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Quinquagesima

Quinquagesima Sunday, derived from the Latin word quinquagesima meaning "fiftieth," is the final Sunday before the start of Lent in the traditional Western Christian liturgical calendar, occurring approximately 50 days before Easter Sunday and immediately preceding Ash Wednesday.^[1] It forms the climax of the pre-Lenten period known as Septuagesimatide, which includes the preceding Sundays of Septuagesima (about 70 days before Easter) and Sexagesima (about 60 days before Easter), providing a gradual preparation for the penitential season of Lent.^[2]^[3] The observance of Quinquagesima traces its roots to the early Church, with the structured pre-Lenten season emerging by the 6th century in Rome, possibly in response to calamitous events that prompted calls for extended fasting and spiritual preparation ahead of Easter.^[3] This period allowed Christians to ease from the joy of the Christmas cycle into the austerity of Lent, beginning voluntary abstentions from meat and dairy as early as Septuagesima and intensifying them by Quinquagesima.^[2] Historically, it aligned with Shrovetide—a time from Quinquagesima Sunday through Shrove Tuesday focused on confession and absolution (shrive) to ready the soul for Lenten disciplines—while also giving rise to carnival traditions, as the name "Carnevale" stems from the Latin for "farewell to meat."^[2] By the medieval period, these Sundays were formalized in the Roman Rite, though they were not biblically mandated but served as a church tradition for spiritual readiness (Romans 14:5-6).^[1] In liturgical practice, Quinquagesima Sunday features violet vestments to signal the approaching penitential tone, the omission of the Alleluia from the Mass, and readings emphasizing core Christian virtues.^[3] The Epistle, drawn from 1 Corinthians 13, underscores charity (caritas) as essential for enduring Lenten asceticism, while the Gospel from Luke 18:31-43 recounts Jesus foretelling his Passion and the healing of a blind man, symbolizing faith's role in spiritual sight and redemption.^[2] The Collect prayer seeks deliverance from sin's bonds and divine protection, reinforcing themes of absolution and vigilance against temptation during the impending "desert" of Lent.^[2] Traditionally observed at the station church of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, it ties into broader biblical typology, with Quinquagesima evoking Abraham's sacrifices as prefiguring Christ's.^[3] Though the pre-Lenten Sundays were suppressed in the post-Vatican II Roman Missal of 1969 and are no longer part of the ordinary form of the Mass, Quinquagesima remains significant in the Extraordinary Form (1962 Missal) and among Anglican, Lutheran, and other traditionalist communities.^[1] Today, it invites reflection on love, faith, and preparation, often coinciding with cultural festivities like Mardi Gras while underscoring the Church's ancient rhythm of anticipation for Easter's resurrection.^[2]

Etymology and Terminology

Etymology

The term Quinquagesima derives from the Medieval Latin quinquagesima, a feminine form of quinquagesimus, meaning "fiftieth," which in turn stems from quinquaginta, the Latin word for "fifty." This nomenclature reflects the Sunday's approximate position as the fiftieth day before Easter in the Western Christian liturgical calendar, calculated using the inclusive counting method prevalent in ancient Roman numeration, where both the initial and terminal days are included in the tally.^[4]^[5]^[6] Under this system, the count encompasses Quinquagesima Sunday through Easter Sunday, yielding precisely fifty days and emphasizing the preparatory transition toward the Lenten fast.^[1]^[7] The adoption of the term occurred within the evolving Western liturgical tradition during the 6th to 8th centuries, as evidenced by its inclusion in early sacramentaries such as the Gelasian Sacramentary, a compilation of Masses and prayers attributed to Pope Gelasius I (late 5th century) but likely redacted in the late 7th or early 8th century, marking the formalization of pre-Lenten observances.^[8]^[9] This numerical designation aligns with a broader schema for the pre-Lenten Sundays, paralleling Septuagesima ("seventieth") and Sexagesima ("sixtieth").^[10]

Alternative Names

Quinquagesima Sunday has been known by several alternative names across different liturgical traditions and regions, reflecting its role as the final Sunday before the start of Lent. One prominent name is Estomihi, derived from the first words of the Latin introit for the day, "Esto mihi in Deum protectorem" (Be thou unto me a God and a protector), taken from Psalm 31:3. This designation is used in traditional Roman Catholic and Lutheran rites, emphasizing the protective themes of the psalm in the Mass propers.^[7]^[11] In English-speaking Western Christian contexts, particularly within Anglican and broader Protestant traditions, it is commonly called Shrove Sunday, a term linked to the practice of shriving or confession as preparation for the Lenten fast. This name highlights the day's association with absolution and the end of the pre-Lenten period known as Shrovetide.^[11]^[2] While primarily observed in Eastern Orthodox traditions as Forgiveness Sunday—focusing on mutual pardon and the last day of Cheesefare Week before Great Lent—some Western liturgical discussions note parallels or occasional crossovers in emphasizing reconciliation on this day.^[12]^[13] Regional variations include Fastelavn in Scandinavian Lutheran countries such as Denmark and Norway, where Quinquagesima Sunday marks the start of carnival festivities with buns, processions, and family traditions leading into Lent. In French-speaking areas, particularly in Switzerland and parts of France, it is associated with Brandons, referring to bonfire customs and communal celebrations that blend pagan and Christian elements in pre-Lenten merriment.^[14]^[15]

Liturgical Position and Calculation

Position in the Liturgical Calendar

Quinquagesima Sunday occupies a significant position in the traditional Western Christian liturgical calendar as the final Sunday before Ash Wednesday, serving as the immediate prelude to the Lenten season.^[10] It concludes the pre-Lenten period known as Septuagesimatide, which spans three Sundays—Septuagesima, Sexagesima, and Quinquagesima—designed to gradually orient the faithful toward the penitential observances of Lent.^[2] In the pre-Vatican II Roman Rite, this placement emphasized a structured transition from the post-Epiphany season into Lent, during which festive elements like the Gloria and Alleluia in the Mass were omitted starting from Septuagesima Sunday.^[16] Following the liturgical reforms of the Second Vatican Council, as outlined in Pope Paul VI's Mysterii Paschalis (1969), the distinct pre-Lenten season of Septuagesimatide, including Quinquagesima, was suppressed, and these Sundays were integrated into Ordinary Time. In this revised calendar, the period may occasionally overlap with the extended celebration of Epiphany themes, depending on the variable length of Ordinary Time before Lent, but it no longer holds a named preparatory status.^[17] Quinquagesima functions primarily as a preparatory observance for Lent, fostering spiritual readiness through themes of repentance and charity.^[1] The day's liturgy, particularly in traditional usage, highlights the theological virtues—faith, hope, and especially charity—as essential for the upcoming forty days of fasting and almsgiving, encouraging the faithful to reflect on their need for conversion and acts of love.^[18]

