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Radio noise

Radio noise, also known as radiofrequency (RF) noise, encompasses unwanted random fluctuations and disturbances in the electromagnetic spectrum that interfere with the detection and transmission of desired radio signals. These disturbances arise from both natural and anthropogenic sources, manifesting as stochastic variations in voltage, current, or power that degrade signal quality and limit system performance in applications ranging from telecommunications to radio astronomy. Quantified typically in terms of noise power spectral density or equivalent noise temperature, radio noise is a fundamental constraint governed by physical laws such as the Nyquist theorem, where thermal noise power per unit bandwidth is given by p = kT W/Hz, with k as Boltzmann's constant and T as temperature in kelvins.^[1]^[2]^[3] The primary sources of radio noise include thermal agitation of electrons in conductors and antennas, producing broadband white noise indistinguishable from blackbody radiation at the same temperature. Atmospheric noise, dominant at frequencies below 20 MHz, originates from lightning discharges and other ionospheric disturbances, while cosmic noise from galactic synchrotron radiation, the 2.725 K cosmic microwave background, and extragalactic sources prevails in the 20–1000 MHz range. Man-made noise, often impulsive and broadband, stems from unintentional emissions by electrical devices such as power lines, automotive ignition systems, and consumer electronics, with its intensity varying by location—highest in urban business districts and decreasing in rural areas.^[1]^[2]^[4]^[3] Classified by origin and characteristics, radio noise types include thermal noise (frequency-independent, Gaussian), atmospheric noise (impulsive, seasonally variable), galactic or cosmic noise (structured, frequency-dependent), and anthropogenic interference often termed radio frequency interference (RFI), which can be narrowband or broadband and requires specific mitigation unlike the integrable thermal noise. In radio systems, the aggregate noise floor—comprising these contributions plus internal receiver noise—determines the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), directly impacting channel capacity via Shannon's theorem and necessitating techniques like filtering, shielding, and error correction to maintain reliable operation. Recent advancements in spectrum management highlight the growing challenge of RFI from proliferating wireless devices, underscoring the need for international standards to protect passive radio services.^[1]^[5]^[3]

Fundamentals of Radio Noise

Definition and Characteristics

Radio noise refers to unwanted random fluctuations in voltage or current within radio frequency systems that degrade the quality of transmitted or received signals, arising from both natural and artificial processes. These disturbances manifest as time-varying electromagnetic phenomena in the radio-frequency range that do not convey intended information and superimpose on desired signals. In radio communications, such noise is typically modeled as additive, meaning it linearly combines with the signal without altering its form, though it reduces overall detectability.^[6] Thermal noise, a primary component of radio noise, exhibits Gaussian statistical properties, characterized by a probability distribution with zero mean and a variance that scales with the system's bandwidth and temperature. While thermal noise amplitudes follow a normal distribution, making it suitable for linear analysis in communication systems, other radio noise types such as atmospheric or man-made may follow non-Gaussian distributions.^[7] Most thermal noise processes approximate white noise, exhibiting a flat power spectral density across frequencies up to a certain cutoff, beyond which the spectrum may roll off.^[6] Key characteristics of radio noise include its wideband or narrowband extent relative to the signal bandwidth; wideband noise spans a broad frequency range comparable to or exceeding the signal, while narrowband noise is confined to a limited spectrum, such as hum from power lines.^[8] Noise power is quantified in watts (W), commonly expressed in logarithmic scales like dBm (decibels relative to 1 milliwatt) or dBW (decibels relative to 1 watt) for total power, whereas noise spectral density is measured in W/Hz to indicate power per unit frequency.^[9] Early recognition of radio noise traces to the 1920s, when J.B. Johnson identified thermal noise in conductors through experimental measurements at Bell Laboratories. This was followed by Harry Nyquist's theoretical derivation of the noise formula in 1928.^[10]^[11] The broader theoretical framework for understanding noise in communication systems emerged in the 1940s, particularly through Claude Shannon's information theory, which formalized limits on reliable transmission amid noise.^[12] Radio noise differs from interference in that noise comprises inherently random and unavoidable fluctuations, whereas interference often stems from deterministic or semi-random emissions of specific, identifiable sources like nearby transmitters.^[13] This distinction is crucial, as noise sets a fundamental limit on system performance, while interference may be mitigated through techniques like filtering.^[3]

Noise Figure and Equivalent Noise Temperature

The noise figure (NF) quantifies the degradation in signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) introduced by a radio frequency (RF) device or system, expressed in decibels (dB) as the ratio of the input SNR to the output SNR when the input noise is at a standard temperature of 290 K.^[14]^[15] Formally, the noise factor F (the linear form of NF) is defined as F = \frac{\text{SNR}_\text{in}}{\text{SNR}_\text{out}}, and the noise figure is \text{NF} = 10 \log_{10} F. This metric assumes the input noise is thermal noise from a source at the reference temperature T_0 = 290 K, providing a standardized way to compare device performance independent of specific operating conditions.^[16] In multi-stage radio systems, such as receivers with amplifiers and mixers, the overall noise figure is calculated using the Friis formula, which accounts for the gain of preceding stages to determine the cumulative noise contribution.^[17] The total noise factor F_T for cascaded stages is given by

