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Bonfire

A bonfire is a large, intentionally constructed outdoor fire, typically fueled by wood, branches, or other organic debris, serving purposes such as communal recreation, ceremonial rites, signaling across distances, or the controlled disposal of waste materials. The term originates from late 14th-century Middle English "bone fire" or "banefire," denoting fires specifically used to burn bones—often animal remains from festivals or herding practices—for purification, sanitation, or ritual significance, before broadening to encompass any substantial open-air blaze.^[1]^[2]^[3] Historically, bonfires trace to pre-Christian European traditions, where they functioned in agrarian calendars to mark seasonal transitions, invoke fertility, or repel malevolent forces through symbolic purification by fire, with practices later syncretized into Christian observances like Saint John's Eve or All Saints' vigils.^[4] In contemporary contexts, they feature prominently in events worldwide, including Northern Ireland's Twelfth of July commemorations of the Battle of the Boyne or Celtic-derived festivals like Beltane, emphasizing communal bonding but requiring oversight to prevent escalation into wildfires.^[5]^[6] Despite their cultural persistence, bonfires carry inherent risks, including rapid spread to surrounding vegetation in dry conditions and emission of smoke laden with fine particulate matter, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, and other toxins that can irritate respiratory systems and contribute to localized air quality degradation, particularly affecting vulnerable populations like those with asthma.^[7]^[8]^[9] Empirical assessments underscore that incomplete combustion in open fires inefficiently releases pollutants compared to enclosed alternatives, amplifying health and environmental externalities without proportional benefits in an era of advanced lighting and heating technologies.^[10]^[11]

Definition and Etymology

Definition and Characteristics

A bonfire constitutes a large-scale outdoor fire assembled from piled combustible materials, principally wood, branches, pallets, or other debris, ignited to generate intense heat, light, and flames often surpassing several meters in height. This configuration distinguishes it from smaller fires through its substantial fuel volume, which sustains prolonged and vigorous combustion driven by abundant oxygen availability in open air, facilitating purposes such as communal illumination, waste incineration, or symbolic burning. Typical bonfire piles prior to ignition measure several feet in diameter and height, enabling heat outputs far exceeding those of domestic or recreational fires.^[12]^[13] Physically, bonfires exhibit rapid exothermic oxidation of carbon-based fuels, yielding core flame temperatures reaching 1,100°C (2,012°F), capable of melting select metals like aluminum, alongside prolific ember production that disperses via convection and wind currents. High fuel loads amplify radiant and convective heat transfer, creating a broad thermal zone, while incomplete combustion generates smoke from volatile organics and particulates. These traits stem from fire triangle dynamics—fuel density, ignition source, and atmospheric oxygen—escalating reaction rates beyond contained setups.^[14] Bonfires contrast with campfires, which involve smaller, often ring-confined fuel arrangements under 3 feet in diameter for controlled cooking, storytelling, or localized warmth, prioritizing manageability over expansive output. Similarly, they diverge from controlled burns, systematically applied in forestry or agriculture with low-intensity, slow-spreading flames across ground fuels to clear underbrush, recycle nutrients, and mitigate wildfire risk, rather than concentrating energy for immediate spectacle or disposal.^[15]^[16]^[17]

Etymology and Terminology Evolution

The term "bonfire" originated in Middle English as bonefire or banefire in the late 15th century, literally denoting "a fire of bones," referring to large outdoor fires fueled by animal or human bones as part of ritual purification practices.^[1]^[18] This etymology reflects early uses in Anglo-Saxon England and Celtic traditions, where such fires—documented in texts like the Catholicon Anglicum (1483)—served to consume remains for warding off evil or marking seasonal rites, rather than mere disposal.^[2]^[19] Early spellings preserved the bone element explicitly until around 1760, underscoring the sacrificial or crematory connotation tied to bone combustion, as opposed to wood-only fires termed simply fire.^[2] Folk etymologies linking it to French bon ("good") for a "good fire" emerged later but lack philological support, as the term predates significant French influence on this compound and aligns causally with bone-burning customs over celebratory neutrality.^[18]^[20] By the 17th century, the term evolved in usage to encompass any large, open-air blaze for communal or festive purposes, detached from its bone-specific origins, though echoes persisted in contexts like Reformation-era incinerations of religious artifacts.^[1] Regional linguistic parallels, such as French feu de joie ("fire of joy") for victory salutes or German Scheiterhaufen ("stack of faggots" for pyres), highlight broader Indo-European ties to fires symbolizing renewal or judgment, but diverge from the English focus on osseous fuel in evoking purification over mere illumination.^[2]^[18]

Historical Development

Ancient and Prehistoric Origins

Archaeological evidence indicates that hominins controlled fire as early as 790,000 years ago at the Acheulian site of Gesher Benot Ya'aqov in Israel, where repeated hearths containing burned wood, seeds, flint, and fish remains demonstrate sustained fire use for cooking and processing resources.^[21]^[22] These features, dated via stratigraphic context and artifact analysis, suggest organized, communal fire management rather than opportunistic sparks, providing heat, light, and protection from predators that facilitated group cohesion and early settlement patterns.^[23] Thermoluminescence dating of associated heated flints confirms the antiquity of such fire pits, linking them to Homo erectus-era adaptations that enabled migration into varied environments by countering nocturnal threats and enabling resource exploitation.^[24] By the Neolithic period in Europe, around 5000 BCE, fire pits with charred animal bones and offerings appear in ritual contexts, such as those at sites in Germany featuring intact vessels and anatomically connected dog remains deposited in fire-altered pits, interpreted as sacrifices for renewal or fertility based on deposition patterns.^[25] Burnt mounds, common in Bronze Age Ireland and Britain (circa 2000–1000 BCE), contain cattle bones and heated stones indicative of large-scale feasting fires, potentially tied to cosmological rituals involving burning for purification or seasonal marking, as evidenced by radiocarbon-dated ash layers and bone charring.^[26] These practices, verified through geoarchaeological analysis of fire residues, reflect causal utility in social signaling and resource cycling without implying unverified symbolic universality.^[27] In megalithic contexts of Neolithic Europe, such as passage tombs, scattered charred bones from offerings suggest episodic large fires for communal rites, dated via associated thermoluminescence on heated quartz to circa 3500 BCE, supporting localized adaptations for group bonding amid agricultural transitions.^[28] This evolution from survival fires to structured burning underscores fire's role in enabling denser settlements by deterring wildlife and signaling territory, grounded in empirical residue analysis rather than interpretive conjecture.^[29]

Medieval and Reformation-Era Practices

In medieval Europe, bonfires ignited on St. John's Eve (June 23) marked the vigil for the Feast of St. John the Baptist, integrating communal fire-lighting with rituals intended to purify communities and dispel malevolent forces, as chronicled in ecclesiastical writings from the 12th and 13th centuries. Theologian Jean Belethus, in his Rationalis divinorum officiorum composed around the 1160s, described these fires as a customary practice to "drive away dragons," interpreting the flames' purifying heat as a Christian adaptation for exorcising evil spirits and pests, thereby linking midsummer illumination to doctrinal defense against demonic influence.^[1] This causal mechanism—fire's empirical capacity for destruction and light as symbols of divine triumph—underpinned their role in reinforcing ecclesiastical authority amid lingering folk traditions.^[2] During the English Reformation, bonfires facilitated the systematic destruction of Catholic relics under Henry VIII, particularly from 1536 onward, as royal injunctions mandated the incineration of saints' bones, images, and idolatrous artifacts to eradicate perceived superstition and assert monarchical supremacy over the church. Following the Act of Suppression in 1536, which dissolved over 800 monasteries and confiscated their contents, commissioners oversaw public burnings of skeletal remains venerated as holy relics, with contemporary accounts noting pyres fueled by these "bones" in marketplaces and abbey grounds to publicly discredit miracle claims tied to them.^[30] This practice empirically shifted "bonfire" from its literal Middle English roots in bonefyre—fires consuming corpses or bones during plagues and executions—to a broader term for ideological purification, as edicts like the 1538 Injunctions explicitly targeted "feigned relics" for flame to prevent relic-based pilgrimages that sustained papal loyalty.^[18]^[1] Such Reformation-era conflagrations exemplified fire's utility in enforcing doctrinal conformity, with over 12,000 religious houses and chantries affected by 1547, their desecrated contents often reduced to ash in spectacles that deterred dissent through visible erasure of Catholic material culture.^[30] In continental inquisitorial contexts, parallel pyres during heresy trials, such as those against Lollards or proto-Protestants in the late medieval period, similarly employed bonfires for executing relapsed heretics, underscoring fire's role as a state-sanctioned instrument for causal severance of unorthodox beliefs from societal propagation.^[2]

Modern Transformations

Industrialization and urbanization in the 19th century led to stricter regulations on open fires in densely populated areas, reducing the frequency of informal bonfires for waste disposal or casual gatherings due to safety concerns and air quality issues.^[31] This shift prioritized controlled, organized events over spontaneous rural practices, as urban expansion fragmented traditional open spaces suitable for large fires.^[32] In the United Kingdom, Guy Fawkes Night, commemorating the 1605 Gunpowder Plot, transformed during the Victorian era into structured public spectacles integrating bonfires with fireworks, peaking in popularity as community festivals.^[33] Fireworks manufacturers further promoted the event around 1910, boosting sales by 20% annually and solidifying its modern form.^[34] Today, approximately 14 million people attend organized Bonfire Night displays each year, demonstrating the persistence of these events despite urban constraints.^[35] Twentieth-century agricultural mechanization, including widespread adoption of combine harvesters post-World War II, altered residue management by increasing the volume of crop stubble left in fields, though alternative methods like baling reduced reliance on open burning in some regions.^[36] Globally, burned area in landscapes declined by about 24% from 1998 to 2015, reflecting shifts away from fire-dependent clearing amid technological advances and environmental policies.^[37] Post-1950, bonfire traditions adapted through media exposure and tourism, as seen in Louisiana's Mississippi River levee bonfires, which originated as family rituals in the 1800s but expanded by the 1980s into public displays spanning miles and attracting thousands of visitors annually.^[3]^[38] These evolutions highlight how festivals maintained cultural roles while scaling for contemporary audiences, countering declines in everyday uses.

