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Receiver autonomous integrity monitoring

Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) is a receiver-based technique used in Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) applications to autonomously evaluate the integrity of satellite signals by detecting, identifying, and potentially excluding faulty measurements, thereby ensuring that the computed position meets predefined accuracy and reliability standards without relying on external augmentation.^[1] This method leverages redundant satellite observations to monitor navigation performance and issue timely alerts if errors exceed acceptable limits, making it essential for safety-critical operations where undetected faults could lead to hazardous outcomes.^[2] The RAIM concept was first proposed in the late 1980s for GPS to address integrity concerns in aviation, emerging as a response to the need for standalone GNSS reliability in scenarios lacking ground-based monitoring, with key algorithms including those for GPS and GLONASS developed around 1993 to analyze fault detection using redundant pseudorange measurements.^[2] Its adoption accelerated in the mid-1990s for aircraft navigation, enabling GPS as a primary means under instrument flight rules (IFR), and has since evolved to encompass multi-constellation systems like GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and BeiDou amid growing GNSS vulnerabilities such as jamming and spoofing.^[3] Early implementations focused on basic fault detection, requiring at least five satellites (or four with barometric aiding) to perform consistency checks on position solutions.^[4] At its core, RAIM operates by solving overdetermined navigation equations from excess satellite signals, comparing the resulting position estimates to identify inconsistencies indicative of signal errors, such as multipath or satellite faults, and computing protection levels that bound the maximum position error with a specified integrity risk probability (typically 10^{-7} per hour for aviation).^[1] Key variants include least-squares RAIM for snapshot processing, Kalman filter-based approaches for dynamic environments, and fault detection and exclusion (FDE) methods that isolate and remove erroneous signals to maintain availability.^[4] Availability predictions, often integrated into receivers or accessed via tools like the FAA's Service Availability Prediction Tool, account for satellite geometry and outages, ensuring RAIM is viable prior to critical phases like non-precision approaches.^[4] RAIM's primary application remains aviation, where it underpins performance-based navigation (PBN) for en route, terminal, and approach procedures under standards like TSO-C129 and TSO-C196, alerting pilots to unmonitored GPS if satellite redundancy is insufficient.^[4] Beyond aviation, it supports maritime, rail, and increasingly autonomous vehicular navigation, adapting to challenges like urban multipath through multi-sensor fusion.^[1] In these domains, RAIM enhances resilience against threats, with reported impacts including over 1,500 daily flights affected by GPS spoofing in 2024, with disruptions continuing into 2025, including nearly 123,000 flights affected by jamming in the first four months and over 800 flights impacted by spoofing at Delhi's Indira Gandhi International Airport in November 2025, underscoring its role in timely integrity assurance.^[1]^[5]^[6] Advancements such as Advanced RAIM (ARAIM) build on traditional RAIM by incorporating dual-frequency measurements and multiple constellations to achieve higher availability, potentially enabling vertical guidance and eliminating pre-flight checks, with integrity support messages broadcast via GNSS to dynamically update fault models.^[7] Ongoing research addresses limitations like conservative error bounding and non-Gaussian distributions through machine learning integrations, promising broader adoption in complex environments.^[1]

Overview

Definition and Purpose

Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) is a receiver-based algorithm employed in Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receivers to assess the integrity of navigation solutions by detecting inconsistencies among redundant pseudorange measurements from multiple satellites.^[8] It operates standalone, without reliance on external augmentation systems, by statistically testing the consistency of these measurements to identify potential faults in satellite signals, such as ephemeris errors or multipath effects. This method assumes at most one faulty satellite and uses the geometry and redundancy of visible satellites to validate the computed position.^[8] The core purpose of RAIM is to provide integrity assurance for GNSS users in safety-critical applications, particularly where ground-based monitoring is unavailable, by alerting the user to potential errors in the navigation solution within a specified time-to-alert, typically 2 to 10 seconds depending on the application.^[4] It ensures that the probability of undetected faults leading to hazardous navigation errors remains below stringent thresholds, enabling reliable positioning in environments like oceanic or remote areas.^[8] In aviation, RAIM supports standards such as RTCA DO-208 for GPS integrity in instrument flight rules operations.^[9] RAIM requires a minimum of five satellites for basic fault detection, leveraging the redundancy to perform consistency checks, though this drops to four with barometric altimeter aiding to provide an additional measurement.^[8] For fault detection and exclusion (FDE), at least six satellites are needed to not only identify but also isolate the faulty signal, reducing to five with aiding; insufficient satellites result in unavailability of integrity monitoring.^[4] Key integrity risk metrics in RAIM include the probability of hazardous misleading information (HMI), which quantifies the risk of an undetected fault causing position errors exceeding safe limits, and protection levels—horizontal and vertical—that bound the maximum likely error with a specified integrity risk probability, such as 10^{-7} per hour for non-precision aviation operations.^[8] These metrics ensure that RAIM guarantees the navigation solution's accuracy with high confidence, alerting users when risks exceed acceptable levels.