Date Determination

Quinquagesima Sunday is calculated as the Sunday occurring exactly 49 days before Easter Sunday in the Gregorian calendar.^[10] This positioning makes it the final Sunday prior to the start of Lent on Ash Wednesday.^[1] As Easter is a movable feast, the date of Quinquagesima varies each year. Easter Sunday is determined as the first Sunday following the Paschal full moon, defined by the ecclesiastical lunar calendar as the first full moon on or after March 21, resulting in Easter dates ranging from March 22 to April 25.^[19] Consequently, Quinquagesima can fall as early as February 1 (when Easter is March 22) or as late as March 7 (when Easter is April 25).^[7] This dependence on the ecclesiastical approximation of the solar year and lunar cycles ensures alignment with the vernal equinox but introduces annual variation. For instance, in 2025, Easter falls on April 20, placing Quinquagesima on March 2.^[20]

Historical Development

Origins in Early Christianity

The observance of Quinquagesima emerged in the Western Church during the 4th to 6th centuries as part of an expanding framework of pre-Lenten preparations, building on the standardization of the Easter cycle established by early ecumenical councils. The Council of Nicaea in 325 AD played an indirect but foundational role by resolving disputes over the date of Easter, setting a uniform calculation based on the first Sunday after the full moon following the vernal equinox, which provided the calendrical structure for subsequent pre-Easter liturgical periods including Lent and its precursors. This standardization facilitated the gradual extension of fasting and penitential practices beyond the immediate Holy Week, allowing for broader preparation in the lead-up to Easter. Influenced by monastic fasting cycles, which emphasized prolonged periods of ascetic discipline as seen in the Canons of Athanasius prescribing forty days of penance, the Western Church began to develop more structured pre-Lenten observances by the mid-5th century.^[21] These monastic traditions, rooted in Egyptian and Syrian communities, promoted spiritual readiness through moderated fasting and reflection, gradually influencing urban and diocesan liturgies in Rome and Gaul. By the 6th century, this evolution manifested in the formalization of a three-week pre-Lenten season, with the Fourth Council of Orleans in 541 AD referencing Sexagesima and Quinquagesima Sundays as established observances, albeit with some criticism of associated excesses.^[22] Patristic writings, such as those of St. Augustine of Hippo, underscore the theological emphasis on pre-Lent preparation during this era, even before the specific nomenclature was fixed. In sermons delivered around the approach of Lent, Augustine urged the faithful to engage in self-examination and charity as a prelude to the rigors of the fast, viewing it as essential for imitating Christ's temptation in the wilderness.^[23] Initially lacking a formalized name like "Quinquagesima"—derived briefly from the Latin quinquagesimus meaning "fiftieth," approximating fifty days before Easter—these practices evolved from simpler Shrovetide customs of confession and communal reconciliation, which predated the more elaborate seasonal structure.^[3] Under Pope St. Gregory the Great in the late 6th century, these elements coalesced into the recognized pre-Lenten Sundays, marking a pivotal consolidation in Western liturgical development.

Evolution Through the Middle Ages and Reformation

During the Middle Ages, Quinquagesima Sunday underwent significant standardization through the Carolingian reforms of the 8th and 9th centuries, which sought to unify liturgical practices across the Frankish Empire by adopting and adapting the Roman rite. Charlemagne's initiatives, including the importation of the Hadrianum sacramentary from Rome in 785 and subsequent supplements by figures like Alcuin of York and Benedict of Aniane, integrated pre-Lenten observances such as Quinquagesima into a more consistent framework that influenced the development of the Roman Missal. These reforms emphasized the inclusion of specific masses for Septuagesima, Sexagesima, and Quinquagesima, marking a shift from regional variations in Gallican rites to a hybrid Roman-Frankish liturgy that solidified Quinquagesima's position as the culminating Sunday before the stricter Lenten fast.^[24] Medieval customs surrounding Quinquagesima evolved to include festive elements like carnivals, which served as a period of indulgence in food, drink, and revelry to contrast the impending Lenten abstinence, often beginning on this Sunday and extending to Shrove Tuesday. Sermons from the period, such as those by Jacobus de Voragine in 13th-century northern Italy, frequently addressed these practices, warning against excessive overeating and "pagan" excesses while promoting spiritual preparation for penance. Indulgences were commonly granted by the Church to encourage participation in Lenten-related devotions starting from Quinquagesima, fostering communal piety amid growing urban celebrations. The Black Death of 1347–1351 profoundly impacted these emphases, leading to the cancellation of carnivals in many regions due to widespread mortality and fear, while intensifying focus on fasting and penitential rites as responses to divine judgment, with processions and stricter abstinences replacing festive gatherings during subsequent outbreaks.^[25]^[26] The Protestant Reformation in the 16th century brought varied alterations to Quinquagesima's observance, reflecting broader liturgical reforms. Lutheran traditions, following Martin Luther's emphasis on retaining scriptural elements of the traditional calendar, preserved Quinquagesima as a pre-Lenten Sunday with modified readings focused on grace and faith, integrating it into agendas like the 1526 Wittenberg hymnal and later confessional service books. In Anglicanism, the 1549 Book of Common Prayer under Thomas Cranmer explicitly included Quinquagesima Sunday with appointed collects, epistles from 1 Corinthians 13, and gospels from Luke 18, adapting it to emphasize charity and preparation while vernacularizing the rite. Conversely, some Calvinist traditions, prioritizing simplicity and rejection of perceived ritual excesses, suppressed special pre-Lenten days like Quinquagesima, confining worship to weekly Lord's Day services without seasonal distinctions beyond basic Lenten fasting.^[27]^[28]