Cultural and Ritual Significance

Religious and Pagan Associations

Bonfires have long held symbolic roles in pagan rituals, particularly in Celtic traditions associated with Samhain, a festival marking the end of the harvest and the onset of winter around 2,000 years ago, where fires were reportedly lit to ward off malevolent spirits believed to roam during seasonal transitions.^[39] However, direct empirical evidence from ancient texts is limited, with much of the association deriving from 19th- and 20th-century ethnographic reconstructions rather than contemporaneous Celtic records, challenging romanticized narratives of unbroken pagan continuity.^[40] In broader Indo-European pagan contexts, bonfires served purification purposes, as in reported Druidic practices involving wicker effigies burned with offerings, documented by Roman observers like Julius Caesar, though these accounts may reflect propagandistic exaggeration rather than verified ritual mechanics.^[41] Zoroastrianism, originating around 1500–1000 BCE in ancient Iran, elevated fire as a central emblem of divine purity and Ahura Mazda's presence, influencing subsequent Middle Eastern rites through perpetual temple flames and festivals like Sadeh, where bonfires on January 30 commemorate the discovery of fire and invoke protection against winter's perils.^[42] These practices emphasize fire's causal role in ritual purity—facilitating offerings and meditation—rather than idolatry, with archaeological evidence of fire altars dating to the Achaemenid period (550–330 BCE) underscoring their pre-Islamic persistence amid cultural exchanges.^[43] Christian adaptations repurposed bonfire symbolism for devotion and communal resolve, exemplified by Austria's Sacred Heart fires, originating from a 1796 vow in Tyrol amid Napoleonic invasions, where locals pledged allegiance to the Sacred Heart of Jesus for deliverance, a practice empirically tied to fostering resistance and loyalty during the Coalition Wars.^[44] Lit annually on the third Sunday after Pentecost, these fires—often shaped as hearts or crosses on mountaintops—evolved from the vow's commemoration around 1876, blending pyrotechnic visibility for signaling cohesion with theological symbolism of Christ's purifying love.^[45] From a causal perspective, bonfires in pre-electric religious contexts provided not mere superstition but tangible mechanisms for psychological and social integration, as evidenced by ethnographic studies of hunter-gatherer groups like the Ju/'hoansi, where firelit gatherings enhanced narrative-sharing, rift-healing, and collective memory, correlating with improved group resilience in resource-scarce environments akin to Eurasian winters.^[46] This functionality—warmth aggregation yielding survival advantages, per paleoclimatic data on Ice Age communal hearths—undermines views of such rites as detached folklore, revealing fires' role in binding communities against existential threats through shared ritual exertion.^[47]

Communal and Festive Functions

Bonfires have historically facilitated communal bonding by drawing groups together for storytelling and conversation, as evidenced by studies among the Kalahari Bushmen where nighttime gatherings around fires enabled social interactions that strengthened community ties.^[48]^[49] Anthropological research suggests these fireside assemblies promoted prosocial behavior through relaxation effects, potentially lowering stress and enhancing group cohesion, with physiological data indicating reduced arterial blood pressure during such activities.^[50] In pre-electricity eras, bonfires countered rural isolation by serving as focal points for harvest festival gatherings, where the hypnotic flicker of flames likely induced a shared trance-like focus that synchronized group attention and morale after demanding agricultural labor.^[51] These functions persist in modern festive events, such as the United Kingdom's Guy Fawkes Night, where approximately 20 million people attend public or private displays annually, underscoring cultural continuity through large-scale communal celebrations.^[52] Similarly, Halloween events in the US and UK, evolving from ancient harvest traditions like Samhain, draw millions for outdoor festivities, though bonfires are less central today amid fireworks and urban adaptations.^[53] Such gatherings foster intergenerational transmission of traditions via oral narratives shared around fires, mirroring evolutionary patterns where firelight supported cultural knowledge transfer across generations.^[51] While bonfires enhance community resilience by promoting face-to-face interactions over isolated digital alternatives, potential drawbacks include alcohol-related risks, with reports noting impaired judgment leading to injuries at such events.^[54] Empirical comparisons to indoor parties are sparse, but fire service data indicate heightened emergency calls on bonfire nights, though per-capita incident rates may remain lower in structured outdoor settings due to visibility and dispersal.^[55] Overall, the empirical social benefits, rooted in fires' role in human evolution, argue for their value in building enduring communal networks.^[49]

Regional Traditions

British Isles

In England and throughout the United Kingdom, bonfires form a central element of Guy Fawkes Night, celebrated annually on 5 November to commemorate the foiling of the Gunpowder Plot in 1605, when Catholic conspirators, including Guy Fawkes, attempted to assassinate King James I and destroy Parliament.^[56] The Observance of 5th November Act 1605 mandated public celebrations with bonfires and fireworks to mark the event, a practice that continued until its repeal in 1859 but persists as a cultural tradition emphasizing communal gatherings around pyres often topped with effigies of Fawkes.^[56] These fires symbolize the triumph of Protestant monarchy over perceived Catholic threats, with modern events featuring fireworks displays and parades that draw large crowds despite evolving from anti-Catholic fervor to festive entertainment.^[57] In Ireland, bonfires are lit on Halloween, rooted in the ancient Celtic festival of Samhain around 31 October to 1 November, marking the end of the harvest and the onset of winter, during which communities kindled communal fires to ward off malevolent spirits and renew household hearths from the sacred blaze.^[58] These practices, dating to pre-Christian druidic rituals where bones of slaughtered livestock were burned to honor the dead and ensure protection, integrated into Christian Allhallows' Eve observances, though the Catholic Church sought to suppress overt pagan elements by emphasizing saints over spirits.^[59] Bonfires persist in rural and urban areas for communal bonding and symbolic purification, reflecting a blend of indigenous traditions resistant to full ecclesiastical overhaul despite historical tensions between folk customs and institutional Christianity.^[60] Northern Ireland's Eleventh Night bonfires, ignited on 11 July preceding Orange Order parades, commemorate the 1690 Battle of the Boyne, where Protestant William of Orange defeated Catholic James II, securing Protestant ascendancy and inspiring pyres as beacons of loyalty and victory.^[61] Hundreds of such fires, constructed from pallets and wood, reinforce unionist identity amid sectarian divides, often adorned with unionist symbols and occasionally controversial effigies or flags, leading to clashes with authorities over illegal waste and public safety.^[62] This tradition underscores causal persistence of historical Protestant resilience against Catholic monarchy, contrasting with Ireland's Halloween rites and highlighting intra-insular divisions where bonfires serve as markers of cultural preservation against modern regulatory pressures.^[63] In Sussex, particularly Lewes, Victorian-era bonfire societies organize elaborate 5 November processions with themed costumes, fireworks, and multiple pyres burning effigies of historical figures or contemporary satiric targets, attracting up to 40,000 attendees in a town of 17,000 despite safety concerns from narrow streets and overcrowding.^[64] Recent events in the 2020s have seen over 200 injuries reported in prior years, prompting police appeals for non-locals to avoid attendance to mitigate risks, illustrating tensions between sustaining raucous heritage—originating in 19th-century guilds reviving medieval martyrdom commemorations—and urban constraints like emergency access and fire hazards.^[65] These gatherings preserve communal fervor tied to 17th-century religious conflicts, yet face scrutiny for effigy controversies and environmental impacts, balancing empirical tradition against regulatory demands for controlled celebrations.^[66]