Importance for Safety-Critical Applications

Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) are susceptible to various faults that can compromise positioning accuracy in safety-critical applications such as aviation. Satellite clock errors, including sudden jumps or ramps, and ephemeris faults, which misrepresent satellite positions, represent major vulnerabilities; for instance, a recorded ephemeris fault on PRN 19 in June 2012 caused a 1,700-meter cross-track error, potentially displacing user positions by hundreds of meters to kilometers if undetected.^[10] Additional threats like multipath reflections from terrain or structures and ionospheric scintillation can further degrade signals, leading to position errors exceeding safe limits for precision navigation.^[11] Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) addresses these vulnerabilities by enabling the GNSS receiver to independently assess signal integrity and compute protection levels that bound potential errors. In aviation, RAIM ensures horizontal protection levels as tight as 0.3 nautical miles for non-precision approaches, alerting users if the risk of undetected faults exceeds acceptable thresholds and preventing reliance on faulty data.^[12] This self-contained monitoring requires satellite redundancy for fault detection but provides a critical safeguard without external augmentation.^[13] Regulatory standards underscore RAIM's necessity for aviation safety, mandating an integrity risk below 10^{-7} per hour for non-precision approaches, in line with International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) requirements to minimize the probability of hazardously misleading information.^[14] Unlike consumer GPS applications, where such stringent integrity is unnecessary, safety-critical uses demand RAIM to meet ICAO requirements, ensuring errors do not exceed alert limits during critical phases like landing.^[14] By operating autonomously, RAIM reduces dependence on expensive ground-based augmentation systems like Ground-Based Augmentation System (GBAS), which require significant infrastructure investment for local integrity support.^[15] This enables cost-effective, global GNSS operations in aviation and maritime navigation, enhancing safety while lowering overall system deployment and maintenance expenses compared to infrastructure-heavy alternatives.^[8]

History and Development

Origins and Early Concepts

Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) was first proposed in 1986 by Y.C. Lee of the MITRE Corporation in response to the impending initial operational capability of the Global Positioning System (GPS) and the critical need for integrity assurance in aviation applications, particularly for non-precision approaches. Lee's work, including the paper "Analysis of Range and Position Comparison Methods as a Means of Monitoring the Integrity of GPS Navigation Solutions" presented at the ION GPS conference, introduced receiver-based methods to detect GPS faults using redundant satellite measurements, addressing the absence of built-in integrity signals in GPS, unlike established systems such as the Instrument Landing System (ILS). This approach leveraged the redundancy inherent in GPS signals—typically requiring at least five satellites for basic positioning—to perform fault detection through least-squares estimation techniques.^[16] The early motivations for RAIM stemmed from aviation safety requirements, where undetected GPS errors could lead to hazardous positioning inaccuracies without timely warnings to pilots. In parallel, R.G. Brown and P.Y.C. Hwang at the University of Iowa developed complementary concepts in 1986, focusing on autonomous cockpit-based failure detection to ensure GPS could serve as a sole-means navigation aid. Throughout the 1980s, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) collaborated with MITRE to advance these ideas, emphasizing consistency checks on pseudorange measurements to identify anomalies. Initial research demonstrated the feasibility of RAIM with 5-6 visible satellites, where five enabled basic fault detection and six supported exclusion capabilities, validating the method's potential for en-route and terminal navigation.^[16] By the late 1980s, the transition from theoretical frameworks to practical implementations occurred through prototypes that tested RAIM algorithms in simulated and real-world scenarios. This period of prototyping laid the groundwork for RAIM's evolution into more advanced fault detection and exclusion (FDE) methods.

Standardization and Adoption

The standardization of Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) marked a pivotal transition from conceptual development to regulatory integration in aviation navigation systems. Building on early fault detection concepts, formal standards emerged in the early 1990s to ensure RAIM's reliability for safety-critical operations. In 1992, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) issued Technical Standard Order (TSO) TSO-C129, certifying the first RAIM-equipped GPS receivers for en-route navigation and establishing minimum performance standards for supplemental navigation equipment.^[17] This TSO required RAIM to provide integrity monitoring equivalent to traditional ground-based systems, enabling standalone GPS use in instrument flight rules (IFR) environments. Adoption in the 1990s gained momentum through industry standards from the Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics (RTCA). RTCA DO-208, published in July 1991, specified RAIM requirements for airborne supplemental navigation equipment using the Global Positioning System (GPS), including fault detection thresholds and availability criteria for en-route and terminal operations.^[18] These provisions were expanded in subsequent RTCA documents, such as DO-229, to support wide-area augmentation systems that enhanced RAIM's role in augmented GNSS environments.^[19] Key milestones in the 2000s further embedded RAIM in operational frameworks. EUROCONTROL implemented RAIM as part of its Precision RNAV (P-RNAV) specifications in 2007, facilitating GNSS-based navigation across European airspace while ensuring infrastructure compatibility for RAIM prediction.^[20] Concurrently, the FAA's Advisory Circular AC 90-100A, issued in 2007 with updates through 2010, outlined prediction requirements for RAIM availability in U.S. terminal and en-route RNAV operations, mandating pre-flight checks to verify sufficient satellite geometry.^[21] On a global scale, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) advanced RAIM through updates to Annex 10 standards. The 2018 revisions to Annex 10, Volume I, incorporated GNSS integrity provisions requiring monitoring such as RAIM for Area Navigation (RNAV) approaches in standalone operations, aligning with performance-based navigation requirements.^[22] RAIM is standard in certified aviation GPS receivers for IFR operations under TSO standards.

