apartment buildings and the collapse of the Showa Bridge, highlighting the vulnerability of urban structures on loose alluvial deposits.^[37]^[38] Since the 2000s, modern research has advanced the understanding and prediction of liquefaction potential through centrifuge modeling, which simulates seismic conditions at high accelerations to replicate prototype stresses in scaled sandy soil models. These studies have quantified factors like soil density, fines content, and shaking intensity to develop empirical correlations for liquefaction susceptibility, aiding in site-specific hazard assessments for sandy soils prone to seismic-induced failure.^[39]^[40]^[41] More recently, as of 2024–2025, artificial intelligence and machine learning models have emerged for predicting soil liquefaction risk, integrating seismic data and soil properties to generate comprehensive hazard maps with improved accuracy over traditional methods.^[42]^[43] Additionally, biocementation techniques using bacteria to bind soil particles have shown promise in mitigating liquefaction by strengthening soils without cement, offering a sustainable alternative for seismic-prone areas.^[44]

Engineering Applications

In geotechnical engineering, site assessments for potential quicksand-like conditions, often manifested as soil liquefaction, are critical for infrastructure projects such as dams and bridges. Engineers conduct subsurface investigations using standard penetration tests (SPT) and cone penetration tests (CPT) to evaluate soil susceptibility to liquefaction under seismic loading, determining factors like soil density, fines content, and groundwater levels that could lead to reduced shear strength akin to quicksand formation.^[45] For instance, in bridge approach embankments, these tests identify zones where saturated loose sands may lose bearing capacity during earthquakes, guiding design modifications to ensure stability.^[46] Vibro-compaction is a common remedial technique during site assessment and preparation, where a vibrating probe densifies granular soils to increase relative density and mitigate liquefaction risk. This method has been applied at dam sites, such as the Salmon Lake Dam, to compact silty sands, reducing void ratios and pore pressure buildup that could simulate quicksand behavior under dynamic loads.^[47] Engineers intentionally replicate quicksand-like states in fluidized bed systems for industrial processes, where upward fluid flow suspends solid particles, lowering effective density and enabling fluid-like handling. In mining operations, fluidized beds facilitate mineral separation and drying by passing air or water upward through granular materials like sand or ore, mimicking the buoyancy and flow reduction seen in natural quicksand to achieve uniform processing.^[48] Similarly, in wastewater treatment, fluidized bed bioreactors use upward water or air flow to suspend media particles, promoting microbial attachment and pollutant degradation while preventing settling, much like the saturated agitation in quicksand.^[49] To prevent quicksand formation in engineered environments, ground improvement techniques such as stone columns and deep soil mixing are employed to enhance soil stability against liquefaction. Stone columns involve installing vertical gravel columns via vibro-replacement, which densifies surrounding soils, drains excess pore water, and increases shear strength, commonly used in highway and port projects to counteract potential quicksand hazards.^[50] Deep soil mixing creates stabilized soil-cement columns by mechanically blending in situ soil with cementitious binders, forming a composite mass that resists deformation; this method is particularly effective for foundations in liquefiable zones.^[51] Following the 2011 Tohoku earthquake in Japan, which highlighted widespread liquefaction damage, updated standards by the Japanese Geotechnical Society and Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism mandated these techniques for critical infrastructure, requiring performance-based design to limit excess pore pressures and settlements.^[52] In laboratory settings, engineers simulate quicksand conditions to test material behaviors under fluidization, informing civil engineering designs for erosion-prone structures. Custom seepage devices replicate upward hydraulic gradients in sand beds to study particle migration and subsidence, evaluating how saturated soils transition to low-strength states during water inrush events similar to quicksand.^[53] These simulations aid in assessing embankment dam erodibility, where controlled fluidization helps calibrate models for breach initiation and sediment transport without full-scale risks.^[54] Such applications remain rare in operational civil engineering, primarily limited to research for predicting controlled erosion in hydraulic structures rather than direct implementation.