Central and Northern Europe

In Central and Northern Europe, bonfires have been integral to solstice celebrations, blending pre-Christian rituals with later Christian overlays centered on Saint John's Day (June 24). These fires, lit on hilltops or open ground during the June 23-24 period, served ritual purposes tied to fertility, protection from malevolent forces, and communal signaling in remote, forested landscapes where visibility was limited. Historical accounts trace their pagan roots to Indo-European solstice observances honoring the sun's power, which persisted into the Christian era as folk practices despite ecclesiastical efforts to suppress overt paganism.^[67] In Nordic regions like Sweden, Midsummer bonfires (midsommarbrasor) predate Christianization, with archaeological and ethnographic evidence indicating their use before 1000 CE to invoke prosperity for herring fisheries—a staple of coastal economies—through rituals warding off evil spirits and ensuring bountiful catches. These fires, often constructed from gathered brush and ignited at dusk, facilitated inter-community visibility across fjords and forests, reducing isolation by serving as beacons for navigation and social gatherings in pre-modern Scandinavia. Today, they continue as secularized folk traditions, with over 100 documented sites in Sweden annually drawing participants for dances and feasts, illustrating unbroken continuity from pagan solstice rites to modern observances.^[68]^[69] Baltic traditions in Lithuania and Poland emphasize fertility through Joninės (Lithuania) and Sobótki or Noc Kupały (Poland), where bonfires on June 23-24 involve burning herbs and leaping over flames to promote health, love, and agricultural yield. Lithuanian ethnographic records from rural areas document these as survivals of pagan water-and-fire purification rites, with dew collected at dawn believed to enhance fertility; bonfires, numbering dozens per village historically, persisted into the 20th century despite Soviet suppression. In Poland, similar practices include igniting sobótki fires from ritual herbs, supported by 19th-century folklore collections showing their role in signaling across dense woodlands, fostering ties in isolated agrarian communities.^[70]^[71] Alpine areas of Austria and southern Germany feature Sacred Heart fires (Herz-Jesu-Feuer), lit in June on mountain slopes, commemorating a 1796 vow of resistance against French revolutionary forces during Tyrolean uprisings led by Andreas Hofer. Originating in the late 18th century but drawing on older solstice customs for demon-repelling, these bonfires—up to 200 annually in Tyrol—symbolize communal defiance and protection, with flames visible for kilometers to signal unity in rugged terrain. Their hybrid nature reflects causal persistence: pagan fire rites adapted to Catholic devotion, maintaining empirical utility for visibility in pre-industrial alpine isolation.^[44]^[72]^[73]

Southern and Eastern Europe

![Midsummer bonfire on the San River in Trepcza, Sanok, Poland][float-right] In Italy, a prominent Southern European tradition involves lighting large bonfires on March 19 for the Feast of St. Joseph, particularly in regions like Puglia, Sicily, and Romagna, where these fires symbolize the transition from winter to spring and blend pagan renewal rites with Christian devotion to the saint as protector of workers and families. Known as fuochi di San Giuseppe or fogheraccia, the bonfires are constructed from gathered wood and debris, often reaching heights of several meters, and are accompanied by communal feasts featuring local foods like zeppole. This practice, documented in local customs since at least the medieval period, serves to purify the land and invoke agricultural fertility, with fires lit on hilltops or beaches to maximize visibility and communal participation.^[74]^[75]^[76] Eastern European Slavic traditions prominently feature bonfires in rituals tied to seasonal and fertility cycles, such as Romania's Dragobete on February 24, where youth gather around hilltop fires to court and celebrate emerging spring love, echoing pre-Christian Daco-Thracian sacred fire customs adapted into a day honoring nature's awakening. In broader Slavic observance, Kupala Night around June 23-24 involves leaping over bonfires for purification and to ensure romantic fortune, a practice rooted in ancient solstice celebrations predating the 4th century AD and symbolizing the union of fire and water elements for fertility and protection against evil spirits. Similarly, in Czechia and Slovakia, April 30 marks Čarodějnice or Walpurgis Night, during which effigies of witches are burned atop bonfires to symbolically expel winter's malevolence and witches' spirits, drawing from pre-Christian cathartic rites that predate widespread Christian influence.^[77]^[78]^[79]^[70]^[80]^[81] Following the collapse of communist regimes across Eastern Europe in 1989-1991, these bonfire-centric folk rituals saw renewed vigor as communities reclaimed suppressed pagan-influenced traditions long curtailed under state-enforced atheism, which had prioritized Marxist materialism over indigenous cultural expressions. In countries like Poland, Ukraine, and Czechia, post-communist liberalization enabled public celebrations of Kupala Night and witch burnings to expand, fostering a cultural resurgence that integrated historical practices into modern national identity without direct quantitative attendance metrics widely reported, though events now draw thousands in rural and urban settings alike. This revival underscores a broader pattern of ethnic and seasonal customs rebounding against decades of ideological suppression, prioritizing empirical continuity of pre-modern rites over politicized reinterpretations.^[82]

North America

In North America, bonfire practices largely stem from European immigrant traditions, particularly Celtic influences carried by Irish and Scottish settlers who adapted elements of the ancient Samhain festival into modern Halloween observances. These immigrants introduced bonfires as a means to ward off spirits during the Celtic New Year celebrations around October 31, though in the United States and Canada, such fires have become less central to Halloween compared to costume-wearing and trick-or-treating, evolving into occasional beach or backyard gatherings in rural or coastal areas.^[83]^[84] A distinctive adaptation appears in south Louisiana, where Acadian and French-German descendants light massive bonfires along the Mississippi River levees on Christmas Eve, a custom tracing back to at least the 1800s and originally tied to family or neighborhood efforts to guide "Papa Noël" (the Cajun Santa Claus) to homes. These structures, built from pallets, scrap wood, and sometimes elaborate towers up to 20 feet tall, now form miles-long displays in parishes like St. James, St. John the Baptist, and Ascension, drawing thousands of spectators annually despite requiring permits and oversight from local fire departments to mitigate risks.^[85]^[3]^[86] Indigenous peoples in North America have employed controlled burns for millennia to manage landscapes, promote biodiversity, and reduce wildfire fuels, practices distinct from recreational bonfires in their ecological intent and regulated execution rather than festive or social purposes. Modern regulations across the U.S. and Canada impose strict controls on recreational bonfires, mandating permits, minimum distances from structures (often 25 feet), and prohibitions during high wind or dry conditions to prevent escapes into wildfires, reflecting shifts driven by urban expansion and climate-related fire increases since the late 20th century.^[87]^[88]^[89]^[90]

Asia and Middle East

In Iran, Chaharshanbe Suri, celebrated on the eve of the last Wednesday before Nowruz in late March, involves lighting bonfires and jumping over them while reciting phrases to transfer misfortunes to the fire and gain its warmth and vitality for the coming year, a practice rooted in ancient Zoroastrian traditions of fire as a purifying agent.^[91]^[92] Participants gather wood and herbs to build the fires, emphasizing renewal and warding off illness as spring approaches.^[93] In India and Nepal, Holika Dahan occurs on the eve of Holi, typically in March, where communities erect large bonfires using wood, dried leaves, and effigies symbolizing the demoness Holika, whose burning commemorates the mythological victory of the devotee Prahlad over evil through devotion to Vishnu.^[94]^[95] The ritual underscores themes of good triumphing over malevolence and the arrival of spring, with participants circling the fire, offering prayers, and sometimes placing coconuts or grains into the flames for prosperity.^[96] In Israel, Lag BaOmer, observed on the 33rd day of the Omer count between Passover and Shavuot (usually in May), features widespread bonfires lit to honor Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai, the purported author of the Zohar, whose death anniversary is marked by illuminating the "light" of his mystical Torah teachings revealed on that day.^[97]^[98] These fires, often built in open fields or hillsides, draw families for picnics and archery, evoking the historical transmission of kabbalistic wisdom amid Roman persecution.^[99] Among Kurds in northern Iraq, Nowruz celebrations in March include lighting bonfires on hilltops to symbolize the transition from winter's darkness to spring's light, drawing from pre-Islamic Persian customs where fire represents purity and the defeat of tyranny in folklore like the slaying of the tyrant Zahhak.^[100]^[101] In regions like Erbil and Akre, participants jump over or carry torches around the flames during dances, reinforcing communal bonds and seasonal renewal in agrarian contexts.^[102] Bonfire traditions in Japan remain limited compared to these regions, primarily appearing in localized New Year rites like Dondo-yaki, where January bonfires consume decorative pines and kakizome writings to invoke good fortune, or Obon-related Gozan Okuribi in Kyoto, where August fires guide ancestral spirits amid monsoon-season renewal symbolism.^[103]^[104] These pyres, often shaped into kanji characters, prioritize spiritual send-off over purification leaps, reflecting Shinto influences on fire as a transient purifier in humid climates prone to ritual burning for warding humidity-associated ills.^[105]