Principles of Operation

Fault Detection Mechanisms

Receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM) employs redundancy in Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) measurements to detect faults without relying on external augmentation signals. The core process begins with computing a position solution using weighted least squares estimation, which minimizes the squared differences between observed pseudoranges and predicted values based on satellite positions and receiver clock bias.^[23] This estimation incorporates at least five satellites for basic three-dimensional positioning plus clock bias, providing the necessary redundancy to identify inconsistencies.^[23] Once the position is estimated, fault detection proceeds by examining the residuals—the differences between the actual pseudorange measurements and those predicted from the least-squares solution. These residuals are scrutinized for outliers that exceed predefined statistical thresholds, indicating potential faults like multipath errors or satellite ephemeris anomalies.^[23] If an outlier is detected, the system alerts the user to suspend navigation, as RAIM detection alone does not isolate or exclude the faulty measurement.^[23] An alternative and computationally efficient approach is the parity vector method, which transforms the measurement residuals into a lower-dimensional parity space using a projection matrix orthogonal to the range space of the geometry matrix. This projection isolates inconsistencies undetectable in the position domain, yielding a parity vector whose norm serves as the test statistic.^[24] A fault is declared if this test statistic surpasses a threshold derived from a chi-squared distribution, ensuring statistical consistency under fault-free conditions.^[24] RAIM fault detection operates primarily under the assumption of a single satellite fault, as multiple simultaneous faults can degrade detection performance and are not reliably handled without additional assumptions.^[23] In aviation applications, the mechanism must achieve a time-to-alert of 2 to 10 seconds, allowing sufficient time for pilots to revert to alternative navigation while maintaining a probability of missed detection typically set at 10^{-3} to achieve the required integrity risk.^[23]^[25] This threshold aligns with integrity requirements outlined in RTCA DO-208 and DO-229D standards.^[23] While basic detection alerts to faults, extensions like fault detection and exclusion enable continued operation by isolating suspects, though this is beyond pure detection scope.^[23]

Fault Detection and Exclusion (FDE)

Fault Detection and Exclusion (FDE) in Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) extends basic fault detection by isolating and removing faulty satellite signals, allowing the receiver to compute a valid navigation solution from the remaining measurements. After a fault is detected using statistical tests on the full set of measurements, the FDE process involves testing subsets of the satellites by excluding one satellite at a time and recomputing the position solution for each subset. If a consistent solution is found across multiple subsets or the all-in-view solution aligns with the best subset, the receiver selects that solution for use; otherwise, navigation may be interrupted to ensure integrity. This subset testing enables the exclusion of a single faulty satellite while maintaining redundancy for positioning.^[26] A key method in FDE is the solution separation approach, which compares the position solution from all available satellites (the "all-in-solution") against position solutions derived from subsets excluding each individual satellite (the "exclusion-of-i" solutions). The separation between the all-in-solution and each exclusion-of-i solution is calculated, and if the separation exceeds a predefined threshold for any subset, that satellite is excluded as faulty. These thresholds are determined based on integrity requirements and allocated risk probabilities to bound the error in the selected solution. This approach ensures that the excluded satellite is the one most likely causing the inconsistency, thereby isolating the fault effectively for single-satellite failures.^[26] Reliable FDE operation typically requires at least six satellites in view to provide sufficient redundancy for detecting and excluding a single fault while still solving for position, velocity, and time; with barometric aiding, five satellites may suffice. The process is designed to handle single-fault exclusion with strict risk controls, including an allocated risk for false exclusion (incorrectly removing a healthy satellite) on the order of 10^{-3} per 15-second interval in aviation contexts, contributing to overall continuity requirements. These risk allocations ensure that false exclusions do not unduly interrupt safe navigation.^[4]^[26]^[25] FDE performance degrades in scenarios with poor satellite geometry, characterized by high Horizontal Dilution of Precision (HDOP), which amplifies errors and reduces the ability to isolate faults accurately even with sufficient satellites. Additionally, standard FDE cannot reliably exclude multiple simultaneous faults, as the subset testing assumes at most one faulty measurement, necessitating advanced techniques for such cases. These limitations highlight the importance of favorable geometry for maintaining integrity in safety-critical applications.^[26]

Mathematical Foundations

The mathematical foundations of Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) rely on statistical estimation and hypothesis testing to ensure GNSS position accuracy and detect faults in pseudorange measurements. The core position solution in RAIM is obtained via weighted least-squares estimation, which minimizes the squared residuals between observed pseudoranges and predicted ranges based on receiver position and clock bias. The estimator is given by

\hat{x} = (H^T W H)^{-1} H^T W \rho,

where \hat{x} is the state vector (including position coordinates and receiver clock offset), H is the geometry matrix derived from satellite positions relative to the approximate receiver position, W is the diagonal weight matrix accounting for measurement variances (typically inverse of pseudorange noise variances), and \rho is the vector of observed pseudoranges. This formulation assumes Gaussian-distributed measurement errors under fault-free conditions and provides the basis for computing residuals used in integrity tests.^[27] Fault detection in RAIM employs a quadratic form of the least-squares residuals as the test statistic, which follows a chi-squared distribution under the null hypothesis of no faults. The residuals vector V = \rho - H \hat{x} is projected orthogonal to the range space of H, yielding the test statistic

\chi^2 = \frac{V^T P V}{\sigma^2} \sim \chi^2_{df},

where P = I - H (H^T W H)^{-1} H^T W is the projector matrix, \sigma^2 is the variance of the measurement noise, and df = n - 4 is the degrees of freedom (with n measurements and 4 unknowns in the state vector). A fault is declared if \chi^2 exceeds a threshold T = \chi^2_{1-\alpha, df}, set to achieve a specified probability of false alarm (PFA) \alpha, typically $10^{-3} to $10^{-5} for aviation applications. This geometric approach ensures the threshold accounts for satellite geometry, enhancing detection sensitivity.^[28] For fault detection and exclusion (FDE), RAIM compares the all-in-view position solution \hat{x}_{all} against solutions excluding each individual satellite \hat{x}_{-i}, using the normalized separation distance as the monitor statistic. Exclusion of the i-th satellite is warranted if \| \hat{x}_{all} - \hat{x}_{-i} \| > \nabla_i, where \nabla_i is a threshold derived from the allocated integrity risk for that fault mode, often based on the standard deviation of the difference propagated through the covariance matrices. This solution separation method isolates single satellite faults by leveraging redundancy, with the covariance Q = (H^T W H)^{-1} informing the separation's statistical significance. The approach improves exclusion reliability when the chi-squared test alone cannot pinpoint the faulty measurement.^[29] Protection levels (PLs) quantify the bounded error region with a specified integrity risk, using the test statistic's sensitivity to position errors. The horizontal protection level (HPL) and vertical protection level (VPL) are computed as