Liturgical Elements

Scripture Readings

In the traditional Western lectionary, Quinquagesima Sunday features the Epistle from 1 Corinthians 13:1-13, extolling charity as the greatest virtue, and the Gospel from Luke 18:31-43, where Jesus foretells his suffering in Jerusalem and restores sight to a blind beggar near Jericho.^[29] These readings underscore themes of spiritual blindness and compassionate love as preparation for the penitential season of Lent.^[30] The pre-Vatican II Roman Missal assigned the identical readings to Quinquagesima Sunday, maintaining continuity with earlier Western traditions.^[31] After the Second Vatican Council, the Roman Catholic lectionary discontinued the pre-Lenten nomenclature, designating the preceding Sunday as the Eighth Sunday in Ordinary Time during Year C; its Gospel draws from Luke 6:39-45, presenting parables on guidance, judgment, and the good fruit borne from a sound heart. In Eastern Orthodox usage, the corresponding Sunday before Great Lent—known as Forgiveness (or Cheesefare) Sunday—prescribes the Gospel from Matthew 6:14-21, emphasizing mutual forgiveness as essential for divine mercy and the pursuit of heavenly treasure over earthly concerns.^[32] Earlier in the Eastern pre-Lent period, the Second Sunday of the Triodion features the parable of the Prodigal Son from Luke 15:11-32, highlighting repentance and the father's welcoming love.^[33]

Hymns and Prayers

In Western Christian traditions, the collect for Quinquagesima Sunday in the pre-Vatican II Roman Rite, as found in the 1962 Missale Romanum, invokes divine mercy and protection: "Preces nostras, quaesumus, Domine, cleméntier exáudi: atque a peccatórum vínculis absólutos, ab ómni nos advérsitáte custódi" (translated as "O Lord, we beseech Thee, graciously hear our prayers, and unloosing the bonds of our sins, guard us from all adversity").^[34] This prayer, rooted in ancient Gelasian sacramentary texts, underscores liberation from sin as a preparation for Lent.^[2] In Anglican liturgy, the collect from the 1549 Book of Common Prayer—retained in subsequent editions like the 1662 version and traditional forms—emphasizes charity as essential to Christian life: "O Lord, who hast taught us that all our doings without charity are nothing worth; Send thy Holy Ghost, and pour into our hearts that most excellent gift of charity, the true bond of peace and of all virtues, without which whosoever liveth is counted dead before thee: Grant this for thine only Son Jesus Christ's sake, who liveth and reigneth with thee and the Holy Ghost, one God, world without end. Amen."^[30] This formulation, drawing from 1 Corinthians 13, highlights charity's primacy, linking it briefly to the day's epistle on love as the greatest virtue.^[27] The introit for Quinquagesima in the traditional Roman and Anglican rites is drawn from Psalm 31:3–6, beginning "Esto mihi in Deum protectórem, et in locum refúgii valde firmum" ("Be thou unto me a protecting God, a place of strong refuge"), with the full chant emphasizing trust in God amid trials and a plea for deliverance from enemies.^[35] This psalm-based antiphon, sung during the entrance procession, reinforces themes of divine shelter as the final pre-Lenten Sunday unfolds. In Methodist and Anglican services, representative hymns include Charles Wesley's "O for a Thousand Tongues to Sing," which celebrates Christ's redemptive work and is often selected for its joyful proclamation of salvation on this day. In Eastern Christianity, Quinquagesima aligns with Cheesefare Sunday (also known as Forgiveness Sunday), where liturgical prayers and hymns center on repentance, the Fall, and mutual forgiveness before Great Lent. The kontakion in Tone 6 pleads for mercy: "O Master, Guide to wisdom, Bestower of prudence, Instructor of the foolish, and Defender of the poor: make firm my heart and grant it understanding. O Word of the Father, give me speech, for behold, I shall not restrain my lips from crying out to Thee: 'Have mercy, have mercy on me who have fallen.'"^[36] Troparia for the day, such as those venerating Christ's icon, include: "We venerate Thy most pure icon, O Good One, and ask forgiveness of our transgressions, O Christ God. Of Thine own good will having been nailed to the Cross, the Salvation of the world, have mercy upon us."^[37] These texts, from the Triodion service book, accompany vespers and matins, fostering a communal rite of forgiveness that concludes the pre-Lenten period.^[38]

Observance in Western Christianity

Roman Catholic Practices

In the traditional Roman Rite prior to the Second Vatican Council, Quinquagesima Sunday marked the final day of the pre-Lenten season, observed with violet vestments to signify penance and preparation for the rigors of Lent. The Gloria was omitted from the Mass, aligning with the somber tone of the approaching fast, and the liturgy emphasized themes of spiritual readiness through Scripture and prayer.^[2]^[10] Following the liturgical reforms of 1969, Quinquagesima as a distinct observance was suppressed in the ordinary form of the Roman Rite, with the Sunday before Ash Wednesday, observed as a Sunday in Ordinary Time with green vestments denoting the time of growth and ordinary Christian life. This shift integrated the period more seamlessly into Ordinary Time, reducing the pre-Lenten emphasis to foster a direct transition into Lent without the traditional preparatory Sundays.^[16]^[39] A key liturgical element retained in traditional observances is the epistle reading from 1 Corinthians 13:1-13, which extols charity as the greatest theological virtue, urging the faithful to prioritize love amid the approaching season of sacrifice. In some parishes, preparatory rituals such as the blessing and burning of palm branches from the previous Palm Sunday occur in the days leading to Ash Wednesday, producing the ashes used for the imposition of ashes and symbolizing the transition from triumphal entry to penitential journey.^[40]^[41] As of 2025, traditionalist communities affiliated with the Priestly Fraternity of Saint Peter (FSSP) and similar groups continue to celebrate Quinquagesima in its pre-conciliar form, experiencing a revival amid growing interest in the extraordinary form of the Roman Rite. These observances maintain the full pre-Lenten structure, including violet vestments and the omission of the Gloria, often drawing larger attendance in parishes dedicated to the 1962 Missal.^[42]^[43]