Other Regions

In Luxembourg, the Buergbrennen (also known as Burgsonndeg) tradition entails igniting massive bonfires on the first Sunday following Shrove Tuesday, typically in late February or early March, to ritually expel winter's chill and invoke spring's renewal. This custom, traceable to pagan agrarian rites symbolizing purification and fertility, draws communities to rural sites where stacked wood piles, often exceeding 10 meters in height, are torched amid gatherings featuring sausages, mulled wine, and folk songs; over 300 such fires occur annually across the country, with safety protocols enforced by local fire brigades.^[106]^[107]^[108] France's rural outliers include the Feux de la Saint-Jean, where bonfires blaze on June 23—the eve of Saint John's Day—blending solstice paganism with Christian liturgy to ward off misfortune and bless crops. In Provençal villages, participants inscribe wishes on paper before consigning them to the flames, while leaps over low fires purportedly ensure health and marital prospects; documentation from ethnographic surveys notes persistence in areas like Soria-adjacent border traditions, though urban decline has confined major events to fewer than 50 documented sites by 2020.^[67]^[109] Latin American practices feature syncretic bonfires during Noche de San Juan (June 23-24) in southern countries like Argentina, Chile, and Venezuela, where colonial European imports merged with indigenous fire veneration for midsummer purification rituals involving effigy burnings and herbal infusions tossed into pyres for medicinal efficacy. In Venezuela's coastal regions, fires up to 5 meters tall incorporate African-influenced drumming from slave-descended communities, with 2023 reports citing over 200 municipal events despite regulatory curbs on wood sourcing.^[110]^[111] Sub-Saharan African ethnographic records reveal scant large-scale bonfire traditions, prioritizing smaller, controlled fires for herding or initiation amid pastoral economies; among the Bapedi of South Africa, sacred fires symbolize ancestral ties but rarely escalate to communal pyres, with colonial-era accounts from 1930s surveys attributing rarity to resource scarcity and mobility. Syncretic harvest burns, blending animist and Christian elements, appear sporadically in ranching zones influenced by Neotropical migrations, yet empirical data gaps persist due to oral transmission and urbanization eroding practices post-1950.^[112]^[113]^[114] Pacific Island cultures document intentional bonfires distinct from accidental wildfires, such as Fiji's Yasawa beach gatherings where fires, built from driftwood and reaching 2-3 meters, foster storytelling and song to transmit genealogies, with 2022 tourism ethnographies noting 15+ sites sustaining pre-contact norms despite climate-driven wood limits. In Papua New Guinea's northeast, rituals involve fire manipulation for spirit invocation, per 2010s field studies, though navigation-signal fires in oral histories of Micronesian atolls remain under-documented, confined to elder recitations amid post-2000 modernization.^[115]^[116]^[87]

Practical and Agricultural Uses

Construction and Materials

Bonfire construction relies on principles of combustion physics, where efficient burning requires adequate oxygen supply, fuel dryness, and structural stability to sustain heat release from exothermic oxidation of cellulose and lignin in wood.^[117]^[118] Proper layering promotes airflow, preventing incomplete combustion that produces excess smoke and carbon monoxide.^[119] Common techniques include the teepee and log cabin methods. In the teepee configuration, kindling and small branches are arranged in a conical shape around a central tinder bundle, facilitating rapid ignition and upward draft for initial flame propagation.^[120]^[121] The log cabin method stacks larger logs in alternating perpendicular layers around a core of tinder and kindling, providing structural integrity for prolonged burns while maintaining gaps for convection-driven oxygen intake.^[122]^[123] Both approaches elevate the base above ground to enhance ventilation and reduce heat loss to soil, with empirical observations indicating improved burn duration through optimized stacking geometries.^[124] Materials selection emphasizes dry hardwoods such as oak or maple, which exhibit low moisture content below 20% and high energy density, yielding sustained flames with minimal smoke compared to green wood's higher water vapor impeding ignition and promoting smoldering.^[125]^[126] Brush and seasoned softwoods serve as kindling for quick-start layers, but avoid resinous or wet variants to prevent inefficient pyrolysis.^[127] Site factors like 10-foot clearance from flammables and alignment with prevailing wind—igniting from the upwind side—maximize draft efficiency and minimize smoke dispersion risks.^[128]^[129] Ignition prioritizes non-accelerant methods, such as matches or ferrocerium rods applied to tinder, to avoid explosive flare-ups associated with gasoline or kerosene, which have caused severe burns in documented cases due to rapid vapor ignition.^[130]^[131] Accelerants increase combustion velocity uncontrollably, elevating injury risks over controlled, physics-based starts.^[132]

Farm and Waste Management Applications

In agricultural practices, bonfires have historically served as a method for disposing of crop residues such as stubble and straw following harvest, facilitating land preparation for subsequent planting cycles. This technique, employed since ancient times, clears excessive vegetation to control weeds, pests, and diseases while enabling timely seeding.^[133] ^[134] For instance, farmers burn straw residues to eliminate overwintering pathogens and reduce weed seed banks, which can otherwise hinder crop establishment.^[135] Empirical studies indicate that residue burning accelerates the mineralization of certain nutrients like potassium and phosphorus through ash deposition, providing rapid availability for the next crop compared to slower decomposition processes. However, this comes at the cost of significant losses: burning one tonne of cereal straw can volatilize approximately 80% of nitrogen and sulfur, along with 40% of phosphorus and potassium, leading to net soil nutrient depletion over repeated applications.^[136] ^[137] ^[138] Long-term soil tests from row crop fields show declining fertility levels due to these cumulative effects, exacerbating input costs for fertilizers.^[139] In contrast, composting residues preserves organic carbon and nitrogen, enhancing soil structure and microbial activity without gaseous losses, though it requires more time and labor.^[140] ^[141] In resource-limited developing regions, bonfires remain a low-cost, accessible option for waste management where machinery for baling or tillage is unavailable, outperforming alternatives in speed for smallholder operations. Regulated field burns, distinct from uncontrolled bonfires, are sometimes applied to mitigate erosion risks by removing dense residues that impede water infiltration, though bare soil post-burn increases short-term runoff vulnerability. Soil texture influences outcomes, with finer soils retaining more ash-bound nutrients than coarser ones. Overall, while burning offers immediate practical gains in pest suppression and clearance, peer-reviewed analyses consistently demonstrate inferior long-term soil health compared to conservation tillage or composting, prompting shifts toward integrated residue management in mechanized systems.^[142] ^[143] ^[144]

Safety, Environmental Impact, and Regulations

Fire Hazards and Prevention

Bonfires present heightened fire hazards compared to smaller recreational fires due to their larger fuel volume and intense combustion, which generate substantial radiant heat, flying embers, and potential structural collapses. Embers detached from the fire can be lofted by convection currents and wind, traveling miles to ignite dry vegetation and spark wildfires; this mechanism is a primary driver of uncontrolled spread in vegetated areas. In New York State, open burning activities, encompassing unregulated bonfires, constitute the single greatest cause of wildfires, with debris burns alone responsible for the majority of spring-season incidents.^[145]^[146] The scale of bonfires exacerbates these risks relative to campfires, as greater pile heights and burn intensities produce more embers and higher collapse probabilities, leading to documented increases in burn injuries—particularly among children and spectators from falling debris or sudden flares.^[147] To prevent ember ignition and fire escape, site preparation is essential: clear a minimum 10-foot radius around the bonfire of all combustible materials, such as dry grass, leaves, or overhanging branches, to create a defensible bare-earth buffer that interrupts fire spread via radiant heat or direct contact.^[148] Maintain at least 10 to 25 feet of separation from structures, vehicles, or trees to account for ember deposition and log roll-out. Weather assessment is critical; winds exceeding 10 to 15 mph can accelerate ember drift and fan flames unpredictably, substantially elevating escape risk, so bonfires should be avoided under such conditions.^[149]^[150] Effective prevention also requires on-site suppression resources and vigilant monitoring. Keep ample water, hoses, or Class A fire extinguishers immediately accessible to fully douse the fire upon completion or in emergencies, ensuring no subsurface heat persists that could reignite via smoldering embers. Never leave a bonfire unattended, as unattended larger fires exhibit higher escape rates than supervised smaller ones due to unchecked fuel consumption and wind shifts.^[151]

Pollution and Ecological Effects

Bonfires, involving the open combustion of wood, agricultural waste, or other biomass, primarily emit fine particulate matter (PM2.5), carbon monoxide (CO), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) due to incomplete combustion under oxygen-limited conditions.^[152]^[153] Emission rates vary with fuel moisture and type; for instance, dry wood in recreational fire pits yields PM2.5 factors of approximately 10-20 grams per kilogram of wood burned, with higher moisture increasing incomplete combustion and thus CO output.^[154] These releases cause short-term, localized PM2.5 spikes—such as those observed during events like Bonfire Night in the UK, where urban averages rose by up to 50 micrograms per cubic meter in affected areas—but dissipate rapidly due to dispersion and intermittency, contrasting with persistent emissions from industrial stacks or traffic.^[155] Empirical dose-response data indicate that such transient exposures pose lower health risks than chronic urban background levels, as PM2.5 from biomass burning has a shorter atmospheric residence time than sulfates from fossil fuels.^[156] Ecologically, bonfire residues like wood ash provide benefits through nutrient recycling, supplying potassium (up to 10% by weight), phosphorus, and calcium while exerting a liming effect that neutralizes acidic soils and boosts crop yields by 20-45% in field applications.^[157]^[158] In agricultural contexts, this supports soil fertility on farms where bonfires dispose of pruning waste, mimicking natural post-fire nutrient pulses in ecosystems. Potential drawbacks include minor pH elevation risking nutrient lockup if over-applied (exceeding 5 tons per hectare annually) and trace heavy metal accumulation from contaminated fuels, though levels remain below thresholds for most uncontaminated wood sources.^[159] Acidification from NOx or SOx emissions is theoretically possible but empirically negligible, as clean wood combustion produces far less than natural volcanic eruptions, which inject billions of tons of sulfur aerosols annually—dwarfing global bonfire contributions.^[160] While alternatives like composting mitigate organic waste volumes by 50-70% through decomposition, bonfires enable rapid, low-cost clearance in rural settings where mechanical processing is inefficient, preserving causal advantages in labor-scarce agriculture without net ecological detriment when managed.^[161] Overall, bonfire impacts are contextually minor relative to dominant PM2.5 sources like wildfires, which account for 20-40% of U.S. annual fine particulates during peak seasons, underscoring that regulatory emphasis on localized fires often overlooks comparative scales.^[162]^[163]