Cultural and Historical Impact

In Popular Culture

Quicksand has long served as a dramatic trope in film and television, particularly within adventure genres, where it is frequently depicted as a lethal hazard causing characters to sink inexorably to their deaths. During the 1960s, approximately one in every 35 Hollywood films—nearly 3%—featured scenes of characters sinking in quicksand, mud, or clay, heightening tension in jungle or desert settings.^[55] Iconic examples include the rapid submersion in "lightning sand," a quicksand variant, during the Fire Swamp sequence in The Princess Bride (1987), and the tense escape from a dry quicksand pit in Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (2008).^[56] The literary roots of this portrayal trace back to early 20th-century pulp fiction, which often used quicksand to evoke inescapable doom in exotic adventures. H. Rider Haggard's She and Allan (1921) exemplifies this, describing deadly quicksand within a treacherous African swamp that threatens the protagonists' survival.^[57] In modern media, quicksand persists in video games such as the Uncharted series, where it functions as a perilous environmental hazard; in Uncharted 3: Drake's Deception (2011), antagonist Katherine Marlowe drowns after falling into quicksand during a confrontation.^[58] Cartoons have embraced the trope for both peril and comedy, as in Ed, Edd n Eddy's Big Picture Show (2009), where characters face a sinking mishap in a desert. Post-2000s, as scientific myths about quicksand's deadliness were widely debunked, depictions have increasingly turned humorous, reducing the trope's ominous tone in favor of lighthearted exaggeration.^[59] Culturally, quicksand symbolizes entrapment and the fear of the unknown, embodying sudden vulnerability in otherwise navigable terrains and appearing frequently in media since the 1920s to underscore themes of helplessness.^[56]

Historical Incidents

Historical records of quicksand-related incidents reveal that entrapments and fatalities, while rare, have occurred primarily in riverine and marshy environments, often leading to secondary dangers such as drowning or exposure rather than suffocation by the quicksand itself. One of the earliest documented cases in the American West took place in 1872 in Paria Canyon, Utah, where a person became trapped and died in quicksand, marking one of the few verified quicksand fatalities in the state's history according to local accounts.^[14] This incident highlights the hazards faced by 19th-century explorers and settlers navigating unfamiliar terrain, where quicksand was a feared but infrequently recorded cause of death amid broader trail risks like disease and river crossings. In the early 20th century, entrapments continued to pose challenges, as evidenced by a 1903 rescue in Gordon, Wisconsin, where local resident Joe Kenal was pulled from quicksand after it caved in while he was digging a 16-foot-deep hole near the Brule River.^[60] Such events underscored the prevalence of quicksand-like conditions in northern U.S. wetlands and marshes, though fatalities remained uncommon due to community assistance. During military training in marshy areas, anecdotal reports from the mid-20th century describe soldiers encountering similar hazards, but no major documented accidents specifically attributed to quicksand were recorded in the 1960s. More recent incidents demonstrate improved outcomes through modern search and rescue capabilities. In 2002, outdoorsman and historian Scott Thybony became trapped up to his chest in quicksand in Paria Canyon—the same location as the 1872 death—requiring self-extraction after hours of struggle, but he survived without injury.^[14] Similarly, in 2009, hunter Jamey Mosch was stranded for four days in the Florida Everglades after becoming mired in deep mud and quicksand-like sediment while pursuing wild boar; he was rescued by airboat teams after enduring dehydration and exposure, with no fatalities in the group.^[61] These cases involved multiple entrapments but resulted in survival thanks to prompt intervention. A rare fatality occurred in 2015 when Jose Rey Escobedo, 68, drowned after becoming stuck in quicksand along the San Antonio River in Texas; this marked the only quicksand-related death reported in the state over a five-year period, primarily due to rising water overwhelming the immobilized victim.^[21]^[62] In 2024, hiker Jamie Acord survived being trapped waist-deep in quicksand on a beach in Maine, illustrating continued encounters but effective self-rescue or assistance.^[63] Overall, pre-1950s incidents often carried higher mortality risks from lack of awareness and limited rescue resources, leading to deaths via exposure or tidal inundation; post-World War II advancements in public education, outdoor gear, and search-and-rescue protocols have significantly reduced fatalities, with most modern entrapments resolved without loss of life.^[64]