Lutheran Traditions

In Lutheran churches that follow the historic lectionary, such as the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS), Quinquagesima Sunday retains the historic lectionary readings established during the Reformation, including the Epistle from 1 Corinthians 13:1–13, which extols love as the greatest virtue, and the Gospel from Luke 18:31–43, recounting Jesus' prediction of his suffering and the healing of a blind man through faith.^[44] These passages underscore themes of faith and love, with sermons often emphasizing sola fide—faith alone—as the means of salvation, while portraying love as its essential fruit, preparing congregants for the penitential focus of Lent.^[45] In Scandinavian Lutheran traditions, particularly in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, Quinquagesima marks the culmination of Shrovetide and the peak of Fastelavn, a festive carnival observed as the final opportunity for feasting before the Lenten fast.^[14] Customs include children dressing in costumes and participating in processions, often going door-to-door singing for treats, while families and congregations enjoy fastelavnsboller—sweet, cream-filled buns—after the Sunday divine service.^[45] A playful bun-breaking contest follows, where participants use a bat or stick to strike a barrel (historically symbolizing the expulsion of evil) filled with candy, releasing treats amid laughter and celebration, symbolizing joy before the solemnity of Lent.^[45] Among Lutheran bodies in the United States, such as the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS), Quinquagesima observances mirror these traditional elements, featuring the same scriptural readings and a focus on faith amid impending Lenten discipline, often with purple vestments and the omission of "Alleluia" to evoke penitence.^[46] Services may incorporate historic liturgy similar to pre-Reformation practices retained by the Reformers for their pastoral value, though contemporary worship styles in some congregations adapt hymns and prayers to modern musical forms while preserving the core theological emphases.^[47]

Anglican Customs

In the Anglican tradition, Quinquagesima Sunday is observed as outlined in the 1662 Book of Common Prayer, where it is designated "The Sunday called Quinquagesima, or the Next Sunday before Lent." This service features the collect emphasizing charity as the bond of peace and virtues, drawn from 1 Corinthians 13, alongside the epistle from 1 Corinthians 13:1–end, which extols charity above all spiritual gifts, and the gospel from Luke 18:31–end, recounting Jesus' prediction of his passion and the healing of a blind man.^[30] These readings align with those used in Lutheran observances, reflecting a shared Western Christian heritage in pre-Lenten preparation.^[30] In contemporary Anglican practice, as detailed in the Church of England's Common Worship, the day is known as "The Sunday next before Lent," shifting focus to themes of divine revelation and transformation, particularly the Transfiguration in some dioceses. The principal collect invokes the revelation of Christ's majesty before his suffering, paired with readings such as Exodus 34:29–35 (Moses' shining face), Psalm 99, 2 Corinthians 3:12–4:2, and Luke 9:28–36 (the Transfiguration on the mount).^[48] This collect on charity remains an option, shared across Western Christian traditions to underscore love as essential for Lenten discipline.^[48] British and American Anglican variations often link Quinquagesima to Shrove Tuesday observances, the following day marking the final feasting before Lent's austerity. In the Church of England, this includes community gatherings emphasizing confession and preparation, while in the Episcopal Church (the American Anglican province), pancake suppers have become a widespread custom, originating from medieval practices of using up rich ingredients like eggs, milk, and butter before fasting.^[49]^[50] These events foster fellowship and reflection on the charity theme from Quinquagesima's liturgy.^[50]

Methodist Observances

In Methodism, Quinquagesima Sunday is observed as Transfiguration Sunday, marking the conclusion of the Epiphany season and emphasizing the revelation of Christ's divine glory to his disciples on the mountain.^[51] This observance highlights themes of transformation and divine presence, serving as a bridge to the reflective discipline of Lent by inviting believers to contemplate Christ's glory amid impending suffering.^[52] White vestments and paraments are traditionally used, symbolizing joy, purity, and the celebratory aspects of Epiphany's culmination, in line with Methodist liturgical color guidelines.^[53] Liturgical readings for Transfiguration Sunday follow the Revised Common Lectionary, which United Methodist churches widely adopt, differing from the traditional Quinquagesima assignments in earlier Western rites. The Gospel typically features the Transfiguration narrative—such as Matthew 17:1-9 in Year A, Mark 9:2-9 in Year B, or Luke 9:28-36 in Year C—replacing the historic focus on Luke 18:31-43, which recounts Jesus' prediction of his passion and the healing of a blind man.^[54] Accompanying Old Testament and epistle texts, like Exodus 34:29-35 on Moses' radiant face or 2 Corinthians 3:12-4:2 on unveiled glory, reinforce the theme of divine revelation and its call to bold witness. Historically rooted in John Wesley's theology, Methodist observances of this Sunday underscore social holiness, where personal piety extends to communal action and love for the marginalized, echoing Wesley's assertion that "there is no holiness but social holiness."^[55] This emphasis frames Transfiguration as a mandate for believers to reflect Christ's transformative light through acts of justice and mercy, aligning pre-Lent reflection with Methodism's commitment to scriptural holiness in society.^[56] In modern United Methodist Church (UMC) practice as of 2025, Transfiguration Sunday often initiates ecumenical preparations for Lent, including small group studies that explore themes of charity, discipleship, and social engagement to foster communal spiritual growth.^[57] These initiatives, such as guided reflections on justice and vulnerability, build on Wesleyan social holiness by encouraging participants to address contemporary needs like poverty alleviation and community service, preparing the church for Lenten disciplines of fasting, prayer, and almsgiving.^[55]

Observance in Eastern Christianity

Eastern Orthodox Liturgy

In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Sunday equivalent to Quinquagesima is known as Cheesefare Sunday or Forgiveness Sunday, serving as the culmination of Maslenitsa, also called Butter Week.^[58] This weeklong period prohibits meat consumption while permitting dairy products like cheese, butter, and milk, allowing the faithful to gradually prepare for the austerity of Great Lent.^[59] The central liturgical observance occurs during Vespers on Forgiveness Sunday, featuring a ritual of mutual forgiveness in which parishioners line up to personally ask one another for pardon, responding with "God forgives" or similar assurances, often accompanied by prostrations.^[60] This rite highlights themes of repentance and divine mercy, thematically connected to the parable of the Prodigal Son (Luke 15:11–32), which is read three weeks earlier. At the Divine Liturgy earlier in the day, the Gospel reading from Matthew 6:14–21 reinforces the necessity of forgiving others to receive God's forgiveness.^[32] Immediately following Forgiveness Sunday, the rigorous fast of Great Lent begins on Clean Monday, excluding all animal products and focusing on spiritual discipline.^[61] Culturally, among Russian and Ukrainian Orthodox communities, Maslenitsa involves festive gatherings with blini—thin pancakes symbolizing the sun's warmth and the end of winter—served with toppings like sour cream, jam, or caviar to celebrate abundance before the fast.^[62]^[63] In contrast to the Western tradition's numerical naming of Quinquagesima as approximately the fiftieth day before Easter, the Eastern Orthodox focus emphasizes thematic preparation through forgiveness and repentance.^[58]