Legal Frameworks and Restrictions

In the United States, bonfire regulations emphasize prohibitions on hazardous materials to minimize air pollution and health risks, with state-specific rules often requiring permits for fires exceeding certain sizes. Connecticut law forbids burning treated, painted, stained wood, construction debris, wood pallets, or garbage in campfires or bonfires, restricting fuels to clean, non-processed wood only.^[164] Similarly, New York State bans open burning of pressure-treated lumber, plywood, painted or stained wood, plastics, tires, and synthetic materials year-round, with an additional statewide burn ban from March 16 to May 14 annually to curb wildfire ignition, as open burning accounts for a significant portion of such incidents.^[145] Violations in these states can incur fines, and local ordinances frequently mandate setback distances from structures and prior notification to fire departments for larger gatherings, enforcing compliance through inspections and penalties for smoke nuisances. In the United Kingdom, bonfires fall under environmental and public nuisance laws, with a strict prohibition on burning household waste, including plastics and treated materials, punishable by fines up to £50,000 due to pollution concerns.^[165] For events like Bonfire Night on November 5, no specific nationwide permit is required for recreational bonfires, but local authorities can impose restrictions under the Environmental Protection Act 1990 if smoke causes statutory nuisances, leading to abatement notices or fines; enforcement data from councils shows hundreds of complaints annually, though prosecutions remain selective. Exemptions persist for traditional celebrations, allowing bonfires with clean wood fuels provided they adhere to safety guidelines from fire services, such as site preparation and firebreaks. European Union air quality directives, including the Ambient Air Quality Directive (2008/50/EC), set limits on particulate matter and other emissions that constrain open burning practices, prompting member states to regulate bonfires through national laws restricting agricultural and recreational fires during high-pollution periods or in sensitive areas.^[166] In countries like Germany, Belgium, and Poland, open burning is partially or fully prohibited outside designated facilities, with authorities empowered to ban it temporarily for air quality protection; enforcement varies, but fines range from €500 to €50,000 depending on the jurisdiction and scale. Traditional exemptions apply sparingly, often requiring permits and emission controls. Australia's framework prioritizes bushfire prevention, mandating fire permits for any open burning during declared bushfire danger periods across states, with total fire bans prohibiting all bonfires, campfires, and spark-emitting activities when conditions heighten spread risks.^[167] ^[168] In high-risk zones like New South Wales and Victoria, violations carry fines up to AUD 110,000 for individuals, reflecting enforcement data linking unregulated burns to wildfire starts; permanent prohibitions apply in some national parks and urban interfaces. Post-2020, intensified wildfire seasons have prompted stricter permit requirements and seasonal bans in wildfire-prone regions, yet exemptions endure for cultural and traditional bonfires under controlled conditions, as seen in expanded allowances for Indigenous prescribed burns in Australia and parts of the US to reduce fuel loads.^[169] Enforcement has increased, with US states reporting higher citations for illegal burns amid drought trends, balancing restriction with allowances for low-risk traditional events like UK Bonfire Night.^[145]

Controversies and Debates

Sectarian and Political Uses

In Northern Ireland, loyalist bonfires erected on the Eleventh Night of July 11 commemorate the 1690 Battle of the Boyne, where Protestant King William III defeated Catholic King James II, with traditions tracing to celebratory fires lit upon William's arrival in Ulster that year.^[5] ^[170] These towering pyres, numbering around 300 annually in Protestant neighborhoods, frequently incorporate burned Irish tricolour flags, effigies of republican figures, and sectarian murals as assertions of unionist identity against perceived threats of Irish unification.^[171] Despite persistent use for community demarcation, such displays have drawn condemnations in recent years; in 2024, Northern Ireland's Secretary of State Hilary Benn criticized effigy burnings and sectarian symbols as divisive, while 2025 incidents included police probes into migrant mannequin effigies in lifejackets atop a Moygashel bonfire, labeled a hate crime, and a Highfield pyre with anti-Irish slogans.^[172] ^[173] ^[174] Historically, large public fires served sectarian ends during the Reformation, as in the 1553 burning of Spanish theologian Michael Servetus at the stake in Geneva under John Calvin's theological oversight, intended to purge perceived doctrinal threats and deter heresy through visible purification.^[175] Similar executions under Catholic authorities, such as Queen Mary I's restoration of heresy laws in England leading to nearly 300 Protestant burnings between 1555 and 1558, underscored fires' role in enforcing confessional boundaries amid Europe's religious wars.^[176] In contemporary settings, bonfires retain political bite through effigy burnings, as seen in England's Lewes Bonfire Night, where since the 19th century processions have torched figures symbolizing opposition—evolving from papal effigies to modern politicians like David Cameron (with a pig's head in 2015, referencing scandal allegations) and Angela Merkel (depicted in provocative poses in 2012).^[177] ^[178] Proponents frame these as heritage expressions of free speech and satire, fostering communal bonds, whereas detractors highlight sectarian incitement; yet data reveal limited violence, with Northern Ireland police logging just 57 bonfire-related offences in 2022 across widespread events, and most Eleventh Nights passing without incident post-1998 peace accords, suggesting media amplification of outliers over baseline stability.^[179] ^[180] ^[181]

Cultural Preservation vs. Modern Criticisms

Bonfire traditions, particularly in regions like Sussex, England, have sustained local folk identities since the mid-19th century, with societies such as the Cliffe Bonfire Society and Lewes Borough Bonfire Society established in 1853 to organize annual events commemorating historical events like the Gunpowder Plot while fostering community cohesion through volunteer-led processions and gatherings.^[182] These practices counter cultural erosion by preserving ethnographic continuity, linking participants to ancestral customs that blend Protestant heritage with regional folklore, as evidenced by multi-week bonfire seasons involving multiple societies that draw thousands in voluntary participation.^[183] Modern criticisms, often framed through lenses of political correctness, portray such festivals as outdated or chaotically disruptive, with controversies in Lewes from 2018 onward highlighting accusations of racism over costumes involving blackface or cultural appropriation, such as a child's participation in a 2018 costume contest that prompted media outrage.^[184] ^[185] These claims, amplified by outlets like The Guardian and CNN—which exhibit systemic left-leaning biases in cultural reporting—have led to self-imposed restrictions by societies, yet empirical attendance data reveals sustained voluntary engagement, with crowds lining streets for torchlit events as recently as 2024, indicating no widespread coercion or rejection by participants.^[186] Sociological research underscores the causal role of such traditions in building community resilience, where volunteer-driven heritage activities enhance social networks, local knowledge, and adaptive capacities against cultural homogenization, as demonstrated in studies of rural heritage preservation that link bottom-up rituals to stronger group identities and reduced alienation risks from external impositions like bans.^[187] ^[188] Prohibiting these practices, absent evidence of net harm beyond subjective offense, could exacerbate social fragmentation, per analyses of cultural strategies for coping with modern disruptions, prioritizing empirical continuity over ideologically driven reforms.^[189]

Effigy Burning and Symbolic Protests

Effigy burning serves as a form of symbolic protest, allowing participants to express dissent through the ritual destruction of representations of opposed figures or policies, often providing a controlled outlet for frustration. In the United Kingdom, the annual Guy Fawkes Night on November 5 features the burning of effigies commemorating the foiled 1605 Gunpowder Plot, with modern iterations sometimes targeting contemporary political figures. For instance, during the 2024 Lewes Bonfire celebrations, effigies of Reform UK leader Nigel Farage and Post Office scandal figure Paula Vennells were burned alongside the traditional Guy Fawkes figure, reflecting local grievances amid an estimated crowd of thousands.^[190]^[186] In Northern Ireland, loyalist bonfires have incorporated effigies critiquing immigration policies, as seen in the July 10, 2025, Moygashel bonfire topped with a model boat containing mannequins in lifejackets depicting migrants, accompanied by signage protesting unauthorized crossings. The display, erected in a pro-Unionist village, prompted a police hate incident investigation and condemnation from groups like Amnesty International, which labeled it "vile and dehumanizing," and the Church of Ireland, calling it "inhuman."^[191]^[173]^[192] Local participants framed it as opposition to illegal migration strains on resources, though mainstream outlets emphasized racism concerns, highlighting tensions between symbolic critique and perceived incitement.^[193]^[194] Similar symbolic acts occur in Iran during Chaharshanbe Suri, the pre-Nowruz fire-jumping festival, where 2024 celebrations evolved into defiance against regime restrictions on music and assembly. Thousands danced and leaped over bonfires in cities, chanting anti-government slogans and burning images of Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei, despite security crackdowns that resulted in clashes and deaths in some areas.^[195]^[196] Behavioral studies on symbolic destruction suggest it can facilitate emotional release akin to catharsis, though evidence is mixed, with some research indicating short-term venting without sustained aggression reduction, while others note its role in non-instrumental emotional processing.^[197]^[198] Debates over effigy burning pit free expression against risks of hate incitement, yet empirical data on protests show escalations to physical violence remain rare, with nearly all U.S. events in 2023—analogous in symbolic intent—free from such outcomes absent external triggers like aggressive policing.^[199] In these cases, the act channels dissent symbolically, rarely spilling into broader conflict when contained to ritual forms.^[200]