\text{HPL} = K \sqrt{\text{trace}(Q_{hh})}, \quad \text{VPL} = K \sqrt{Q_{vv}},

where Q_{hh} and Q_{vv} are the horizontal and vertical submatrices of the covariance Q, and K is a scaling factor from the Student's t-distribution, calibrated to cover 95% of the error distribution while allocating integrity risk between fault-free and faulty cases (e.g., via chi-squared thresholds adjusted for missed detection probability). These levels ensure that the true position lies within the alert limit with high probability, directly supporting RAIM's integrity requirements.

Availability and Prediction

Factors Influencing RAIM Availability

Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) availability depends critically on the number of visible satellites, as the algorithm requires redundancy to detect and potentially exclude faulty measurements. For basic fault detection, a minimum of five satellites must be in view with suitable geometry, while fault detection and exclusion (FDE) necessitates at least six. Insufficient redundancy directly limits RAIM's ability to perform integrity checks, leading to unavailability during navigation operations. In regions with inherently fewer visible satellites, such as high latitudes, RAIM availability can drop below 99% due to the GPS constellation's 55-degree orbital inclination, which clusters satellites and reduces overhead visibility.^[4]^[30] Satellite geometry plays a pivotal role in RAIM performance through its influence on the dilution of precision (DOP) metrics, which amplify position errors and affect protection level calculations. High values of position DOP (PDOP) or vertical DOP (VDOP) occur when satellites are poorly distributed, such as when they cluster near the horizon or zenith, resulting in larger horizontal or vertical protection levels that may exceed operational thresholds. For instance, elevated VDOP values, often exceeding 4 in challenging geometries, can compromise vertical integrity requirements for precision approaches, rendering RAIM unavailable even with sufficient satellite count. Studies on GPS and BDS constellations demonstrate that better geometric distributions, as seen in BDS with average PDOP around 1.22, yield higher RAIM availability compared to GPS's average of 1.76.^[31]^[32] Constellation health further modulates RAIM availability, as satellite outages—whether unscheduled failures or planned maintenance announced via Notices to Air Missions (NOTAMs)—temporarily reduce the operational satellite pool. A single satellite outage can significantly degrade global availability; for example, simulations show that losing one GPS satellite in a dual-constellation setup (GPS/Galileo) can plummet RAIM availability from 91% to 50% for certain integrity levels. Historical data from the GPS Standard Positioning Service (SPS) prior to widespread multi-GNSS adoption indicates global RAIM coverage between 95% and 99%, with outages contributing to intermittent shortfalls, particularly during maintenance periods totaling hundreds of hours annually.^[33]^[34] Environmental factors, including solar activity and local obstructions, exacerbate RAIM limitations by inducing signal faults or visibility constraints. Increased solar activity during the sunspot cycle heightens ionospheric scintillation, causing rapid amplitude and phase fluctuations that lead to signal loss of lock and apparent satellite faults, thereby reducing the effective number of usable measurements and RAIM availability. In equatorial and low-latitude regions, scintillation intensity peaks, with strong events potentially causing deep fading that impacts aviation GPS operations. Additionally, urban masking from buildings or terrain elevates the effective horizon mask angle, blocking low-elevation satellites and degrading geometry; simulations at aerodromes with variable terrain masks show unavailability rising from 0.18% (fixed 5° mask) to 4.53% when accounting for obstructions up to 20°. Prediction methods can forecast these influences to aid flight planning.^[35]^[36]^[37]

Prediction Methods and Tools

Prediction algorithms for RAIM availability simulate future satellite positions using broadcast almanac data to estimate visibility and geometric distribution along a planned flight path.^[38] These algorithms compute the dilution of precision (DOP) based on the observation matrix formed by visible satellites and assess whether the configuration meets RAIM thresholds for fault detection.^[39] The probability of RAIM outage is then derived by evaluating the likelihood of insufficient satellites or poor geometry causing integrity failure, often setting a maximum allowable outage duration for en-route and approach phases.^[40] Ground-based prediction tools provide centralized forecasting services for aviation users. The FAA's Service Availability Prediction Tool (SAPT), operational since the mid-1990s, utilizes precise ephemeris data to generate worldwide RAIM availability maps, highlighting outage durations and protection levels for required navigation performance (RNP) levels such as 0.3 nautical miles.^[41] Similarly, EUROCONTROL's AUGUR tool, covering European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC) airspace, performs RAIM predictions via horizontal protection level (HPL) calculations, incorporating satellite operational status and almanac details to support RNAV 1, RNP 1, and RNP approach procedures.^[42] Receiver-integrated prediction enables onboard real-time assessment without external reliance. Modern GNSS receivers, such as those with NovAtel's RAIM firmware option compliant with RTCA DO-229D standards, use broadcast almanac data to continuously monitor satellite visibility and perform fault detection and exclusion (FDE) checks.^[43] This firmware alerts users to unavailability and excludes faulty pseudoranges to maintain integrity during flight. As of 2025, RAIM prediction has advanced through integration of GPS and Galileo almanacs, achieving over 99.9% global availability for horizontal navigation in dual-constellation, dual-frequency configurations, as demonstrated in evaluations of H-ARAIM algorithms.^[44] These updates include APIs in tools like AUGUR for seamless incorporation into aviation planning software, enhancing pre-flight outage forecasting.^[42]