F_T = F_1 + \frac{F_2 - 1}{G_1} + \frac{F_3 - 1}{G_1 G_2} + \cdots + \frac{F_n - 1}{G_1 G_2 \cdots G_{n-1}},

where F_i is the noise factor of the i-th stage and G_i is the available power gain of the i-th stage (all in linear units).^[18] This formula, derived by H. T. Friis in 1944, emphasizes that the first stage's noise figure dominates the total, as subsequent stages' noise is attenuated by prior gains, making low-noise amplifiers critical at the front end.^[19] An alternative representation is the equivalent noise temperature T_e, which models the excess noise added by the device as if it were thermal noise from a resistor at temperature T_e.^[16] Specifically, T_e = T_0 (F - 1), where T_0 = 290 K is the standard reference temperature, linking noise figure directly to an effective temperature that produces the same noise power as the device's internal sources.^[20] This concept simplifies analysis in systems where physical temperatures vary, such as cryogenic receivers, by referring all noise to an equivalent input temperature.^[21] Noise bandwidth, or equivalent noise bandwidth B_n, defines the effective frequency range over which noise power is integrated, often matching the signal bandwidth in optimally designed filters like matched filters to maximize SNR.^[22] For a receiver, the total output noise power is N_o = k T_0 B_n (F), where k is Boltzmann's constant, highlighting how B_n scales the noise floor and influences system sensitivity.^[23] A common technique for measuring noise figure and T_e is the Y-factor method, which uses a calibrated noise source switched between "hot" (T_h) and "cold" (T_c) temperatures to generate two output power levels from the device under test (DUT). In a typical setup, the noise source (e.g., a diode-based unit) connects to the DUT input, with output power measured via a spectrum analyzer or power meter; the Y-factor is the ratio Y = \frac{P_h}{P_c} = \frac{T_h + T_e}{T_c + T_e}, from which T_e = \frac{T_h - Y T_c}{Y - 1} and subsequently F = 1 + \frac{T_e}{T_0} are solved.^[24]^[25] This ratio-based approach avoids absolute power calibration and is widely used for frequencies up to millimeter waves, though it requires corrections for mismatches and source ENR (excess noise ratio).^[26] In receiver design, T_e is pivotal for determining the minimum detectable signal (MDS), defined as the smallest input power yielding an output SNR of unity, given by \text{MDS} = k T_0 B_n F.^[27] Lower T_e enables detection of weaker signals, essential for applications like deep-space communication or radar, where system noise must be minimized to achieve required sensitivity without excessive power or bandwidth.^[28]^[29]

Effects on Radio Communications

Signal Degradation and Interference

Radio noise impairs signal reception and transmission by adding random fluctuations that mask weaker desired signals, leading to difficulties in accurate demodulation. In analog systems, this manifests as distortion in the recovered waveform, while in digital systems, it results in bit errors that corrupt data integrity. For instance, noise can obscure the intended modulation, making it challenging for receivers to distinguish the signal from background disturbances, particularly when the signal power approaches or falls below the noise floor.^[23] The impact of noise varies across modulation schemes. In amplitude modulation (AM), noise directly corrupts the signal amplitude, introducing audible distortions and reducing clarity. Frequency modulation (FM) is more resilient, as noise primarily affects phase rather than the constant envelope, allowing limiters to suppress amplitude variations; however, severe phase noise can still degrade performance. For digital schemes like quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM), noise causes spreading of the constellation points, increasing symbol error rates by blurring decision boundaries. Signal-to-noise ratio provides a key measure of this degradation, with lower values correlating to higher error susceptibility.^[30]^[31] In mobile radio environments, noise compounds with multipath fading—caused by signal reflections off obstacles—to create rapid signal variations, severely impacting audio quality in moving vehicles.^[32] Historically, such degradation has had significant consequences; during World War II, a geomagnetic storm on 18–19 September 1941 caused widespread radio blackouts, disrupting short-wave communications, while visible auroras exposed an Allied convoy in the North Atlantic to German U-boat attack by illuminating the ships at night. To mitigate these effects, system designs incorporate diversity techniques, such as space or frequency diversity, which use multiple antennas or channels to select the strongest path, and error correction coding, which adds redundancy to recover data from noisy receptions. These approaches enhance reliability without relying on excessive power increases.^[33]^[34]

Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Performance Metrics

The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is defined as the ratio of the signal power P_s to the noise power P_n in a radio communication system, quantifying the relative strength of the desired signal against background noise.^[35] Often expressed in decibels for practical analysis, SNR is calculated as \mathrm{SNR_{dB}} = 10 \log_{10} (P_s / P_n), enabling logarithmic scaling that simplifies system design and performance evaluation.^[35] In digital radio systems, SNR relates closely to the energy per bit to noise power spectral density ratio, denoted E_b/N_0, which normalizes performance across varying bandwidths and data rates; specifically, E_b/N_0 = \mathrm{SNR} \times (W / R), where W is the channel bandwidth and R is the bit rate.^[36] This metric is particularly critical for assessing bit error rates (BER) in modulation schemes like binary phase-shift keying (BPSK), where the approximate BER is given by \mathrm{BER} \approx \frac{1}{2} \mathrm{erfc}(\sqrt{E_b/N_0}), with \mathrm{erfc} being the complementary error function that captures the tail probability of Gaussian noise effects.^[37] Furthermore, SNR fundamentally limits channel capacity in noise-limited environments, as described by the Shannon capacity formula C = W \log_2(1 + \mathrm{SNR}), representing the maximum achievable data rate in bits per second without error.^[12] The noise floor establishes the minimum SNR required for reliable communication, typically around 10 dB for analog voice services to ensure intelligible reception, while digital data links demand higher thresholds, often 20 dB or more, to maintain low error rates; receiver sensitivity is then derived as the minimum input signal power needed to achieve this SNR, factoring in antenna gain and bandwidth.^[38] In multi-user wireless scenarios, the signal-to-interference-plus-noise ratio (SINR) extends SNR by incorporating interference power, defined as the desired signal power divided by the sum of interference and noise powers, providing a more comprehensive metric for capacity and error performance in interference-prone environments.^[39] For fading channels, outage probability quantifies reliability as P(\mathrm{SNR} < \gamma_{th}), the likelihood that instantaneous SNR falls below a threshold \gamma_{th} required for a target rate, enabling probabilistic assessments of link availability.^[40] The concept of SNR was formalized in 1948 through Claude Shannon's foundational work on information theory, which established its role in capacity limits, and gained practical application in radio systems during the 1950s, particularly in radar developments where it optimized detection amid clutter and thermal noise.^[12]^[41] Noise figure influences the effective SNR at the receiver input by quantifying the degradation introduced by the receiver chain itself.^[42]

Internal Noise Sources

Thermal Noise

Thermal noise, also known as Johnson-Nyquist noise, arises from the random thermal agitation of charge carriers, such as electrons, in conductive materials like resistors or transmission lines, due to their kinetic energy at finite temperatures.^[43] This fundamental noise source is present in all electrical components at thermal equilibrium and represents the irreducible limit of noise in passive networks.^[44] The phenomenon was first experimentally observed by J.B. Johnson, who measured voltage fluctuations across conductors proportional to temperature and resistance, as detailed in his 1928 paper.^[43] Harry Nyquist provided the theoretical foundation in the same year, deriving the noise characteristics using thermodynamic principles.^[45] The noise power delivered by a resistor to a matched load is given by the Nyquist formula: P_n = k T B, where k = 1.38 \times 10^{-23} J/K is Boltzmann's constant, T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin, and B is the bandwidth in Hz.^[45] This expression stems from the equipartition theorem of classical statistical mechanics, which assigns an average energy of kT (half kinetic and half potential) to each degree of freedom in the system, such as the normal modes of electromagnetic waves in a transmission line or resistor.^[44] Nyquist modeled the conductor as a network of such modes, equating the thermal fluctuation energy to kT per mode within the bandwidth, leading to the total noise power independent of the resistance value for available power calculations.^[46] The spectral power density of the open-circuit voltage noise across a resistor R is white (frequency-independent) and given by S_v(f) = 4 k T [R](/page/K) V²/Hz, valid up to frequencies in the terahertz range where classical assumptions hold.^[47] At higher frequencies, quantum mechanical corrections apply, modifying the formula to incorporate Planck's law: S_v(f) = 4 R \frac{h f}{e^{h f / k T} - 1}, where h is Planck's constant; however, for radio frequency bands below several GHz, the classical form suffices as h f \ll k T.^[48] The noise voltage scales linearly with the square root of temperature and bandwidth, making it a universal limit in receiver design. Thermal noise power is directly proportional to temperature, increasing linearly with T in the classical regime.^[45] For instance, at room temperature (approximately 290 K), the noise power spectral density corresponds to about -174 dBm/Hz in a 50 Ω system, setting the baseline sensitivity for radio receivers.^[49] In antenna systems, the effective noise temperature includes contributions from the physical temperature of the lossy components, often modeled using an equivalent noise temperature to characterize the overall system noise.^[50] These properties were pivotal in early vacuum tube amplifier designs, where thermal noise established fundamental limits on signal detectability.^[43]