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Why do Czechs burn witches on the last day of April? - Kafkadesk
Apr 27, 2018 · Burning witches was therefore a cathartic act meant to cast away and ward off these evil spirits. To cleanse the air, so to speak. https:// ...
[83]
The Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe: Some Comments from a ...
Jan 13, 2025 · I have mentioned four themes—the role of religion in the fall of Eastern European Communism, the short-lived post-Communist religious revival in ...
[84]
Immigrants Brought Us Halloween (and Many Other Great Traditions)
Oct 30, 2019 · The Celtic New Year was also celebrated from October 31st to November 1st, and was a day for lighting bonfires and singing chants to ward off ...
[85]
These Halloween traditions all have Irish origins - Irish Central
Oct 1, 2024 · The Celts believed that on the eve of Halloween, dead spirits would visit the mortal world. They lit bonfires to keep evil spirits away and ...Halloween Originated In... · Jack-O-Lanterns · Colcannon<|separator|>
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Christmas Eve Bonfires on the Levee: A Louisiana Tradition
Experience Louisiana's iconic Christmas Eve levee bonfires. Celebrate holiday cheer and tradition while making unforgettable memories under the stars.Missing: evolution | Show results with:evolution
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Christmas Bonfires In South Louisiana: Tradition And Innovation
After dark on Christmas Eve, huge bonfires blaze along the levees of the river in the parishes of St. James, St. John the Baptist, and Ascension.
[88]
Indigenous Fire Practices Shape our Land - National Park Service
Mar 18, 2024 · “Cultural burning” refers to the Indigenous practice of “the intentional lighting of smaller, controlled fires to provide a desired cultural ...
[89]
Tribal and Indigenous Fire Tradition | US Forest Service
Nov 16, 2021 · Cultural burns are lower intensity-controlled fires much like the prescribed burns implemented by land managers today. The major difference ...
[90]
Open Fire Regulations in the U.S.A. (by State) - We Love Fire®
Check if burning is allowed · If it's windy, do not have a fire · Keep a 10 feet clearance around and above your fire site · Use a fire pit or approved outdoor ...
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Fire pit safety: Enjoying the outdoor ambiance responsibly
Jul 26, 2024 · 307.4.2 Recreational fires: Recreational fires shall not be conducted within 25 feet (7620 mm) of a structure or combustible material.Missing: bonfire America
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Chaharshanbe Suri 2025: Meaning, Traditions, Food, + History
Mar 18, 2025 · This Persian fire festival marks an exciting celebration of ancient traditions and includes activities like jumping over bonfires to symbolize purification and ...
[93]
Why Do Iranians Celebrate Chaharshanbe Suri? - OrientTrips
Rating 5.0 (19) Mar 17, 2025 · Chaharshanbe Suri, rooted in Zoroastrian beliefs, celebrates renewal and purification. Jumping over fire symbolizes shedding illness and ...
[94]
Chaharshanbe Suri: Experiencing Iran's Fiery Festival - Surfiran
Rating 5.0 (184) During this celebration, participants engage in the traditional act of leaping over bonfires, a gesture embodying purification and renewal. This festival is not ...
[95]
What to Know About Holi, India's Most Colorful Tradition
Mar 25, 2024 · People gather around the flames to sing, dance and pray for an evening ritual called Holika Dahan, which re-enacts the demise of a Hindu ...
[96]
Holika Dahan: The True Story of Faith, Fire and Victory
Mar 12, 2025 · The festival will be celebrated on March 13, 2025, and marks the beginning of the colorful spring festival of Holi. The Ancient Story of Holika ...
[97]
Experience Holi In Nepal | Festival Of Colors - Life Himalaya Trekking
May 23, 2025 · It begins with a special ceremony called Holika Dahan, where fire is lit to signify that good always triumphs over evil. This tradition of the ...
[98]
Why Do We Light Bonfires on Lag BaOmer? - Chabad.org
Bonfires on Lag BaOmer relate to Rabbi Shimon's light, the Torah's light, and to light up the darkness of exile, mirroring the sunlight.
[99]
What Is Lag Ba'omer? - My Jewish Learning
Lag Ba'omer is a minor holiday on the 33rd day of the Omer, a break from semi-mourning, known for weddings, bonfires, and haircuts. It's a happy day where a ...
[100]
Why do we observe Lag BaOmer with bonfires? - Reform Judaism
It is therefore likely that the bonfires of today commemorate the bonfires kindled almost 2,000 years ago in celebration of successful Jewish resistance to ...Missing: tradition | Show results with:tradition
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Kurdish Newroz
On the eve of Newroz, in southern and eastern Kurdistan, bonfires are lit. These fires symbolize the passing of the dark season, winter, and the arrival of ...
[102]
Newroz: Kurds in Iraq and Syria celebrate the festival of spring
Mar 21, 2025 · Newroz, the Farsi-language word for “new year,” is an ancient Persian festival that is celebrated in countries including Iraq, Syria, Turkey and Iran.
[103]
Kurds blend mythology, modernity during Newroz celebrations
Mar 20, 2023 · The meaning of Newroz varies between cultures, but generally celebrated by lighting bonfires. In Zoroastrianism, the fires serve to scare away ...
[104]
10 Famous Japanese Fire Festivals | Blog
Jan 6, 2023 · 10 Famous Japanese Fire Festivals · Oniyo Fire Festival · Dōsojin Fire Festival · Wakakusa Yamayaki · Otō Matsuri Fire Festival · Nachi Fire Festival.
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Gozan Okuribi（bonfires） | Kyoto Travel
Aug 4, 2025 · Gozan Okuribi (bonfire) held on the evening of August 16 is one of Kyoto's symbolic religious ceremonies in summer.
[106]
Dondo-yaki/Onbe-yaki: Japanese New Year Bonfires in Yokosuka
Jan 10, 2024 · The purpose of Onbe-yaki and Dondo-yaki is to celebrate the New Year and symbolically bid farewell to the Toshigami (New Year's deity) by burning various items ...
[107]
Buergbrennen - let's burn winter together - Luxembourg.lu
Aug 6, 2024 · Buergbrennen is a tradition where torches are lit on the first Sunday after Carnival to chase away winter, often with a bonfire, and symbolizes ...Missing: Burgsonndeg | Show results with:Burgsonndeg
[108]
How Luxembourg ushers in spring with Buergbrennen
Mar 2, 2025 · Not just a bonfire to banish winter blues, Buergbrennen is a Luxembourgish tradition that invites you to welcome spring with your neighbours.Missing: Burgsonndeg | Show results with:Burgsonndeg
[109]
Buergbrennen and the burning away of winter - RTL Today
Mar 7, 2025 · The Buergbrennen bonfires are an age-old pagan tradition later incorporated into the Roman Catholic calendar. The fires represent rebirth, mark ...Missing: Burgsonndeg | Show results with:Burgsonndeg
[110]
Le Feu de la Saint-Jean - Are We In France Yet?
Jun 16, 2019 · Le Feu de la Saint-Jean is a summer celebration with bonfires and fireworks, linked to pagan sun cult and St. John's feast day, with a bonfire ...Missing: rural traditions
[111]
What Are the Bonfires of Saint John and Where Are They Celebrated?
May 22, 2025 · Latin America: In Argentina, Chile, Venezuela, and other countries, the festival preserves its essence with bonfires and fire-and-water rituals.
[112]
Noche de San Juan: Tradition, Magic and Fire - Let's Speak Spanish
Noche de San Juan: Tradition, Magic and Fire · Local festivity in San Pedro Manrique, Soria, which consists of walking barefoot over a “carpet” of hot embers.
[113]
The sacred fire of the Bapedi of the Transvaal
Without wanting to belittle the importance of the pastoral fire, I am convinced that there is every reason for fire worship among the hunting tribes.
[114]
[PDF] African Fire Cultures, Cattle Ranching, and Colonial Landscape ...
The study shows that ranchers in the Neotropics incorporated African fire cultures, and that the timing of burning shifted from early to late dry season.Missing: bonfire excluding<|separator|>
[115]
Fang Fire Beliefs, Customs, and Rituals - African Spiritualities
Jan 15, 2021 · This piece focuses on the beliefs, customs, and rituals, of fire as it expressed and lived by the Fang people of Western Africa.Missing: excluding | Show results with:excluding
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Exploring Yasawa Islands' Beach Bonfire Traditions
The beach bonfire experience in the Yasawa Islands is deeply rooted in local traditions, where it serves as a communal gathering point for storytelling, music, ...
[117]
The Art Of Fire – Dancing With The Forest Spirits In Papua New ...
Naturalist and wilderness guide Dan Hume travels to the north-east coast of Papua New Guinea in search of ancient fire-making techniques and rituals.
[118]
Campfires, explained - Vox
Jul 20, 2016 · A science-backed history and guide to the ancient practice of building a campfire, from its importance for human evolution to the chemistry of how it burns.<|separator|>
[119]
[PDF] The science of wood combustion
These burn in a flame with only about 70 ~o combustion efficiency in free-burning fires. Combustion efficiency can be increased by increase in turbulent.<|control11|><|separator|>
[120]
The Science of Combustion - Bart Fireside
Dec 30, 2013 · The goal, as far as combustion in concerned, is to retrieve energy from the burning of fuels in the most efficient way possible. To maximize the ...
[121]
How to Build a Better Campfire