Applications

Aviation

Receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM) plays a critical role in aviation navigation, particularly for required navigation performance (RNP) operations in en-route and terminal phases. For RNP 1 and RNP 2 specifications, RAIM ensures the integrity of GPS position solutions by detecting and excluding faulty satellite signals, allowing aircraft to maintain lateral accuracy within 1 nautical mile (NM) or 2 NM, respectively, for 95% of the flight time.^[45] The global GPS constellation, consisting of 24 or more operational satellites, supports widespread RAIM availability by providing sufficient redundancy for fault detection under normal conditions.^[30] Aviation RAIM algorithms are designed to issue an integrity alert within 2 seconds if the horizontal protection level exceeds the required threshold, preventing unsafe navigation.^[4] In non-precision approaches using lateral navigation (LNAV) minima, RAIM monitors GPS integrity to ensure horizontal protection levels remain below 0.3 NM, enabling safe descent to decision altitudes without vertical guidance.^[4] Receivers certified to Technical Standard Order (TSO) C129a, which incorporate RAIM functionality, became mandatory for IFR GPS operations on RNAV routes and approaches starting in 2007, as outlined in FAA Advisory Circular 90-100A.^[46] RAIM integrates with satellite-based augmentation systems (SBAS) like the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) by serving as a standalone backup for integrity monitoring when SBAS coverage is unavailable, such as in remote areas or during outages.^[47] This redundancy ensures continued navigation support for en-route, terminal, and approach phases without relying on differential corrections from WAAS. The 2004 EU-US Agreement on GPS-Galileo Cooperation facilitates dual-use (civil-military) applications of GNSS integrity methods like RAIM, promoting interoperability between GPS and Galileo for enhanced aviation safety.^[48] During solar events in the 2010s, such as the ionospheric storms on June 28-29, 2013, and February 27-28, 2014, GNSS integrity mechanisms including WAAS detected ionospheric disturbances and issued alerts to maintain reliability for aviation, preventing reliance on faulty signals without reported losses of service integrity; RAIM complements this by providing receiver-based monitoring in standalone GNSS scenarios.^[49] These incidents underscored the effectiveness of integrity monitoring in mitigating space weather impacts, where increased scintillation and total electron content variations could otherwise degrade GPS accuracy.^[49]

Non-Aviation Uses

Receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM) has been adapted for maritime navigation to ensure the reliability of GNSS signals in safety-critical operations, particularly under International Maritime Organization (IMO) standards for SOLAS-compliant vessels. IMO Resolution A.915(22) recommends RAIM for GNSS receivers, specifying 10 m horizontal accuracy at 95% probability and an alert limit of 25 m, with an integrity risk not exceeding 10^{-5} per 3 hours. Similarly, MSC.233(82) mandates RAIM for Galileo receivers on ships, requiring alarms within 10 seconds if the alert limit is exceeded, while MSC.401(95) extends integrity monitoring requirements to multi-constellation systems. These standards support SOLAS compliance by enabling autonomous fault detection in shipborne receivers, crucial for harbor approaches where multipath errors from reflections off structures can degrade signal quality.^[50]^[51] In rail applications, RAIM integrates with the European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS) and European Train Control System (ETCS) to monitor GNSS-based trackside positioning for positive train control, with trials demonstrating feasibility post-2020. RAIM provides integrity assurance similar to aviation fault detection mechanisms, using redundant satellite measurements to detect and exclude faulty signals in environments prone to interference from overhead structures or tunnels. For instance, Kalman filter-based RAIM (KF-RAIM) adaptations enhance localization accuracy in real-time kinematic (RTK) setups, supporting safety integrity levels required for train integrity monitoring and protection functions within ERTMS/ETCS.^[1]^[52]^[53] For unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and autonomous vehicles, RAIM adaptations in 2025 emphasize beyond-visual-line-of-sight (BVLOS) operations by combining GNSS with inertial navigation systems (INS) for redundancy and robust integrity. Advanced RAIM (ARAIM) variants, augmented with precise point positioning (PPP) from multi-constellation signals, employ extended Kalman filters in loose coupling with INS to bound errors in urban or dynamic environments, achieving protection levels as low as 1.5 m in open-sky conditions. This integration addresses challenges like multipath and signal obstructions, ensuring meter-level integrity for safety-critical navigation in autonomous driving and drone delivery systems.^[54]^[1] In precision agriculture and surveying, RAIM provides integrity monitoring for high-accuracy GNSS applications, such as validating measurements in RTK systems for sub-meter to centimeter-level positioning in agriculture to exclude outliers from environmental noise and prevent misapplications of inputs like pesticides. For surveying, particle filter-based RAIM (PF-RAIM) and solution separation methods support precise point positioning (PPP), providing protection levels that bound horizontal errors to under 10 cm in 95% of cases after convergence, essential for mapping and boundary delineation.^[55]^[1]^[56]

Advancements and Future Directions

Advanced RAIM (ARAIM)