Shot Noise and Flicker Noise

Shot noise arises from the random arrival of discrete charge carriers, such as electrons, across a potential barrier in active devices like diodes and transistors, following Poisson statistics due to the independent nature of carrier emission events.^[51] This fundamental noise mechanism is prominent in non-equilibrium conditions where carriers are injected, such as in p-n junction diodes under forward bias or in the base-emitter junction of bipolar transistors.^[52] The current noise spectral density for shot noise is given by

S_i(f) = 2 q I,

where q is the elementary charge ($1.602 \times 10^{-19} C), I is the average DC current, and this white noise spectrum is independent of frequency. The mean-square noise current over a bandwidth B is then \langle i_n^2 \rangle = 2 q I B. For the equivalent voltage noise across a resistance R, it becomes \langle v_n^2 \rangle = 2 q I R^2 B.^[53]^[54] In applications, shot noise dominates in low-current regimes, such as in photodiodes where it limits the detection sensitivity for weak optical signals, as the photocurrent follows Poisson-distributed photon arrivals. Full shot noise is also observed in vacuum tubes, where electrons are emitted discretely from the cathode.^[55]^[56] The term "shot noise" was coined by Walter Schottky in his 1918 paper on current fluctuations in vacuum tubes, establishing its statistical foundation.^[56] Flicker noise, also known as 1/f noise, originates from defects or surface traps in semiconductors that cause trapping and detrapping of charge carriers, leading to fluctuations in carrier mobility or number. This low-frequency phenomenon is prevalent in devices like MOSFETs and bipolar junction transistors, where oxide traps or interface states contribute to the noise.^[57]^[58] The power spectral density of flicker noise follows S(f) \propto 1/f^\alpha, with \alpha \approx 1, making it non-white and increasingly dominant at lower frequencies compared to thermal or shot noise. An empirical description is provided by Hooge's formula for resistance fluctuations in homogeneous semiconductors, where the relative noise power spectral density is S_R(f)/R^2 = \alpha_H / (f N), with \alpha_H the Hooge parameter (typically $10^{-3} to $10^{-6}) and N the total number of free carriers.^[59]^[60] Mitigation of flicker noise often employs chopper stabilization, which modulates the signal to higher frequencies where 1/f noise is reduced, then demodulates it, effectively shifting the noise spectrum. In RF amplifiers, shot noise typically limits sensitivity below 1 GHz, while flicker noise becomes critical at even lower frequencies, necessitating such techniques for high-performance receivers.^[61] Flicker noise was first observed in the 1920s in vacuum tubes and remains a key challenge in modern integrated circuits, affecting analog and mixed-signal designs.^[62]

External Noise Sources

Atmospheric Noise

Atmospheric noise in radio communications primarily arises from lightning discharges in thunderstorms, generating electromagnetic pulses known as sferics. These discharges produce impulsive radio signals that propagate globally, with the highest activity concentrated in tropical regions such as Africa, South America, and Southeast Asia, where thunderstorm frequency is greatest. The global distribution follows patterns of convective weather, with approximately 2,000 thunderstorms active worldwide at any time, each producing multiple discharges.^[63]^[64] These sferics exhibit impulsive characteristics, consisting of short-duration bursts with rapid rise times, spanning a wide bandwidth from a few kHz to several MHz. The noise is broadband and non-Gaussian, featuring high peak-to-average ratios and amplitude probability distributions that exceed 20 dB for 0.1% of the time in active conditions. Seasonal variations peak during summer months in the respective hemispheres, while diurnal patterns show maxima in the late afternoon to evening local time, driven by peak thunderstorm activity. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) models, evolving from CCIR Report 322 (1964) and updated in ITU-R P.372-17 (2024), quantify median noise levels in dB above 1 μV/m (F_a), with values ranging from 40-60 dBμV/m at 10 MHz in high-noise areas.^[63]^[65]^[66] Propagation of atmospheric noise occurs primarily through ground waves for shorter distances and sky waves via multiple reflections in the Earth-ionosphere waveguide for long-range transmission, enabling signals to travel thousands of kilometers. Ionospheric reflections enhance propagation at night when the D-layer absorption decreases, leading to noise peaks during nighttime hours. Fair weather conditions contribute minor broadband noise from corona discharges around pointed atmospheric features like trees or mountains, though this is typically 10-20 dB below thunderstorm levels. Historical ITU reports from the 1950s, based on global monitoring stations, established foundational data showing noise dominance in medium frequency (MF, 0.3-3 MHz) and high frequency (HF, 3-30 MHz) bands, where it can overwhelm signals by 30-50 dB, while effects diminish above VHF (30-300 MHz) due to reduced propagation efficiency.^[63]^[64]^[67] Measurements of atmospheric noise employ field strength meters and spectrum analyzers, often deployed in networks like those used for CCIR Report 322, which recorded data from over 50 stations worldwide. Tropical latitudes experience 20-30 dB higher median noise levels than polar regions, as illustrated in ITU world charts for 1-20 MHz. Another contributor is precipitation static (P-static), where charged particles like snow or rain induce electrostatic buildup on aircraft antennas, causing broadband interference up to 100 MHz during flight through convective weather.^[63]^[65]