Oriental Orthodox Variations

Across Oriental Orthodox traditions, a shared pre-Lent observance is the Fast of Nineveh (or Jonah's Fast), a 3-day strict fast occurring about three weeks before Great Lent, emphasizing repentance through the prophet Jonah's call to Nineveh.^[64] In the Coptic Orthodox Church, the equivalent to Quinquagesima is Cheesefare Sunday (or Sunday of Forgiveness), the final Sunday before Great Lent, forming a key part of the pre-Lent season that prepares the faithful through themes of forgiveness and repentance. This observance features the Gospel reading from Matthew 6:14–21 on forgiving others. The Parable of the Prodigal Son (Luke 15:11–32), illustrating the father's merciful reception of his wayward son as a model of divine compassion, is observed earlier in the pre-Lent season, about three weeks before Lent. Observed according to the Julian-based Coptic calendar, which aligns Easter calculations with ancient traditions, it underscores spiritual renewal ahead of the 40-day fast plus Holy Week.^[58]^[64] The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church's pre-Lent preparation includes the Fast of Nineveh and other observances leading into Abiy Tsom (Great Lent, also called Hudadi), a 56-day period of penitence. Unlike the more rigorous Lenten abstinences later, pre-Lent moderation allows fish consumption on select days during the transition, with a single fasting meal—often including fish like tilapia on permitted days—after 3:00 p.m., and exceptions for breakfast on weekends to sustain the faithful. This approach reflects the church's ancient Ge'ez liturgical tradition, fostering communal reflection on creation and human origins.^[65]^[66] In the Armenian Apostolic Church, the pre-Lent period called Aratchavor spans three Sundays, with the final Sunday, Barekendan (Farewell to Meat), corresponding to Quinquagesima and marking the end of meat consumption. The Sunday of the Expulsion, centering on the expulsion of Adam and Eve from Eden as recounted in Genesis 3:14-24, is observed as the first Sunday of Great Lent (Médz Bahk). This commemoration highlights the Fall's introduction of toil, mortality, and separation from divine harmony, positioning it as a call to repentance and restoration through Christ's redemptive work in the wilderness. With a stronger focus on ascetic discipline than exuberant pre-Lent feasting, the period integrates into the 40-day fast plus Holy Week, where animal products are abstained from Monday through Friday, prioritizing prayer and almsgiving over celebratory customs.^[64]^[67] These variations across Oriental Orthodox traditions maintain a shared Eastern emphasis on pre-Lent spiritual preparation, adapted to non-Chalcedonian calendars and distinct theological accents on mercy, creation, and exile.^[64]

Cultural and Modern Traditions

Pre-Lenten Feasting and Customs

In Western Europe, Shrovetide carnivals associated with Quinquagesima emphasized feasting and communal revelry as a prelude to Lenten abstinence. In England, a prominent custom involved pancake races, where participants, often women in traditional attire, raced while flipping pancakes in a pan to symbolize the hurried preparation of rich foods before the fast; this tradition dates to at least the 15th century and continues in places like Olney, Buckinghamshire.^[68] In France, Carnival celebrations extending from Epiphany through pre-Lent featured various pastries, including those reminiscent of king cakes with hidden charms or beans—traditionally associated with Epiphany (galette des rois)—serving as precursors to mid-Lent festivities like mi-carême.^[69] Scandinavian countries observed Fastelavn, a pre-Lenten festival aligned with Quinquagesima, through rituals blending play and symbolism for prosperity. A key tradition was "beating the cat out of the barrel," where children struck a barrel (historically containing a cat symbolizing evil, now filled with candy) to release treats and invoke good luck for the coming year; this practice, rooted in warding off misfortune, persists in Denmark and Norway.^[70] Complementing this were distributions of Fastelavnsboller, cream-filled buns shared among family and community to mark the end of winter feasting.^[71] In rural villages across Central and Eastern Europe, pre-Lenten customs included the burning of effigies or straw figures, such as the Morė in Lithuania or similar representations in Slovakia and Russia, to ritually expel winter and evil spirits at Shrovetide's close. These acts, performed communally around bonfires, trace to pre-Christian pagan festivals celebrating seasonal renewal and were adapted into Christian observance to signify preparation for Lent's spiritual purification.^[72] Such traditions occasionally tied into charitable acts, like sharing feast remnants with the needy, underscoring communal solidarity before the fast.^[73]

Contemporary Ecumenical Practices

In contemporary ecumenical settings, Quinquagesima Sunday serves as a focal point for interdenominational reflections on Christian unity and preparation for Lent, drawing on its traditional emphasis on charity as outlined in the Epistle reading from 1 Corinthians 13. Ecumenical centers, such as the Ibru International Ecumenical Centre in Agbarha-Otor, Delta State, Nigeria, actively observe the day with sermons and meditations that highlight themes of repentance, humility, and communal love, fostering dialogue among Anglican, Catholic, and other Christian traditions. For instance, in 2020, the centre's rector, Venerable Dr. Princewill Onyinyechukwu Ireoba, delivered a reflection centered on the phrase "Remember that thou art dust, and unto dust thou shalt return" (Genesis 3:19), linking Quinquagesima to Ash Wednesday practices and underscoring shared human mortality and dependence on divine mercy across denominations.^[74] Similarly, in 2018, the centre emphasized Quinquagesima as a "call to repentance," using the occasion to prepare diverse Christian groups for Lenten disciplines through joint devotional activities that promote reconciliation and mutual understanding. These observances align with broader ecumenical efforts to reclaim pre-Lent traditions for unity, as seen in the World Council of Churches' (WCC) initiatives like the "Seven Weeks for Water" campaign, which begins at the onset of Lent but recalls early church preparation periods—including the weeks leading to Ash Wednesday—for baptismal catechesis and communal reflection on justice and creation care. Launched annually since 2008 by the WCC Ecumenical Water Network, this program encourages joint prayer services and Bible studies across Protestant, Orthodox, and Anglican communities, extending the spirit of Quinquagesima's charity-focused liturgy into actionable ecumenical solidarity; as of 2025, it focuses on protecting glaciers and sustaining life.^[75]^[76]^[77] Such practices reflect a modern shift toward collaborative Lenten preparation, where Quinquagesima provides an opportunity for ecumenical groups to address contemporary issues like environmental stewardship and social justice through shared worship, often incorporating the 1 Corinthians 13 reading to underscore love as the foundation of Christian cooperation. In settings like university campuses or international ecumenical gatherings, this manifests in interfaith-inspired events that blend traditional Western observances with inclusive dialogues, ensuring the day's themes resonate beyond denominational boundaries.^[78]