Advanced Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (ARAIM) represents an evolution of traditional RAIM by incorporating prior fault probabilities provided by GNSS constellation providers, such as those embedded in GPS and Galileo integrity support messages, to enable global vertical navigation for aviation applications.^[57] This approach allows receivers to assess integrity risks more robustly across multiple constellations without relying solely on redundant satellite measurements.^[58] Key advancements in ARAIM include its support for Localizer Performance with Vertical guidance (LPV-200) approaches, which require a vertical protection level (VPL) below 50 meters to meet safety standards for precision landings down to a 200-foot decision height.^[59] It addresses limitations in handling multiple faults through Bayesian probabilistic models that estimate fault modes and integrate prior satellite and constellation fault rates—typically on the order of 10^{-5} per satellite-hour and 10^{-4} per constellation-hour—into protection level calculations.^[57] These models enable the receiver to evaluate integrity for both horizontal and vertical guidance while maintaining low computational demands on airborne systems. The development of ARAIM stems from collaborative efforts by the EU-US Working Group C, established in the early 2010s under the broader GPS-Galileo cooperation framework, focusing on safety-of-life applications.^[60] The Milestone 3 report, released in 2016, formalized the reference airborne algorithms, including solution separation methods for fault detection and exclusion, and outlined an implementation roadmap targeting initial horizontal ARAIM (H-ARAIM) services followed by vertical capabilities.^[57] By 2023, the FAA's William J. Hughes Technical Center had conducted extensive validation through quarterly performance analyses, confirming ARAIM's feasibility for LPV-200 using real GPS data and preparing for Galileo integration.^[58] In terms of performance, ARAIM with dual-frequency measurements significantly boosts availability, achieving up to 100% coverage for required navigation performance (RNP) 0.1 in horizontal operations when combining GPS and Galileo constellations under optimistic configurations.^[57] For vertical guidance, dual-frequency implementations are projected to meet stringent integrity requirements exceeding 99.999% time availability globally, with ongoing prototyping and validation efforts targeting operational deployment in aircraft systems in the late 2020s.^[59]^[61]

Integration with Multi-GNSS Systems

The integration of Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) and Advanced RAIM (ARAIM) with multi-GNSS systems, including GPS, Galileo, BeiDou, and GLONASS, substantially enhances integrity assurance by increasing the number of visible satellites to over 30, thereby improving measurement redundancy and geometric diversity.^[59] This expanded satellite pool allows for better fault detection and exclusion capabilities, as the additional signals from multiple constellations provide more independent ranging sources to mitigate single-point failures.^[62] Compared to GPS-only configurations, which often achieve availability rates of 75-85%, multi-constellation setups can elevate ARAIM availability to 100% in many scenarios, effectively reducing outage risk by more than 50% through diversified signal paths and reduced vulnerability to constellation-specific outages.^[62] Signal diversity in multi-GNSS environments further bolsters RAIM/ARAIM performance, particularly through dual-frequency operations on bands such as L1 and L5, which enable ionosphere-free combinations to mitigate refractive errors that can exceed 10 meters in severe conditions.^[63] ARAIM algorithms incorporate constellation-specific signal-in-space (SIS) error bounds, such as user range accuracies (URAs) tailored to each system's broadcast parameters (e.g., ≤1 meter for LPV-200 applications), allowing precise overbounding of pseudorange errors while accounting for varying satellite clock and ephemeris qualities across GNSS providers.^[59] This approach ensures that integrity risks remain below aviation thresholds, like 10^{-7} per hour for approach operations, even under mixed-constellation tracking. Despite these advantages, challenges arise from inter-system biases (ISBs) due to differing reference frames and hardware delays between constellations, which can introduce systematic errors up to several meters if unmodeled.^[64] Solutions involve estimating ISBs using a common clock reference, such as aligning all systems to GPS time via differential corrections or additional parameters in the observation model, thereby maintaining positioning consistency without external augmentation.^[63] Emerging standards, including those from EU-US cooperation on satellite navigation, outline integrity support messages (ISMs) for multi-GNSS ARAIM, specifying fault probabilities (e.g., 10^{-5} per satellite-hour) and verification protocols to enable mixed-use operations globally by the mid-2020s.^[59] Looking ahead, ARAIM is projected to achieve full global deployment by 2030, driven by maturing multi-GNSS infrastructures and supporting emerging applications like urban air mobility, where high vertical integrity is critical for low-altitude operations.^[63] Studies using 2015 data from sites in Europe (e.g., Switzerland) and Asia-Pacific regions (e.g., Australia) have demonstrated 100% vertical availability, with position errors consistently bounded by protection levels during extended monitoring periods.^[62] As of 2025, initiatives like the EU's GLAD project are prototyping ARAIM algorithms for integration into multi-mode receivers, while ICAO recognizes ARAIM as a key future augmentation for GNSS-based navigation.^[61]^[65]