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Feb 27, 2019 · A weekend hike turned into a life or death struggle for survival when hiker and National Park Service employee Sarah Merritt became trapped in quicksand.
[17]
Scott Thybony's Canyon Commentary: Death By Quicksand...Almost
Sep 11, 2015 · One of the state's only known quicksand deaths happened in 1872 in Paria Canyon. ... Without warning a mule sank belly-deep in quicksand and ...
[18]
[PDF] KING RIVER
As well as the recommended launch location at Coraki Park next to the Lower King Bridge (stick to the channel to avoid very shallow water and 'quicksand'), ...<|separator|>
[19]
Lost for four days in Everglades, rescued hunter gives thanks
Nov 24, 2009 · He was sucked in neck-deep in a patch of quicksand, and only got free by ditching his clothes and much of his gear in the muck. He survived four ...
[20]
[PDF] THE SECRETARY OE WAR. - GovInfo
a high promontory of concretionary lava, literally filled with volcanic ... The bottom is pebbly or quicksand ... dozen caldrons of grayish clay mud, varying from 6 ...<|separator|>
[21]
2 Try to Cross Death Valley on Snowshoes - Los Angeles Times
Oct 14, 1989 · The bogs, or salt flats, are filled with muddy salt brine--similar to quicksand--topped by a crust of sunbaked dirt. More to Read. Mammoth Lakes ...
[22]
The enigma of Sundarbans - The Tribune
Jan 25, 2025 · Our guide, Dhrovo, mentions that the riverbanks and channels are slippery with quicksand and the salty waters are teeming with predatory ...
[23]
Quicksand Science: Why It Traps, How to Escape
Sep 28, 2005 · Quicksand has a density of about 2 grams per milliliter. But human density is only about 1 gram per milliliter. At that level of density, ...Missing: g/ cm³ sources<|control11|><|separator|>
[24]
Can quicksand really suck you to your death? - BBC
Mar 29, 2016 · There are so many films featuring death by quicksand that Slate journalist Daniel Engbar has even tracked the peak quicksand years in film.Missing: Valley credible sources
[25]
Assessing the Average Quicksand Deaths Per Year | HowStuffWorks
Oct 31, 2023 · Quicksand is created when water saturates an area of loose sand and the ordinary sand is suddenly agitated. When the water trapped in the batch ...
[26]
Quicksand can't suck you under : Nature News
Sep 28, 2005 · "The real danger of quicksand is that you can get stuck in it when the high tides come up," says Bonn. But patience can be a life-saving virtue.Missing: actual studies
[27]
The Psychological Effects of Musculoskeletal Trauma - PubMed
Apr 1, 2021 · Soon after sustaining a fracture, psychological factors can predict pain and disability many months after injury, even after controlling for ...
[28]
https://mra.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/nps-technical-rescue-handbook-2014.pdf
[29]
[PDF] Trenching and Excavation Safety - OSHA
OSHA requires employers to provide ladders, steps, ramps, or other safe means of egress for workers working in trench excavations 4 feet (1.22 meters) or ...
[30]
Quicksand Two Day Rescue during Winter Storms at Zion National ...
Feb 18, 2019 · A 34 year old male visitor from Arizona whose leg was stuck in quicksand. He was located approximately 3 hours up the Left Fork of the North Creek.
[31]
[PDF] TE C HN IC A L R ES C UE HA ND B OOK
This handbook is intended to provide a comprehensive instruction manual as well as point of reference for National Park Service (NPS) personnel involved in ...Missing: quicksand | Show results with:quicksand
[32]
Flood and Swiftwater Rescue - SA SES
It involves many rescue techniques and includes the use of rope throw lines and suitably equipped and trained rescuers entering the water to perform the rescue.
[33]
Why was there quicksand at Adelaide's West Beach?
May 26, 2014 · A casual stroll along the beach has ended in a rescue operation for an Adelaide man, who became trapped in quicksand.
[34]
[PDF] Quicksand: a case of liquefaction - Soils 4 Teachers
Quicksand is an interesting natural phenomenon that happens when soil begins to act more like a liquid than a solid. The "quick" refers to how easily the sand ( ...
[35]
6.1.3: When the Earth Turns to Soup (Liquefaction)
Mar 5, 2021 · ... quicksand. Liquefaction is especially common in clean, loose sand, or gravelly sand saturated with water. Most sand layers with liquefaction ...
[36]
Mechanisms to explain soil liquefaction triggering, development ...
Soil liquefaction triggering is governed by pore water pressure and effective stress. Persistence is explained by low-permeability layers or water inflow from ...
[37]
[PDF] TECHNICAL NOTE - Biblioteka Nauki
The accumulation of excess pore pressure is a first sign of liquefaction. ... all models with the Mohr–Coulomb criterion do not demonstrate any significant growth ...
[38]
[PDF] Excess Pore Water Pressure Change Necessary to Cause Flow ...
It is shown that a threshold pore pressure, uc, derived from the Mohr Coulomb failure criterion when pore pressure at failure is equal to the corresponding ...
[39]
Liquefaction During the 1964 Niigata Earthquake - Geoengineer.org
Dec 2, 2020 · The study found that in general liquefaction occurred when the ratio of the maximum pore pressure to the total stress was greater than or equal ...Niigata Earthquake · Tests for Liquefaction... · Evidence for Liquefaction