Man-Made Interference

Man-made interference in radio communications arises primarily from unintentional and intentional emissions generated by human activities and devices. Unintentional sources include switched-mode power supplies in electronics, which produce broadband noise due to high-frequency switching; electric motors and fluorescent lighting, which generate impulsive noise from arcing contacts; and modern LED lighting systems, which emit conducted and radiated electromagnetic interference (EMI) particularly since the 2010s proliferation of low-cost drivers.^[68]^[69] Intentional sources encompass radio jammers designed to disrupt signals and spillover from radar systems, such as out-of-band emissions or sidelobe radiation that inadvertently occupy adjacent frequencies.^[70] These emissions can be broadband, spreading across wide frequency ranges like noise from power supplies, or narrowband, manifesting as discrete harmonics from digital clocks or transmitters.^[71] Characteristics of man-made interference often include impulsive waveforms from switching events or arcs, and harmonic distortions from periodic sources, leading to non-Gaussian noise distributions that degrade receiver performance more severely than thermal noise. Levels vary significantly by location, with urban areas exhibiting 10-40 dB higher noise floors than rural ones due to dense concentrations of electrical infrastructure.^[4] The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) classifies man-made noise into categories such as class A (narrowband impulsive, e.g., from ignition systems) and class B (broadband impulsive, e.g., from power lines), while the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) addresses it through emission standards for unintentional radiators. Historically, post-World War II electrification and industrialization markedly increased ambient noise levels through widespread adoption of appliances and power grids, compounding natural atmospheric noise in rural settings. The 1970s Citizens Band (CB) radio boom exacerbated interference, as explosive growth in users—reaching millions—led to overcrowding, illegal amplifiers, and complaints of disrupted emergency communications.^[72]^[73] The impact of man-made interference is profound, often blocking usable spectrum in Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) bands; for instance, microwave ovens emit broadband noise around 2.4 GHz, overlapping with Wi-Fi and Bluetooth operations and reducing effective throughput by up to 50% in dense environments. In aviation, ignition noise from piston engines has historically caused audio distortion in VHF communications, while LED-induced EMI since the 2010s has affected maritime radios on VHF bands. Regulations mitigate these issues through FCC Part 15, which limits radiated emissions from unintentional radiators to 100-500 μV/m at 3 meters depending on frequency and class (A for industrial, B for residential).^[74] The ITU provides global guidelines, and tools like the CRFS RFeye system enable real-time spectrum monitoring to detect and geolocate interferers.^[75] Mitigation strategies emphasize filtering and shielding: low-pass filters suppress high-frequency harmonics from power supplies, while conductive enclosures and gaskets reduce radiated emissions. In aviation, case studies from the 1950s onward demonstrate that shielded ignition harnesses and suppressors on spark plugs can attenuate noise by 30-60 dB, improving radio clarity in aircraft like the Piper Cub. For amateur radio operators, ferrite chokes on cables and balanced antennas have resolved EMI from home appliances in over 80% of reported cases, as documented in ARRL field reports. Globally, interference levels are higher in developing regions due to proliferation of unregulated, low-quality devices like counterfeit chargers and unshielded motors, often exceeding ITU-recommended limits by 20 dB in urban slums.^[76]^[4]