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Jul 20, 2009 · Today, RAIM guarantees horizontal error bounds of one nautical mile worldwide with high availability, and down to 0.3 nautical miles with.
[11]
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) - Stanford GPS Lab
RAIM is a technology developed to assess the integrity of GPS signals in a GPS receiver system. It is of special importance in safety-critical GPS applications.
[12]
Q: Are RAIM and Advanced RAIM useful for applications that take ...
Jul 24, 2024 · RAIM and ARAIM are useful for detecting faulty measurements, especially when local threats like multipath are more likely than SIS failures ...
[13]
[PDF] Integrity Lessons from the WAAS Integrity Performance Panel (WIPP)
The integrity requirement for precision approach guidance. (APV-I through Category I) is 1-2x10-7 per approach [1]. There is a general understanding that this ...
[14]
[PDF] Analysis of Use of Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM ...
After the RAIM availability analysis, the paper analyzes availability of navigation for an alternative WAAS integrity concept called VMAX, which can be used ...Missing: applications | Show results with:applications
[15]
Integrity for Aviation - Inside GNSS - Global Navigation Satellite ...
Jul 16, 2013 · RAIM algorithms have been investigated since the late 1980s starting with publications by Y. C. Lee (1986), R. G. Brown et alia, and M.<|control11|><|separator|>
[16]
Weighted total least squares RAIM algorithm using carrier phase ...
This paper describes a method for autonomous GPS satellite failure detection and isolation (D/I). ... With a 100 m biased measurement present, successful ...
[17]
Analysis Supporting FAA Decisions Made During the Development ...
During 1992 members of the FAA Navigation Satellite Operational Implementation Team (SOIT) developed Technical Standard Order (TSO) C-129, which describes ...
[18]
[PDF] global positioning system (gps) navigation equipment for use as a ...
May 25, 1994 · This advisory circular establishes an acceptable means for airworthiness approval of GPS equipment for supplemental navigation, but not the ...
[19]
RTCA DO-212 - Minimum Operational Performance Standards for ...
The document provides assumptions and information needed to understand the rationale for equipment requirements and characteristics.Missing: title | Show results with:title
[20]
[PDF] EUROCONTROL Guidelines for P-RNAV Infrastructure Assessment
Apr 16, 2008 · This document describes the methods and processes that should be used to evaluate if a specific navigation infrastructure is suitable to support ...
[21]
[PDF] FAA AC 90-100A - Advisory Circular
Mar 1, 2007 · PURPOSE. This advisory circular (AC) provides operational and airworthiness guidance for operation on U.S. Area Navigation (RNAV) routes, ...
[22]
Annex 10 - Aeronautical Telecommunications - Volume I - ICAO Store
Annex 10 Volume I defines radio navigation aids for aircraft, including GNSS, ILS, MLS, VOR, NDB, and DME, and their parameter specifications.Missing: RAIM | Show results with:RAIM
[23]
Satellite Navigation - Federal Aviation Administration
The FAA is transforming the NAS to Performance Based Navigation (PBN) to address the shortfalls of conventional ground-based navigation.Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage
[24]
None
Below is a merged summary of the RAIM (Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring) fault detection mechanisms in GNSS as described in AC 20-138B, consolidating all information from the provided segments into a comprehensive and dense representation. To maximize detail and clarity, I will use a table in CSV format for key mechanisms, followed by additional details in text form. This ensures all information is retained while maintaining readability.
[25]
[PDF] Solution Separation Versus Residual-Based RAIM - NavLab
The parity vector is the simplest, most fundamental expression of the detection capability. It is well known that the norm of the parity vector is equal to the ...
[26]
[PDF] Fault detection and exclusion using solution separation and chi ...
First, Section V-A presents the derivation of new χ2 RAIM exclusion test statistics, which are measures of the distance between the parity vector and the fault ...
[27]
RAIM Fundamentals - Navipedia - GSSC
Traditional RAIM techniques aim at computing protection levels for the GNSS navigation solution based on the standard deviation of the measurement noise.Missing: prototype 1980s 100
[28]
https://www.ion.org/publications/abstract.cfm?articleID=2604
[29]
https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7472967
[30]
[PDF] gps aviation outage prediction - and reporting systems - ROSA P
... protection level exceeded the NPA horizontal alert limit of 0.3 nautical miles. Figure 5a displays a histogram of the number of GPS RAIM outages vs. the ...
[31]
[PDF] Weighted RAIM for Precision Approach - Stanford University
While the availability of the system is good, particularly with augmentations, the availability of RAIM is low. The last two columns show the availability of ...
[32]
Evaluation of BDS and GPS RAIM availability based on data ...
The most commonly used methods for RAIM availability evaluation are the Horizontal Protection Level Method (HPLM), the Maximum Horizontal Accuracy Factor ...
[33]
Impact of one satellite outage on ARAIM depleted constellation ...
The simulation results under baseline GPS and Galileo dual-constellation show that the one GPS satellite outage will knock the availability from 91% to only 50% ...
[34]
[PDF] SPS Performanace Analysis Report - nstb.tc.faa.gov
Apr 30, 2024 · PDOP Availability is defined as the percentage of time over any 24-hour interval that the PDOP value is less than or equal to its threshold for ...
[35]
(PDF) Availability Impact on GPS Aviation due to Strong Ionospheric ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Strong amplitude scintillation causes deep and frequent Global Positioning System (GPS) signal fading.<|control11|><|separator|>
[36]
Impact of Ionospheric Scintillations on GNSS Availability and ...
Feb 4, 2025 · This study investigates the behavior of GNSS signals under severe scintillation conditions by comparing amplitude scintillation during periods ...Missing: RAIM | Show results with:RAIM
[37]
The Effect of Terrain Mask on RAIM Availability