[40]
Analysis of Soil Liquefaction: Niigata Earthquake | Vol 93, No 3
Feb 12, 2021 · During the Niigata earthquake of June 16, 1964, extensive damage to engineering structures occurred as a result of liquefaction of the sandy soil on which they ...
[41]
Large-Scale Centrifuge Modeling in Geotechnical Research - Frontiers
Centrifuge modeling addresses a fundamental challenge in the scaled physical modeling of geotechnical structures – the need for proper modeling of stress ...
[42]
Centrifuge modeling studies on effects of composition on ...
The purpose of the study is to provide more centrifuge data on the liquefaction of gravelly soils, as well as assess the impact of soil composition on ...
[43]
Numerical and Centrifuge Modeling of Seismic Soil–Foundation ...
In this paper, results from centrifuge experiments of a shallow-founded structure on liquefiable sand are used to evaluate the predictive capabilities of a ...
[44]
[PDF] ASSESSMENT AND MITIGATION OF LIQUEFACTION HAZARDS ...
This report assesses and mitigates liquefaction hazards to bridge approach embankments in Oregon, which are vulnerable to earthquake-induced soil liquefaction.
[45]
[PDF] ASSESSMENT AND MITIGATION OF LIQUEFACTION HAZARDS ...
This report assesses and mitigates liquefaction hazards to bridge approach embankments in Oregon, which are vulnerable to earthquake-induced damages from soil ...<|separator|>
[46]
[PDF] Liquefaction Mitigation in Silty Sands at Salmon Lake Dam Using ...
Vibro-compaction, which provides compaction using a vibrating probe, is used to increase the density of the soil. Additional improvement can be achieved ...
[47]
Fluidization Creates Both Quicksand and Fluid Bed Processing
Aug 24, 2018 · Quicksand is caused when a bed of sand particles have a source of pressurized water ... In a fluid bed dryer, the water is replaced with ...Missing: principles | Show results with:principles
[48]
Treatment Of Municipal Wastewaters By The Fluidized Bed ...
The attachment of microorganisms to the medium also reduces subsequent requirements for wastewater clarification. A portion of the effluent stream is recycled; ...Missing: mining quicksand principles
[49]
[PDF] Reducing Seismic Risk to Highway Mobility - Oregon.gov
Stone columns for liquefaction mitigation and pile groups foundation assessment were investigated by the OSU team, while DSM and large diameter piles/shafts ...
[50]
[PDF] Deep Mixing for Embankment and Foundation Support
Deep mixing for liquefaction mitigation generally involves a rectangular grid or lattice pattern of columns with design dimensions of cell interior width (b) ...
[51]
[PDF] US–New Zealand–Japan International Workshop Liquefaction ...
The workshop aimed to understand how infrastructure performs with various levels of liquefaction, and to advance capabilities for understanding and mitigating ...
[52]
Laboratory insights into land subsidence caused by water-sand ...
May 19, 2025 · This study investigates the land subsidence caused by water-sand inrush using a custom-built, three-dimensional (3D) transparent model testing system.
[53]
[PDF] Evaluation of Erodibility-Based Embankment Dam Breach Equations
Jun 6, 2014 · During the breach initiation phase, the zone of active erosion is downstream from the point of hydraulic control of the flow, so the outflow ...
[54]
'David are you stuck? Do you need help?' The terror of quicksand
Jun 29, 2021 · “In the 1960s, one in every 35 films featured a quicksand scene. Every other episode of Ron Ely's Tarzan series seemed to show a quicksand ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[55]
A history of quicksand in the movies.
Aug 22, 2010 · The gag was once a staple of genre entertainment, appearing again and again in adventure serials, horror flicks, and B-grade science fiction from the 1950s and ...
[56]
She and Allan by H. Rider Haggard: Chapter 9
Literature Network » H. Rider Haggard » She and Allan » Chapter 9. Chapter 9 ... quicksand. This we found out soon after we entered the swamp, since ...
[57]
Uncharted 3 - Sinking into the Sand - Gameplay - IGN
Jul 30, 2012 · Marlowe is killed after falling into quicksand. Share. Did you enjoy this video? Leave feedback. In This Video.
[58]
LARVA - QUICKSAND | 2018 Cartoon | Videos For Kids - YouTube
Nov 26, 2018 · LARVA - QUICKSAND | Cartoons For Children | Larva 2018 | LARVA Official ⏩⏩⏩ SUBSCRIBE to LARVA: ...
[59]
Douglas County Past: Gordon man pulled from quicksand
Jul 6, 2023 · Douglas County Past: Gordon man pulled from quicksand; Teen rescues swimmer from Manitou Falls lake. From the July 9, 1903 Telegram: "Joe Kenal ...
[60]
Caught in Quicksand - Channel 1986 on Samsung TV Plus
Apr 10, 2022 · Experienced hunter Jamey Mosch goes into the Everglades alone after wild boar, but gets lost for four days and faces a very sticky situation. Experienced ...
[61]
How a Texas man was killed by quicksand on the San Antonio River ...
Sep 21, 2016 · Records obtained by mySA.com reveal a man died last summer after getting stuck in quicksand on the San Antonio River and drowning in South Texas.Missing: documented | Show results with:documented
[62]
How Deadly Is Quicksand? | Britannica
Sep 9, 2025 · Quicksand is often depicted as deadly, but real-life deaths are rare, despite its movie portrayal as a hazard.