Cosmic Noise

Cosmic noise encompasses radio emissions from extraterrestrial sources, predominantly the Milky Way galaxy and the Sun, establishing the irreducible background level for radio astronomy and deep-space telecommunications. In 1932, Karl Jansky, working at Bell Laboratories, serendipitously detected this noise while investigating sources of static in shortwave communications; his meridian transit observations with a rotatable antenna revealed a recurring signal every 23 hours and 56 minutes—the sidereal day—indicating an origin aligned with the galactic center in Sagittarius, initially dubbed "star noise."^[77] This discovery laid the foundation for radio astronomy, highlighting how cosmic emissions could interfere with terrestrial radio systems.^[78] The principal sources of cosmic noise are galactic synchrotron radiation, generated by relativistic cosmic ray electrons accelerating in the interstellar magnetic fields of the Milky Way, and solar noise arising from thermal bremsstrahlung in the corona as well as non-thermal plasma emissions during solar flares.^[79]^[80] These emissions produce a featureless continuum spectrum, characterized by brightness temperature T_b—the temperature of a blackbody emitting the same radiance per unit frequency—which ranges from about 10 K in quiet galactic regions at 1 GHz to peaks of $10^6 K or higher during intense solar bursts; emissions are strongest along the galactic plane due to the concentration of cosmic rays and magnetic fields there.^[81]^[82] Frequency dependence follows a steep power law, with galactic noise intensifying at lower frequencies—for instance, T_b \approx 10^5 K at 10 MHz—due to the synchrotron spectrum's \nu^{-0.7} to \nu^{-1} scaling.^[81]^[83] Solar contributions vary markedly between quiet and active phases of the 11-year solar cycle, with the quiet Sun emitting at lower levels (e.g., $10^4 K at 10 GHz) during minima and surging during maxima due to enhanced coronal activity and flares.^[84]^[85] In radio observations, the effective antenna temperature T_a is the beam-averaged brightness temperature, computed as T_a = \frac{\int T_b P_n \, d\Omega}{\int P_n \, d\Omega}, where P_n is the normalized antenna beam pattern and the integrals are over solid angle; this quantifies how the distributed cosmic emission fills the telescope's field of view. Models like the Haslam 408 MHz all-sky map, derived from ground-based surveys, provide essential templates for estimating and subtracting the galactic synchrotron background in higher-frequency observations.^[86]^[87] This noise fundamentally limits system sensitivity, raising the noise floor in radio telescopes and degrading signal-to-noise ratios in satellite links; for example, solar bursts have intermittently overwhelmed Voyager spacecraft signals, necessitating operational adjustments during periods of high solar activity.^[88]^[89] Contemporary applications face amplified challenges from cosmic noise, particularly in searches for radio emissions from exoplanets, where faint, magnetosphere-induced signals (expected at <100 MHz) must contend with the pervasive galactic foreground, often exceeding detectable thresholds by orders of magnitude.^[90] During solar cycle 25, which began in 2019 and peaked in 2024, elevated solar radio emissions—exemplified by X-class flares producing broadband bursts—have further complicated low-frequency deep-space communications and astronomical surveys, underscoring the need for advanced mitigation techniques.^[91]^[92] In cold sky regions, such as high galactic latitudes, the noise approaches equivalence to thermal contributions from the 2.7 K cosmic microwave background, enabling precise measurements of faint sources.^[81]