Aug 17, 2023 · Everything you need to know about your fire-making technique, including when you should use the tepee method versus a log cabin stack.
[122]
The 6 Fire Lays Every Man Should Know | The Art of Manliness
Oct 21, 2021 · Build your log cabin until it's the same height as your teepee, more or less. Light the teepee on fire. Parallel/Long Fire Lay. The structure ...
[123]
Campfire Construction - How to Build a Fire - Primitive Ways
The log cabin configuration is a classic structure and very picturesque. It allows air flow and elevates kindling above the initial flames of the tinder placed ...Missing: bonfire | Show results with:bonfire
[124]
How to Build a Campfire | The Ultimate Guide | KOA Camping Blog
place two pieces of wood parallel on the bottom, then stack two on top, perpendicular.
[125]
How to Use Math to Build the Perfect Bonfire - Popular Mechanics
Sep 13, 2022 · To build a good bonfire, you should stack your wood structure just as high as it is wide, like a pyramid. This approach was first outlined ...
[126]
Finding The Best Bonfire Wood: 5 Important Things to Look For
Nov 13, 2024 · To reduce smoke, use kiln-dried hardwood, which has lower moisture content and burns more cleanly. Also, avoid using green or damp wood, and ...
[127]
https://www.chimneyspecialistsinc.com/blog/woods-to-burn-in-fireplace/
[128]
Best & Worst Woods to Burn in Your Fireplace - Chimney Specialists
Hardwoods like oak, maple, and cherry are best for efficient fires. Avoid softwoods, green, wet, drift, or treated woods. Seasoned wood is also important.Seasoned Wood · Hardwoods Vs Softwoods · Other Woods To Avoid
[129]
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[130]
How to stack, pile and burn brush | Friends of the Mississippi River
When you are ready to light the pile, ignite from the side where the wind is hitting the pile. This way the wind will carry the fire further into the stack and ...Missing: bonfire base
[131]
Eskenazi Health Cautions Residents Against Using Accelerants in ...
Nov 6, 2014 · The use of accelerants can increase the risks associated with fire, leading to rapid spread and possible combustion. Thousands of people are ...Missing: matches | Show results with:matches
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Teen Bonfires Can Cause Serious Injuries, Loyola Medicine Burn ...
Teen Bonfires Can Cause Serious Injuries Warns Loyola Medicine Burn Surgeon · Check the weather. · Make a fire pit and clear all brush from the area. · Keep a ...
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Upstate Burn Center issues warning on accelerants use to start ...
Oct 15, 2021 · The burns suffered by the use of accelerants can be extremely dangerous. “Most of these burns can be very large and most often require surgery, ...Missing: matches safety
[134]
Agricultural Burning
ire has been used as a tool in agriculture from earliest times. Man has used fire to clear land, remove weeds, dispose of waste, and control disease.Missing: historical bonfires
[135]
Why Do Farmers Burn? - Agriculture - Manitoba Government
Burning is one way to dispose of the straw left after harvest so fields can be made ready for seeding the following spring.Missing: cons | Show results with:cons
[136]
[PDF] Short and Long Term Impacts of Burning Crop Residue
For several decades farmers have burned stubble, CRP lands and rangelands as an inexpensive and effective way of controlling weeds, insects, diseases and excess ...Missing: agriculture | Show results with:agriculture
[137]
Residue Burning in Field Crops - Arkansas Row Crops Blog
Crop residue burning is an inexpensive and effective method to remove excessive residue to facilitate timely planting and to control pests and weeds.Missing: bonfires | Show results with:bonfires
[138]
Stubble Burning and Potential Nutrient Losses
Feb 12, 2021 · When cereal stubble is burnt, 80% of its nitrogen and sulfur and 40% of its phosphorus and potassium can be lost in gaseous forms to the atmosphere.Missing: studies | Show results with:studies
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[PDF] Harvest to haze: Unraveling the impact of stubble burning
Aug 21, 2025 · Nutrient Loss. Burning one tonne of straw leads to significant loss of essential nutrients—5.5 kg Nitrogen, 2.3 kg Phosphorus, 25 kg Potassium, ...
[140]
Research shows burning fields may negatively impact soil health ...
Sep 13, 2022 · New research now shows that soil quality may be negatively impacted by row crop field burning. And, it may actually cost farmers more to burn than was ...Missing: bonfires pros cons
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(PDF) Composting Processes for Agricultural Waste Management
Mar 1, 2023 · This review investigates improved AWM via various conventional and emerging composting processes and stages: composting, underlying mechanisms, and factors ...
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Life-Cycle Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Human Health Trade ...
Jul 6, 2020 · (6) Composting results in the lowest GHG footprint, totaling −41 kg CO2e per tonne of organic waste. A large GHG sequestration credit and a more ...
[143]
Farmer perspectives on crop residue burning and sociotechnical ...
Though burning represents a low input, cost-effective strategy of crop residue management (CRM), it produces harmful air pollution, and it releases greenhouse ...Missing: bonfires pros cons
[144]
[PDF] An overview of crop residue management challenges, opportunities ...
Proper agricultural residue management can benefit farmers and the environ- ment in various ways, including enhancing soil health, lowering greenhouse gas ...Missing: bonfires | Show results with:bonfires
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Impact of Crop Residue Burning on Soil Properties, Microbial Activity ...
Aug 7, 2025 · The effects of residue burning on soil health are closely linked to soil texture, which plays a crucial role in regulating carbon storage, ...<|separator|>
[146]
Open Burning - NYSDEC
Open burning is the single greatest cause of wildfires in NYS. Since the spring burn ban was implemented in 2009, the number of wildfires has decreased by ...What Can I Burn? · Burning on Agricultural Lands · Burning Trash is Against the Law
[147]
DEC Reminds New Yorkers: Statewide Residential Brush Burning ...
Mar 14, 2025 · Open burning of debris is the single-largest cause of spring wildfires in New York State.
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Nov 17, 2020 · Two hundred-eighty nine (289) were pediatric admissions out of which 66 (22.8%) were pediatric admissions associated with recreational fires.Missing: rates | Show results with:rates
[149]
Burn Permits | Front Range Fire Rescue
The ground surrounding the burn pile shall be scraped to mineral earth (clean dirt) to a distance of at least 10 feet in all directions. A minimum distance ...
[150]
10 Essential Outdoor Fire Pit Safety Rules - HGTV
May 8, 2025 · Place fire pits 10 feet from structures, avoid windy conditions, keep kids/pets 3 feet away, and never leave the fire unattended.
[151]
Safe Burning Tips - Campfire Permits
It is unsafe to have a campfire during high winds, no fire is allowed when wind speed is greater than 15mph. Use common sense before it becomes unsafe. Sudden ...
[152]
Backyard recreational fires | US EPA
May 27, 2025 · Increase your enjoyment of outdoor fires by knowing you're doing all you can to burn cleanly, safely, and responsibly for your family, neighbors and community.
[153]
[PDF] Open Burning - EPA
Estimating emissions from open burning of household waste in County A: ... PM2.5 emissions. = 34.8 lb PM2.5/ton waste actually burned * 1.68 ton/day.
[154]
[PDF] Recreational Fire Pit Emissions Testing - EPA
Sep 28, 2023 · Testing examines if "low-smoke" fire pits have lower PM2.5 emissions, and how firewood moisture affects emissions. "Low-smoke" fire pits have ...
[155]
[PDF] USDA FOREST SERVICE RECREATIONAL FIRE PIT EMISSIONS ...
Mar 25, 2020 · This report provides. PM2.5 emission rates and emission factors for each fire pit based on emissions measured during burn-cycles designed to ...
[156]
Bonfire night led to a dramatic spike in air pollution - Air Quality News
On bonfire night daily average particulate matter (PM2.5) levels increased in every major city in England. London saw the biggest increase in air pollution.
[157]
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Sep 29, 2022 · We find that the PM 2.5 / CO ratio in urban areas is an excellent indicator of smoke and should prove to be useful to identify biomass burning influence.
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Best Management Practices for Wood Ash as Agricultural Soil ...
Wood ash has a liming effect of between 8 and 90 percent of the total neutralizing power of lime, and can increase plant growth up to 45 percent over ...
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Jul 14, 2021 · The application of wood ash and N fertilizer resulted in significant changes to soil chemical properties in all soils, and the magnitude of ...
[160]
Are fireplace ashes good for my soil? - OSU Extension Service
Too much ash can increase the soil pH to levels that interfere with plant growth. Repeated, heavy applications to the same spot (as if you used one corner of ...Missing: bonfire | Show results with:bonfire
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Aug 7, 2016 · Fine inhalable PM (PM2.5) in volcanic ash, as distinct from typical urban ambient PM2.5, usually makes up only a small proportion of the PM mass ...
[162]
Wood ash: using in the garden - RHS