References

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What are Septuagesima, Sexagesima, and Quinquagesima Sundays?
Mar 27, 2025 · The word quinquagesima means “fiftieth” and refers to the Sunday that is 50 days before Easter if you include Easter Sunday in the count. The ...Missing: definition history
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The Shrovish Collect of Quinquagesima Sunday
Feb 12, 2021 · The final Sunday of the season of pre-Lent or Septuagesimatide is Quinquagesima, so-called because it occurs approximately fifty days before Easter.Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
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The Forgotten Season of Septuagesima Explained - EWTN Vatican
Feb 19, 2025 · On Septuagesima Sunday, we remember Adam; on Sexagesima Sunday, Noah; and on Quinquagesima Sunday, Abraham. This pattern continues into Lent ...
[4]
QUINQUAGESIMA Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
Word History. Etymology. Medieval Latin, from Latin, fiftieth, from quinquaginta fifty, from quinqua- (akin to Latin quinque five) ...
[5]
QUINQUAGESIMA Definition & Meaning - Dictionary.com
Origin of Quinquagesima. 1350–1400; Middle English < Medieval Latin, short for Latin quīnquāgēsima diēs fiftieth day. Discover More. Word History and Origins.
[6]
CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Quinquagesima - New Advent
Quinquagesima also means the time between Easter and Pentecost, or from the Saturday after Easter to the Sunday after Pentecost; it is then called Quinquagesima ...Missing: definition history<|control11|><|separator|>
[7]
LCY: Dates of "Estomihi" - Bach Cantatas Website
Nov 19, 2017 · The name originates from Latin quinquagesimus (fiftieth), referring to the 50 days before Easter Day using inclusive counting which counts both ...
[8]
Septuagesima Season – Immanuel Evangelical Lutheran Church
The season of Septuagesima is an ancient observance, included in the Gelasian Sacramentary dating to the early sixth century, probably earlier. ... Quinquagesima.
[9]
[PDF] instruction #4 – the calendar, part one
The last Sunday of this short season is called “Quinquagesima” or “fiftieth” in Latin. ... Septuagesima first appears in a book of Masses, called the Gelasian ...
[10]
What is Quinquagesima Sunday? - Catholic Answers
It marks the start of the 50 days before Easter, starting the Sunday before Ash Wednesday. Quinquagesima means “fiftieth” in Latin.Missing: definition history
[11]
What are Septuagesima, Sexagesima and Quinquagesima Sundays?
It comes from Latin quinquagesimus, meaning "fiftieth." So, it is the period of fifty days before Easter. For numerous early Christians it was the beginning of ...Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[12]
Forgiveness Sunday in the Byzantine Rite: Guest Article by Philip ...
Feb 14, 2018 · Quinquagesima Sunday 2018 ... The season of the Great Fast begins liturgically on Sunday evening, at what is known as “Forgiveness Vespers.
[13]
Understanding the 'front porch of Lent' - Our Sunday Visitor
Feb 3, 2020 · In the Eastern rites of the Church, this pre-Lent period is mirrored in Forgiveness Sunday, Meatfare Sunday (the last day on which Eastern ...<|separator|>
[14]
Shrovetide | Lutheran Church
In church, fastelavn is celebrated on Quinquagesima Sunday which is the Sunday before Ash Wednesday when Lent begins. From a religious (adult) feast to a ...
[15]
VD: les "Brandons" de Payerne, le plus grand carnaval de Suisse ...
Feb 25, 2007 · A l'origine les «brandons» désignaient des brindilles de paille brûlées juste après Mardi Gras pour se moquer des catholiques et de la mise ...
[16]
What Is Septuagesima? (And Why It's No Longer in the Current ...
Feb 14, 2020 · With the call for reform by Vatican II, the Liturgical Calendar was reformed. The Motu Proprio Mysterii paschalis of Pope St. Paul VI from 1969 ...
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What Is Septuagesima? | Catholic Answers Magazine
It is the post-Vatican II calendar, in fact, that is unusual in doing without Septuagesima. Septuagesima Is for Preparation. It is often said that a period of ...Missing: suppressed | Show results with:suppressed
[18]
Quinquagesima Sunday - St. Joseph Catholic Church Tacoma
On Quinquagesima Sunday, in the Epistle, the Church places before us the three virtues which we are to work on during the forty days of Lent.
[19]
The Date of Easter - Astronomical Applications Department
Easter falls on the first Sunday following the first ecclesiastical full moon that occurs on or after the day of the vernal equinox. Easter can never occur ...
[20]
Easter Sunday 2026 in the United States - Holidays - Time and Date
Quick Facts ; Sun, Apr 20, 2025 · Sun, Apr 5, 2026 · Sun, Mar 31, 2024 · Observance, Christian ...
[21]
[PDF] The Early History of Lent - Baylor University
According to several, admittedly late sources, Christians in pre-Nicene Egypt observed a forty-day fast that began after the Feast of Theophany (i.e., Epiphany ...Missing: patristic | Show results with:patristic
[22]
Some Notes on the Origins and Character of Pre-Lent ...
Jan 31, 2010 · Through piety and devotion, this was extended further still. The specific time of origin is not agreed upon, but various dates surrounding the ...
[23]
St. Augustine—Two Lenten Sermons | Catholic Culture
Feb 27, 2020 · A selection of two Lenten sermons by the great Doctor and Father of the Church, St. Augustine. Read by voice actor James T. Majewski.
[24]
Western Latin Liturgics | Carolingian Reforms
Liturgica.com presents an experience and a comprehensive understanding of the development of liturgical worship and music in the Judeo-Christian traditions.Missing: Quinquagesima 9th
[25]
https://www.brepolsonline.net/doi/full/10.1484/J.FOOD.5.133320
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How Did the Church Fare During the Black Death and 400 Years of ...
Nov 19, 2021 · The “new normal” was the cancellation of Carnival, and a Lent in which no one could attend the celebration of Holy Mass or other processions. ...
[27]
Collects, Epistles, and Gospels from the 1549, 1552 and 1559 ...
Quinquagesima Sunday. The collects and Bible readings for Holy ... Return to 1549, 1552, 1559 Book of Common Prayer. Web author: Charles Wohlers ...