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Jul 2, 2001 · The problems include environmental noise and RF signal reflections that give rise to multipath fading--variations in RF signal level due to ...
[35]
The Geomagnetic Blitz of September 1941 - Eos.org
Sep 15, 2016 · A massive geomagnetic storm disrupted electrical power, interrupted radio broadcasts, and illuminated the night sky in a World War II battle theater.
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RF Basics: Diversity Techniques - EE Times
Dec 21, 2007 · Frequency diversity to reduce the effects of time delay spread is achieved with frequency hopping or direct sequence spread-spectrum modulation, ...
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A mathematical theory of communication | Nokia Bell Labs Journals ...
A mathematical theory of communication ; Page(s): 379 - 423 ; Date of Publication: July 1948 ; ISSN Information: Print ISSN: 0005-8580 ; Persistent Link: https:// ...Missing: URL | Show results with:URL
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Will the Real Eb/N0 Please Stand Up - A Tutorial on the Evolution of ...
May 5, 2016 · Will the Real Eb/N0 Please Stand Up - A Tutorial on the Evolution of SNR Specifications in Receiving Systems. May 2002.
[39]
Derive BPSK BER – optimum receiver in AWGN channel
Jul 25, 2012 · Key focus: Derive BPSK BER (bit error rate) for optimum receiver in AWGN channel. Explained intuitively step by step.
[40]
Q A: What is SNR (signal to noise ratio) and what are recommended ...
Apr 3, 2024 · Normal recommendations include a minimum SNR of 20-30 dB for data WLANs and a minimum SNR of 25 dB for voice WLANs.
[41]
What is SINR (Signal to Interference & Noise Ratio)? ISCO ...
SINR (Signal to Interference & Noise Ratio) measures signal quality: the strength of the wanted signal compared to the unwanted interference and noise.
[42]
Outage Probability Analysis for eta-mu Fading Channels
Aug 10, 2025 · PDF | In this Letter we derive exact closed-form expressions for the outage probability (OP) in η-μ fading channels.
[43]
[PDF] The development of phased-array radar technology
Lincoln Laboratory started working on phased-array radar development projects around 1958 in the Spe- cial Radars group of the Radio Physics division. The.
[44]
Examining receiver noise figure | Rohde & Schwarz
RF system noise contributions define receiver capabilities and sensitivity. The noise figure measures how the critical components affect the signal.
[45]
Thermal Agitation of Electricity in Conductors | Phys. Rev.
Statistical fluctuation of electric charge exists in all conductors, producing random variation of potential between the ends of the conductor.
[46]
[PDF] Johnson Noise and Shot Noise - MIT
Nyquist showed in his landmark 1928 paper [1] that the problem of determining the amplitude of the noise was equivalent to summing the energy in the normal.
[47]
Thermal Agitation of Electric Charge in Conductors | Phys. Rev.
The electromotive force due to thermal agitation in conductors is calculated by means of principles in thermodynamics and statistical mechanics.
[48]
[PDF] Thermal Johnson Noise Generated by a Resistor - Physics 123/253
In 1926, experimental physicist John Johnson working in the physics division at. Bell Labs was researching noise in electronic circuits. He discovered that ...
[49]
[PDF] Simple Derivation of the Thermal Noise Formula Using Window ...
Johnson thermal noise formula using window-limited Fourier transforms is presented in detail for the first time, utilizing the well-known energy theorems.
[50]
[PDF] Johnson and shot noise - Physics 123/253
According to the equipartition the- orem, the average energy of each mode is kT, half electric and half magnetic. The Nyquist formula for the differential ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[51]
[PDF] ECE594I Notes set 6: Thermal Noise - UCSB ECE
Nyquist's Noise Derivation (from Van der Ziel). T .e. Temperatur resistors. matched with line-on. Transmissi. V. V n n .)(left - right and )( right left- flow.Missing: equipartition | Show results with:equipartition
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[PDF] 6 Noise
Apr 25, 2016 · Using an argument based on the so-called equipartition ... In order to prove Nyquist's theorem, we first need to introduce some background ...
[53]
Shot Noise - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Unlike thermal noise, shot noise is characterized by the Poisson distribution [3], which describes the occurrence of independent and discrete random events.
[54]
[PDF] Noise in semiconductor devices - K-REx
Three types of noise--thermal noise, shot noise, and flicker noise--are studied, and their mathematical expressions derived. Both low- and high-frequency ...
[55]
[PDF] 1 Shot Noise - Physics 123/253
It is well known that semiconductor diodes exhibit Shot noise. This is ... Proof: Poisson statistics apply, therefore varn = ¯n. To get current from ...
[56]
Shot Noise - RP Photonics
Let shot noise = ⁡ ( 2 h ν / P ) in dBc/Hz (as indicated in your relative intensity noise article). The 'c' in dBc means relative to the signal, so we multiply ...Missing: 2qIB | Show results with:2qIB
[57]
Photodiodes - RP Photonics
In many applications, photodiodes have replaced earlier vacuum phototubes ... shot noise and thermal noise. (Higher photocurrents increase shot noise in ...
[58]
Shot noise: a 100-year history, with applications to lithography
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[59]
On the origin of flicker noise in MOSFET's - ScienceDirect
This emphasizes that flicker noise originates from carrier number fluctuations du to trapping into the oxide traps in the p-channel device studied. Recommended ...
[60]
Managing Noise in the Signal Chain, Part 1 - Analog Devices
Aug 7, 2014 · Flicker noise (also called 1/f noise or contact noise) is excess noise generated by random fluctuations in current due to defects in ...
[61]
Interpretation of Hooge's 1ƒ noise formula - ScienceDirect.com
The earlier interpretation based on independently fluctuating carrier mobilities yields a result which is inconsistent with the correlation-length experiments.
[62]
[PDF] 1/f noise: a pedagogical review. - arXiv
... Hooge and collaborators [23], produced several empirical formulas for 1/f noise in resistors, and in particular Hooge [24] showed that the 1/f voltage ...
[63]
Understanding and Eliminating 1/f Noise - Analog Devices
Chopper stabilization works by alternating or chopping the input signals at the input stage and then chopping the signals again at the output stage. This is ...
[64]
Tubes, randomness, and Brownian motions: or, how ... - jstor
charge effect, and Johnson's discovery of the flicker effect at low frequencies opened up new directions for the shot-noise research in the rest of the 1920s.