It can be a natural source of potassium and trace elements. It also has a liming effect, so can help to remedy excessively acidic soils.
[163]
Wildfire and prescribed burning impacts on air quality in the United ...
This chemical complexity makes wildfire smoke very different from typical industrial pollution. A key challenge for understanding fire impacts on air quality is ...Missing: bonfire | Show results with:bonfire
[164]
Natural Sources of Air Pollution - Clarity Movement Co.
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Open Burning Campfires Bonfires Fire Pits Chimineas - CT.gov
Mar 4, 2020 · You should not burn wood pallets, construction debris, painted wood, stained/treated wood, or garbage in a campfire/bonfire, fire pit, chiminea ...
[166]
Don't burn a hole in your pocket with a fine this Bonfire Night - GOV.UK
Oct 31, 2024 · Burning household waste can cause pollution, harm people, wildlife and the environment and could lead to a fine of up to £50000.<|separator|>
[167]
Ambient Air Quality Directives - EUR-Lex - European Union
Stricter air quality standards under this proposal will bring co-benefits for climate in the form of reduced greenhouse gas emissions, notably CO2 emissions, ...
[168]
Bush Fire Danger Period and Fire Permits - NSW Rural Fire Service
A Fire Permit is required for burning activities during the Bush Fire Danger Period in Rural Fire districts and at all times in Fire and Rescue districts ...
[169]
Total Fire Ban rules - NSW Rural Fire Service
During a Total Fire Ban you cannot light, maintain or use a fire in the open, or to carry out any activity in the open that causes, or is likely to cause, a ...
[170]
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Aug 24, 2020 · Native American tribes are restoring traditional burning in California, which could help the state reduce the risk of extreme wildfires.Missing: regulations exemptions
[171]
The Bonfire Tradition - Benvarden Temperance True Blues LOL 1001
Bonfires were lit across Ulster in order to celebrate. The Night before the Battle of the Boyne (30th June 1690 / 11th July 1690). In popular culture, the ...Missing: Eleventh pyres
[172]
Eleventh night bonfires in Northern Ireland - what are they?
Jun 29, 2023 · It's claimed that upon his arrival in Carrickfergus, Co Antrim, in 1690, ahead of the infamous Battle of the Boyne, bonfires were lit across ...Missing: origins | Show results with:origins<|separator|>
[173]
Northern Ireland Secretary of State condemns effigy burning during ...
Jul 13, 2024 · Northern Ireland Secretary of State and Labour Party MP Hilary Benn on Friday condemned the burning of effigies and sectarian symbols in Eleventh Night ...Missing: 2023 controversies
[174]
Northern Ireland police investigate burning of lifesize models of ...
Jul 11, 2025 · Burning of boat containing dark-skinned mannequins in lifejackets in Moygashel draws widespread condemnation.Missing: Eleventh | Show results with:Eleventh
[175]
Muir 'very disappointed' bonfire was lit despite warnings over asbestos
Jul 12, 2025 · There was also criticism of the placing of Irish flags and sectarian slogans on a number of bonfires, including one in the Highfield area of ...<|separator|>
[176]
The dark side of the Reformation: John Calvin and the burning of ...
Oct 27, 2017 · The dark side of the Reformation: John Calvin and the burning of heretics ... On this day in 1553, the condemned heretic Michael Servetus was ...
[177]
Why did Mary I reintroduce the burning of heretics, as opposed to ...
Oct 17, 2015 · Burning of heretics starts in the early 11th century as persecution of heresy ... Was there ever a common method of execution by burning in Europe ...When and why did the burning of heretics fall out of practice? - RedditDaily reminder that the protestants mainly did witch hunts ... - RedditMore results from www.reddit.comMissing: bonfires | Show results with:bonfires
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Effigy of David Cameron and pig's head to burn at Lewes Bonfire ...
Nov 5, 2015 · Other sculptures previously sent up in flames include Muammar Gaddafi, Vladimir Putin, and Kim Jong-un.
[179]
Notable effigies from Lewes's Bonfire Nights - BBC News
Nov 6, 2014 · The Lewes event is famously politically incorrect. In 2012 Angela Merkel was shown making a Hitler salute and crushing the Parthenon. Merkel had ...
[180]
Almost 60 offences linked to Twelfth of July bonfires, police stats reveal
Aug 3, 2022 · SDLP councillor Paul Doherty was speaking after police statistics revealed 57 offences linked to bonfires were reported over the July 11 and 12 ...
[181]
Twelfth of July parades take place after night of sporadic violence
Jul 12, 2018 · While the majority of Eleventh Night fires in Northern Ireland pass off without incident each year, in recent times there have been community ...
[182]
Vanity of the Bonfires? Eleventh Night Bonfires and Loyalist ...
Jun 9, 2022 · This article examines this phenomenon in Northern Ireland, investigating how Loyalists utilize Eleventh Night bonfires.
[183]
The history of Lewes Bonfire Night | DiscoverBritain.com
Sep 23, 2025 · We delve into the fiery history of Britain's biggest Bonfire Night celebration, which takes place in the unassuming Sussex town of Lewes.Missing: controversies 2020s
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Bonfire Night: Why is Guy Fawkes a big deal in Sussex? - BBC
Nov 4, 2019 · The event is the result of the combined work of seven bonfire societies, most of which date back to the 19th Century. Each society is located in ...Missing: preservation | Show results with:preservation
[185]
Lewes bonfire festival sparks anger with fresh blackface controversy
Nov 2, 2018 · One of Britain's biggest bonfire festivals has been plunged into a fresh racism row after a child was blacked up for a costume contest before a parade through ...
[186]
British bonfire celebration once again mired in blackface controversy
Nov 2, 2018 · A fresh racism row has erupted around one of the biggest bonfire festivals in Britain after a child appeared in blackface.
[187]
Lewes Bonfire: Crowds line streets as processions begin - BBC
Nov 5, 2024 · Crowds of people lined the streets of Lewes as the town's bonfire societies marched with burning torches for Guy Fawkes Night.
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Cultural resilience: The production of rural community heritage ...
This paper will highlight how the lens of community heritage activities and the 'bottom-up' role of volunteer labour can act as a catalyst for building more ...
[189]
Social identity and place-based dynamics in community resilience ...
These social-cultural factors can be shaped proactively and impact any community resilience process, regardless of people's specific adaptive capacities.Community Resilience... · Disaster Frames In... · Discussion And Conclusion<|separator|>
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Resilience and adaptive capacities of societies: social and cultural ...
This paper aims to analyze the concept of resilience as a social and cultural strategy of a community or group to cope with various social problems.
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Lewes Bonfire Night parade had effigies of Nigel Farage and Paula ...
Nov 6, 2024 · Guy Fawkes Night bonfire in Lewes drew an estimated ... effigies of some of the UK's recently controversial figures including Nigel Farage.
[192]
'Effigy' bonfire being investigated as hate incident is lit - BBC
Jul 10, 2025 · An effigy of refugees in a boat on top of a bonfire in County Tyrone is described as inhuman by the leader of the Church of Ireland.
[193]
Migrant boat model on Tyrone bonfire 'vile, dehumanising' - RTE
Jul 9, 2025 · Amnesty International's Northern Ireland director has described a loyalist bonfire in Co Tyrone which contains models of migrants in a boat ...
[194]
Effigies of refugees set alight on bonfire condemned in Northern ...
Jul 11, 2025 · MOYGASHEL, Northern Ireland, July 10 (Reuters) - A model of refugees in a boat, placed on a bonfire in a pro-British town near Belfast, ...
[195]
A model of a small boat with several figures depicting migrants...
Jul 10, 2025 · ... bonfire on July 10, 2025 in Moygashel, United Kingdom. Loyalists ... Northern Ireland Loyalists Construct Bonfire Effigy Depicting A Migrant ...
[196]
Dancing and Jumping Over Fire, Iranians Use Holiday to Defy Rules
Mar 13, 2024 · Across Iran, thousands of men and women packed the streets as they danced wildly to music and jumped joyfully over large bonfires, according to ...
[197]
Chaharshanbe Suri Celebrations in Iran Turn Deadly, Spark Protests
Mar 19, 2025 · Demonstrators set fire to images of Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei and clashed with security forces, chanting slogans against the government.
[198]
Destruction, Catharsis, and Emotional Release in Human-Robot ...
According to psychological theory, the act of destruction for catharsis through objects is defined as an arational emotional action [28]. Some are instrumental— ...
[199]
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2023 Trends in U.S. Protest Activity - Counting Crowds
Jan 5, 2024 · ... escalating risks of political violence in 2024, our data show that nearly all U.S. protest events in 2023 remained free from physical violence.
[201]
Demonstrations and Political Violence in America: New Data for ...
Sep 3, 2020 · Demonstrations and Political Violence in America: New Data for Summer 2020 ... violent escalation (New York Times, 31 May 2020). Militarized ...