[28]
Modernity, medievalism, and the reckless spirit of Carnival
Feb 22, 2021 · Protestant reformers often rejected the rituals of Carnival as part of their broader rejection of all ritual as priestcraft; Catholic reformers ...
[29]
Scripture & Tradition: Quinquagesima Sunday - OnePeterFive
Feb 21, 2020 · The readings for Quinquagesima Sunday, the last Sunday before we begin the Season of Lent on Ash Wednesday, remind us of the primary importance of the ...
[30]
The Sunday called Quinquagesima - The Church of England
The Sunday called Quinquagesima or the Next Sunday before Lent. The Collect. O Lord, who hast taught us that all our doings without charity are nothing worth.
[31]
[PDF] quinquagesima sunday tridentine mass readings
The readings for Quinquagesima Sunday are from 1 Corinthians 13:1-13 and St. Luke 18:31-43.
[32]
Learn: Forgiveness (Cheesefare) Sunday
The second theme, that of forgiveness, is emphasized in the Gospel reading for this Sunday (Matthew 6:14-21) and in the special ceremony of mutual forgiveness ...
[33]
The Orthodox Faith - Volume II - Worship - The Church Year - Pre-Lent
The first sign of the approach of Great Lent comes five Sundays before its beginning. On this Sunday the Gospel reading is about Zacchaeus the tax-collector.
[34]
Quinquagesima Sunday : Introduction to Lent ⋆ Virgo Sacrata
Mar 1, 2025 · Quinquagesima Sunday is the last Sunday before Lent and the Sunday before Ash Wednesday. How should the holy season of Lent be spent?Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[35]
Anglican Missal Propers for Quinquagesima Sunday
... O LORD, who hast taught us that all our doings without charity are nothing worth; Send thy Holy Ghost, and pour into our hearts that most excellent gift of ...
[36]
Expulsion of Adam from Paradise - Troparion & Kontakion
Mar 2, 2014 · Sunday of Cheesefare: Expulsion of Adam from Paradise - Troparion & Kontakion · The Orthodox Church in America.
[37]
Sunday of Cheesefare: Sunday of Forgiveness - Eparchy of Edmonton
Troparion (Tone 2): We bow before Your most pure image, O kind Lord,* and beg pardon for our sins, O Christ our God.* Of Your own will You consented to ascend ...
[38]
Liturgics - Cheesefare Sunday, also called Sunday of Forgiveness ...
Cheesefare Sunday, also called Sunday of Forgiveness, and the Expulsion of Adam from Paradise Ordinary service. Great Vespers at a Vigil (Saturday evening).
[39]
Roman Missal Readings before Vatican II - Catholic Resources
Sep 1, 2024 · The following table lists all the biblical readings prescribed in the pre-Vatican II Roman Missal for all Sundays, Feasts, and Weekdays.<|control11|><|separator|>
[40]
1 Corinthians, CHAPTER 13 | USCCB - Daily Readings
The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops' (USCCB's) mission is to encounter the mercy of Christ and to accompany His people with joy. Learn More ...<|separator|>
[41]
Ash Wednesday | Catholic Answers Encyclopedia
” The ashes used in this ceremony are made by burning the remains of the palms blessed on the Palm Sunday of the previous year. In the blessing of the ashes ...
[42]
[PDF] Septuagesima & Lent - Priestly Fraternity of St. Peter
Though the church was built to accom- modate 100 people, its attendance has dramatically increased to 500 Sunday parishioners, leaving many Mass-goers outside.
[43]
2025 – FSSP
Statistics as of November 1st, 2025 Members today Total: 579 (incl. 394 incardinated) Priests: 387 o 365 incardinated o 16 incorporated ad annum o 3 ...
[44]
1-Year Lectionary – Quinquagesima - LutheranLectionary.org
1 Corinthians 13:1–13. 1 If I speak in the tongues of men and of angels, but ... Luke 18:31–43. 31 And taking the twelve, he said to them, “See, we are ...
[45]
Quinquagesima - All the Household
Feb 16, 2022 · Quinquagesima is traditionally considered to be the zenith of Gesimatide, which has earned it the nickname “Carnival Sunday.”Missing: definition | Show results with:definition
[46]
Lutheran Liturgical Practices During Lent - LCMS Resources
Mar 23, 2017 · Lutheran Lent practices include using purple and black colors, the sign of the cross with ashes, omitting "Alleluia", and optional fasting.
[47]
What is Pre-Lent? - Immanuel Lutheran Church | Tuscola IL Churches
Feb 12, 2025 · Learn how the early Church and Lutheran tradition used Septuagesima, Sexagesima, and Quinquagesima to focus on grace, repentance, and faith ...<|separator|>
[48]
Common Worship | The Church of England
The Sunday called Quinquagesima · Ash Wednesday · The First Sunday in Lent · The ... The Sunday Next before Easter · Monday before Easter · Tuesday before Easter.Times and Seasons · Holy Communion · Sample Services · Prayers
[49]
Countdown to Easter - The Church of England
Pancake Day is also called Shrove Tuesday and is one last chance for a big party before Lent begins with Ash Wednesday the next day. Long ago, Christians ...
[50]
Pass the syrup — it's Shrove Tuesday! - The Episcopal Church
Feb 12, 2018 · For Anglican churches across Canada, Shrove Tuesday means gathering for a pancake supper. Many churches host dinners or luncheons, serving ...
[51]
Transfiguration Sunday, Year A - Lectionary… - Discipleship Ministries
You are encouraged to experience the story and glory of the Transfiguration through the practice of lectio divina, a monastic practice of reading scripture, ...
[52]
COLORS FOR THE CHRISTIAN YEAR - Discipleship Ministries
White is recommended at services of death and resurrection because it symbolizes both death and resurrection. At services of Holy Communion white linens on top ...
[53]
Glossary: colors, liturgical | UMC.org
The liturgical colors are as follows: Advent, purple or blue; Christmas, white; Season after Epiphany, white for the first and last Sundays and green at other ...
[54]
[PDF] Cx_TransfigurationSunday.pdf - Revised Common Lectionary
TRANSFIGURATION SUNDAY. March 2, 2025. Year C, Revised Common Lectionary. Exodus 34:29-35 Moses came down from Mount Sinai. As he came down from the mountain ...
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United Methodist Beliefs: Social Holiness | UMC.org
Sep 7, 2017 · Social holiness is unique to Methodism. United Methodists have a long commitment to social holiness. It is in our DNA. It is part of who we are.Missing: Quinquagesima Wesleyan