[65]
None
### Summary of Atmospheric Noise in Radio Communications (ITU-R P.372-15)
[66]
[PDF] Sferics - NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
An atmospheric or more colloquially a "sferic" is the radio disturbance generated by a lightning discharge and modified by propagation influences during its ...
[67]
[PDF] Atmospheric Radio Noise: Worldwide Levels and Other Characteristics
Radio noise recording stations used to obtain most of the data used for CCIR Report 322. Figure 19A from CCIR Report 322. Figure 19B and 19C from CCIR Report ...
[68]
A new VLF/LF atmospheric noise model - Fieve - AGU Journals - Wiley
May 30, 2007 · This paper characterizes atmospheric noise in the 10–80 kHz range and proposes a new model: very accurate low-frequency noise model (VALERIE).
[69]
A direction‐sensitive model of atmospheric noise and its application ...
May 9, 2002 · The strongest atmospheric noise enters though the lower elevations since this propagation allows noise to be accumulated over a vast area.
[70]
What is RFI (Radio Frequency Interference)? - L-P Community
Jul 22, 2025 · What Causes RFI? Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) is caused by unwanted radio signals from both natural and man-made sources. Key ...
[71]
https://www.iqsdirectory.com/articles/emi-shielding/rf-shielding.html
[72]
[PDF] Effects of RF Interference on Radar Receivers
In contrast to noise, interference is unwanted radio energy6 coupled into radar receivers from manmade, intentional radio transmitter sources such as ...Missing: spillover | Show results with:spillover
[73]
Types, Uses, and Benefits of RF Shielding - IQS Directory
Man-made sources of RFI are divided into two categories: unintentional and intentional sources. Unintentional Sources Devices such as electric motors and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[74]
[PDF] Natural and man-made terrestrial electromagnetic noise: an outlook
Due to technological growth man-made electromagnetic noise is nowadays superimposed on natural noise almost everywhere on Earth. In the last decades man ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[75]
CB Interference Brings F.C.C. 'Horror Stories' - The New York Times
Jul 10, 1976 · The explosive growth in citizens band radio in the last 18 months, with new enthusiasts emerging at the rate of 500,000 a month, ...Missing: history man- post- WWII 1970s
[76]
Does LED Lighting Cause Radio Interference? | Phoenix Products
Apr 24, 2019 · Poorly designed or low-quality LEDs are more likely to emit electromagnetic interference (EMI), which can disrupt radio signals, particularly ...
[77]
Radar Jammers and Where to Find Them - CRFS
Radar jammers can significantly degrade situational awareness - find out how to deal with them using RFeye.
[78]
[PDF] _7.2-///_-3-,¢',_ - NASA Technical Reports Server
The problem of preventing radio-frequency interference. (RFI) fxom adversely affecting field operations at ground receiving stations in a complex aerospace.
[79]
[PDF] Tour of the Electromagnetic Spectrum - NASA Science
In 1932, Karl Jansky at Bell. Labs revealed that stars and other objects in space radiate radio waves. PARKES RADIO. TELESCOPE. RADIO EMISSIONS. WHAT ARE RADIO ...
[80]
[PDF] N91-33018 - NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)
Since Karl Jansky's first observations in 1932, improvements in technology have increased the sensitivity of radio telescopes.
[81]
Galactic synchrotron emission with cosmic ray propagation models
Galactic synchrotron radiation is produced by cosmic ray (CR) electrons and positrons propagating in interstellar magnetic fields (B-fields). Synchrotron ...
[82]
Solar Flares (Radio Blackouts) - Space Weather Prediction Center
Solar flares are large eruptions of electromagnetic radiation from the Sun lasting from minutes to hours. The sudden outburst of electromagnetic energy ...
[83]
[PDF] RECOMMENDATION ITU-R P.372-15 - Radio noise*
The minimum expected noise is shown by the solid curves. For atmospheric noise due to lightning, the minimum values of the hourly medians expected are taken to ...Missing: CCIR | Show results with:CCIR
[84]
Cosmic background at long wavelengths
sumed that the galactic synchrotron radiation sources are uniformly mixed ... Ellis, G. R. A., Cosmic radio-noise intensit. ies below 16.5. MHz and the ...
[85]
A model of diffuse Galactic radio emission from 10 MHz to 100 GHz
The frequency dependence is plotted for the first three principal components, labelled by black dots, blue squares and red triangles, respectively. The top ...
[86]
[PDF] Solar Brightness Temperature and Corresponding Antenna Noise ...
Nov 15, 2008 · In this study, the fluctuation ranges and mean values of solar brightness temperatures at mi- crowave frequencies are estimated using solar ...
[87]
Morphology of the quiet Sun between 150 and 450 MHz as ...
Decades of observations have shown that the radio Sun is a non-uniform and variable source, traditionally described as consisting of three components: 1) a wide ...
[88]
Haslam 408 MHz All-Sky Map - Nasa Lambda
The 408 MHz radio continuum all-sky map of Haslam et al. (see references below) combines data from four different surveys. The map is dominated by synchrotron ...Missing: background cosmic<|control11|><|separator|>
[89]
An improved source-subtracted and destriped 408-MHz all-sky map
It has been widely used to study diffuse synchrotron radiation from our Galaxy and as a template to remove foregrounds in cosmic microwave background data.
[90]
[PDF] Low-Noise Systems in the Deep Space Network - DESCANSO
The atmosphere has a significant effect on the communications link between ... Solar noise is the strongest source of observable deep space external noise.
[91]
How well can Voyager 1 separate Earth signals from Solar noise ...
Mar 3, 2016 · Voyager receives at around 2 GHz1, so its 3.7m diameter dish can not separate the two. Even a quiet sun is almost 106 Jy. The electronics is ...What are the main sources of radio noise & interference limiting ...Did Voyager 1 and 2 record while not near any planets to get ...More results from space.stackexchange.com
[92]
The detectability of radio emission from exoplanets - Oxford Academic
We report new estimates for the radio flux densities and maximum emission frequencies for the current population of known exoplanets.
[93]
Strongest Solar Flare of Solar Cycle 25 | NOAA / NWS Space ...
Dec 18, 2023 · An X2.8 flare (R3) occurred from Region 3514; located over the far NW area of the Sun. This is likely one of the largest solar radio events ever recorded.
[94]
Solar Cycle 25 is Exceeding Predictions and Showing Why We ...
Jul 27, 2022 · The I-T system is a region that affects our technological society in many ways, from creating interference in radio signals to generating large ...