Dec 1, 2009 · RAIM algorithms can be divided into two parts: an algorithm for error detection, which detects the actual satellite failures, and a geometry ...
[38]
[PDF] NAVSTAR GPS USER EQUIPMENT INTRODUCTION - navcen
are commonly referred to as Fault Detection and Exclusion (FDE) algorithms or as. Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM or AIM) algorithms. These ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[39]
[PDF] GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM STANDARD ... - ROSA P
Oct 4, 2001 · Just for accuracy predictions, the satellite-to- receiver geometry can be computed in-advance from the almanac data stored in the receiver's.
[40]
[PDF] WAAS RAIM/FDE PREDICTION PROgRAM INSTRuCTIONS - Garmin
This program allows the pilot to specify the planned departure date/time, route type, ground speed, ground speed variation, and maximum allowable outage. When ...
[41]
Service Availability Prediction Tool (SAPT)
Jan 30, 2020 · The Service Availability Prediction Tool (SAPT) to assist pilots, dispatchers, and commercial operators in checking their predicted navigation and surveillance ...
[42]
AUGUR | EUROCONTROL
AUGUR is a web-based tool which checks the availability of GPS integrity (RAIM – receiver autonomous integrity monitoring) for a variety of operations.
[43]
Receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM) GNSS firmware
RAIM firmware on NovAtel GNSS receivers provides receiver autonomous integrity monitoring for broadcast GNSS signals.Missing: almanac | Show results with:almanac
[44]
[PDF] High-Availability Integrity Monitoring for Multi-Constellation GNSS ...
Jul 6, 2025 · These results reveal the huge potential of the JK-non-Gaussian ARAIM algorithm to support LPV-200 requirements using the GPS-Galileo dual ...
[45]
Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) and Area Navigation (RNAV)
RNP is a PBN system that includes onboard performance monitoring and alerting capability (for example, Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM)). PBN ...Missing: allocation | Show results with:allocation<|separator|>
[46]
[PDF] Advisory Circular - Federal Aviation Administration
Mar 1, 2007 · The RAIM prediction program should comply with the criteria in AC 20-138A, paragraph 12. (1) Aircraft with TSO-C129/C129a sensor (Class B or C) ...Missing: 2007 | Show results with:2007<|control11|><|separator|>
[47]
Air Traffic Services Brief -- Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)
WAAS is a cost-effective navigation system that general aviation pilots can use to improve safety and enjoy increased access to airports in all weather ...Missing: RTCA 212
[48]
[PDF] The GPS and Galileo - Air University
It recognized GPS's dual-use nature and expressed the. US government's wish ... The June 2004 EU-US cooperation agreement on the use of. Galileo and GPS ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[49]
[PDF] Space Weather Effects on GNSS Based Aviation Systems
Jul 7, 2014 · • Greatest challenges for WAAS are during strong magnetic storm activity ... • Integrity never lost during these events. • NPA not ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[50]
Integrity Concept for Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships' Position ...
Receiver autonomous integrity monitoring (RAIM): A technique whereby the redundant information available at a GNSS receiver is autonomously processed to ...
[51]
[PDF] GNSS performance standards in the maritime domain
Sep 15, 2022 · The contemporary shipborne GNSS receivers use mostly RAIM that takes into account only data derived from autonomous GNSS signals without any ...
[52]
[PDF] Safety Appraisal of GNSS-Based Localization Systems Used ... - HAL
Mar 6, 2018 · RAIM Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring. RBC. Radio Block Center ... monitoring for land transport applications and GNSS propagation ...
[53]
[PDF] Projected Performance of a Baseline High Integrity GNSS Railway ...
In particular, the system envisioned by RHINOS must integrate with the existing European Train Control System (ETCS) and meet its integrity level of Safety ...
[54]
Advanced Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring and Local ...
Mar 31, 2025 · This paper examines the adaptation of ARAIM for rail, maritime, and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) sectors. It briefly discusses aspects of the ...
[55]
Integrity is integral to precision agriculture - GPS World
Apr 12, 2023 · For precision agriculture, GNSS integrity can mean the difference between, say, a robot protecting a vineyard by weeding and spraying pesticides ...
[56]
RAIM+ Advanced Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring
RAIM+ comprises fault detection mechanisms of the receiver at all the levels including the generation of measurements, quality control and navigation ...
[57]
[PDF] EU-US Cooperation on Satellite Navigation Working Group C
Currently, GPS L1-based RAIM is widely used in aviation globally. Consequently, there is significant precedent on the use of signals from a constellation of ...
[58]
[PDF] ADVANCED RECEIVER AUTONOMOUS INTEGRITY MONITORING ...
Aug 22, 2025 · This ARAIM Performance Analysis (PAN) Report #13 includes GPS and Galileo data and analysis for January 1, 2023 through March 31, 2023. For ...
[59]
[PDF] Working Group C - ARAIM Technical Subgroup - Milestone 2 Report
This report has been prepared by the ARAIM. TSG members from the U.S Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), Stanford University. (SU), the MITRE Corporation, ...
[60]
ARAIM Technical Subgroup, Milestone III Report - GROWTH -
Feb 26, 2016 · The EU-US Cooperation on Satellite Navigation, Working Group C – ARAIM Technical Subgroup has released its Milestone 3 Report.Missing: aviation | Show results with:aviation
[61]
[PDF] PILOT EVALUATION OF INTEGRATING GLONASS, GALILEO AND ...
ABSTRACT: In this pilot study, availability of the Advanced Receiver Autonomous Integrity. Monitoring (ARAIM) when integrating various combinations of ...
[62]
[PDF] Phase II of the GNSS Evolutionary Architecture Study
Feb 5, 2010 · RAIM is used to support supplemental navigation in the en route and terminal area phases of flight, and is also used to support lateral guidance ...
[63]
Analysis of Characteristics for Inter-System Bias on Multi-GNSS ...
To analyze the short- and long-term time characteristics of multi-GNSS ISBs, as well as their relationship with receiver type and receiver antenna type.