[56]
No Holiness But Social Holiness - Discipleship Ministries
When Wesley says that holiness is social he means that the depth of your love for God is revealed by the way you love whom God loves. The writer of 1 John ...Missing: Quinquagesima | Show results with:Quinquagesima
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Join the Lenten Small Group Project:… - Discipleship Ministries
From Ash Wednesday, March 5, 2025, to Easter Sunday, April 20, 2025, we are offering three unique small group tracks that will inspire reflection, growth, and ...Missing: preparation charity
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Forgiveness (Cheesefare) Sunday - Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of ...
This Sunday reminds us of our need for God's forgiveness and guides our hearts, minds, and spiritual efforts on returning to Him in repentance.
[59]
Maslenitsa - Cheese-fare Week / OrthoChristian.Com
Feb 20, 2023 · It is the last week before the beginning of Great Lent—the week the Russians call "maslenitsa." In the West it is called "carnival," which had a ...Missing: Eastern | Show results with:Eastern
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Forgiveness Sunday | A Russian Orthodox Church Website
Feb 18, 2018 · This Sunday's Gospel (Matthew 6:14-21), the day is popularly called Forgiveness Sunday. Orthodox in the Slavic tradition normally serve Forgiveness Vespers.Missing: Eastern ritual
[61]
Sunday of the Prodigal Son - Orthodox Church in America
Feb 24, 2019 · This parable of God's forgiveness calls us to “come to ourselves” as did the prodigal son, to see ourselves as being “in a far country” far fromMissing: Vespers | Show results with:Vespers
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Cheesefare Sunday, also called Sunday of Forgiveness, and the ...
Cheesefare Sunday, also called Sunday of Forgiveness, and the Expulsion of Adam from Paradise With Forefeast of the Meeting of the Lord.Missing: liturgy | Show results with:liturgy
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It's Russian Mardi Gras: Time For Pancakes, Butter And Fistfights
Mar 14, 2013 · A vendor sells blini at a booth camp just outside the Kremlin in Moscow during Maslenitsa, February 2009. Each day of the week calls for ...
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Blini, Mlintsi, Palačinke! Making Slavic “Pancakes” - Folkways Today
Mar 1, 2024 · During Maslenitsa, it's customary to eat blini daily, symbolizing unity with nature and the cycle of life and seasons. The importance of blini ...
[65]
The 5 Sundays and their significance in the Coptic church
Mar 31, 2024 · Sunday of the Prodigal Son (31 March). The first of the five Sundays celebrates the Parable of the Prodigal Son. The parable tells “the story ...
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Pre-Lent in Christian Liturgies: An Ancient and Universal Custom
Mar 3, 2019 · In the Roman Rite, these three Sundays are called Septuagesima, Sexagesima, and Quinquagesima. These names come from an ancient counting system, ...
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The Great Lenten Fast in Ethiopia | Tesfa Tours
Feb 22, 2023 · Fasting starts in Ethiopia, Hudadi, great lentan fast for 55 days running up to Easter, vegan food is served, sometimes fish is eaten.
[68]
Holidays and Calendar - The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
1. Fast for Hudadi or Abiye Tsome (Lent), 56 days. 2. Fast of the Apostles, 10-40 days, which the Apostles kept after they had received the Holy Spirit.
[69]
Expulsion and Temptation: Lent "In the Beginning"
Mar 6, 2025 · The Sunday of the Expulsion invites us to consider Jesus's exile in the wilderness as a kind of recapitulation of Adam and Eve's expulsion from the Garden.
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https://www.visitdenmark.com/denmark/things-do/danish-culture/danish-traditions
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Shrove Tuesday/Pancake Day - Meaning and Facts | Christianity.com
Aug 20, 2025 · The most famous Pancake Day race takes place in Olney, England, and dates back to 1445. According to legend, a woman was busy making pancakes ...
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Migration of Culture - Tulane Exhibits.
... king cake and Carnival standard we are familiar with today (“King Cake”). Carnival, or Mardi Gras, is closely related to Epiphany, the timing of which is ...
[73]
11 weird Danish cultural traditions that only make sense to Danes
2. Hitting the cat out of the barrel at Fastelavn. In February, we celebrate Fastelavn which is a mash up of Halloween and carnival. Children dress up ...
[74]
Fastelavn
May 5, 2021 · The culmination of the day is 'hitting the cat out of the barrel' where all children take turns to try and break a barrel filled with candy by ...Missing: customs beating
[75]
Culture of Kurenti: Cleveland's Fearsome Monsters of Slovenian ...
Feb 28, 2025 · Here, festival participants burn a physical effigy representing carnival, setting an end to the period of lawlessness and returning to simpler ...
[76]
Traditions That Only Lithuanians Can Understand - Culture Trip
Jun 13, 2017 · Mixed with pagan traditions, Uzgavenes culminates with the burning of a More (a straw effigy). This More is meant to represent a female ...Recommended By · Uzgavenes Or Shrove Tuesday · Easter Granny And Other...
[77]
Quinquagesima Sunday: “Remember that thou art dust, and unto ...
Feb 23, 2020 · The Venerable Dr Princewill Onyinyechukwu Ireoba, FIMC, CMC. is the Rector, Ibru International Ecumenical Centre, Agbarha-Otor, Delta State.
[78]
Seven Weeks for Water | World Council of Churches
Seven Weeks for Water. The World Council of Churches Ecumenical Water Network (WCC-EWN) invites you to use the season of Lent to reflect on water.
[79]
Focus on the Easter Iii (quinquagesima): Call to repentance
Feb 11, 2018 · Being the last Sunday before Lent, Quinquagesima is used for preparation for the Lenten season, which begins on Wednesday of the week called Ash ...
[80]
Seven Weeks for Water 2010, week 7: "The waters of Easter", by ...
The Seven Weeks of Water during Lent recall the final seven weeks of preparation for candidates for Christian Initiation in the early church, culminating in ...