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Sit-up

The sit-up is a classic bodyweight exercise designed to strengthen the abdominal muscles, performed by lying supine on the floor with knees bent and feet flat, then contracting the core to lift the upper body toward the knees until the torso is upright or nearly so.^[1]^[2] Primarily targeting the rectus abdominis—the "six-pack" muscle running vertically along the abdomen—sit-ups also engage the transverse abdominis for core stabilization, the internal and external obliques for rotational control, and the hip flexors (including the iliopsoas) to assist in lifting the torso.^[1]^[2] Secondary muscles such as the lower back (erector spinae), chest (pectoralis major), and neck (sternocleidomastoid) contribute to the movement, while the glutes and lower back provide stability.^[1] When performed correctly, sit-ups offer several key benefits, including enhanced core strength that supports spinal stability and reduces the risk of lower back pain, improved posture through better alignment of the hips, spine, and shoulders, and increased flexibility in the spine and hips.^[1]^[2] They also boost athletic performance by improving balance, stability, and endurance for functional movements, and may contribute to overall muscle mass preservation, particularly in preventing age-related sarcopenia.^[1] Additionally, regular sit-up practice has been associated with better breathing efficiency via diaphragm strengthening and, in children, potentially higher academic achievement linked to physical fitness.^[1] However, sit-ups carry risks, particularly for the lower back, as the repetitive flexion can strain the spine and intervertebral discs if form is poor or if performed in high volumes, leading to potential injuries like herniated discs.^[2] This concern prompted the U.S. Army to begin phasing out sit-ups from fitness tests in 2020 in favor of planks, citing research showing reduced spine stress with isometric alternatives (e.g., Gottschall et al., 2013).^[2]^[3]

Definition and Purpose

Definition

A sit-up is a bodyweight exercise commonly used to target the core, performed by starting in a supine position on the back with the knees bent and feet flat on the floor approximately hip-width apart, then contracting the abdominal muscles to lift the upper body toward the knees until reaching a semi-seated upright position, before controlled return to the starting position.^[4] This movement emphasizes spinal flexion, particularly involving the lumbar and thoracic regions, to curl the torso forward, with the rectus abdominis serving as the primary muscle responsible for this flexion by drawing the rib cage toward the pelvis.^[4] Unlike the crunch, which limits motion to partial spinal flexion of the upper back and shoulders to isolate the upper rectus abdominis with minimal hip involvement, the sit-up incorporates a fuller range of motion that extends beyond the shoulders to achieve trunk elevation, thereby engaging a broader array of core stabilizers including the external obliques.^[4] In contrast to leg raises, which primarily emphasize hip flexion through activation of the iliopsoas and rectus femoris to lift the lower extremities while keeping the back stable, sit-ups focus on upper body elevation via abdominal-driven spinal flexion, resulting in significantly higher activation of the rectus abdominis and external obliques during the eccentric lowering phase.^[5]

Primary Muscles Targeted

The sit-up exercise primarily targets the rectus abdominis, a long, paired muscle that forms the central portion of the anterior abdominal wall, extending vertically from the pubic symphysis to the xiphoid process and costal cartilages of ribs 5–7, segmented by tendinous intersections.^[6] This muscle undergoes full contraction during the spinal flexion phase of the sit-up, where the trunk curls forward from a supine position, generating torque to lift the upper body against gravity.^[7] Biomechanically, the rectus abdominis acts as the main flexor of the vertebral column, with electromyography (EMG) studies demonstrating high activation levels, averaging approximately 80% of maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) during the peak effort of the movement.^[7] The abdominal wall's layered structure further supports this engagement, comprising the rectus abdominis enclosed in the rectus sheath, formed by the aponeuroses of the lateral muscles, which collectively facilitate trunk flexion and maintain intra-abdominal pressure.^[6] Secondary muscles include the external and internal obliques, which lie laterally to the rectus abdominis with fibers oriented inferomedially and superomedially, respectively; these contribute to torso rotation in twisted sit-up variations by aiding lateral flexion and contralateral rotation.^[6] EMG data indicate moderate oblique activation during standard sit-ups, around 23% MVIC for the external oblique, increasing with rotational elements.^[5] Hip flexors, particularly the iliopsoas (comprising the psoas major and iliacus), assist in the lifting phase by flexing the hip joint and stabilizing the pelvis, though their involvement can sometimes predominate if abdominal strength is insufficient.^[5] The transverse abdominis, the deepest layer of the abdominal wall with horizontal fibers spanning from the lower ribs and iliac crest to the linea alba, provides core stabilization by compressing the viscera and supporting spinal neutrality during the exercise.^[6] Overall, spinal flexion in the sit-up recruits these muscles synergistically, with the rectus abdominis bearing the primary load for forward propulsion.^[7]

History and Evolution

Origins

The sit-up exercise emerged in the 19th century as part of the calisthenics movement in Western physical culture, influenced by European gymnastics systems. These routines emphasized bodyweight exercises for strength and health, with abdominal movements appearing in early fitness manuals amid rising interest in public health and military preparedness. By the early 20th century, the sit-up gained inclusion in institutional fitness programs, particularly military training. While early U.S. Army manuals from the 1910s focused on general calisthenics and "setting-up exercises," specific sit-up protocols became standard in the 1920s and 1930s, as seen in guides like the 1920 Mass Physical Training adaptations, reflecting a shift toward standardized abdominal conditioning for combat readiness.^[8] A key milestone was its integration into YMCA programs in the mid-20th century, popularizing calisthenics for public health.^[9]

Modern Developments

The sit-up gained widespread popularity in the mid-20th century through television programming and national fitness initiatives. Jack LaLanne's exercise show, which aired from 1951 to 1985, featured demonstrations of proper sit-up form to audiences of primarily housewives, promoting it as a staple for building core strength and overall vitality.^[10] In the 1960s, the President's Council on Physical Fitness, established under President Eisenhower in 1956 and expanded by President Kennedy, incorporated sit-ups into school-based testing programs as part of the Kraus-Weber assessment, which evaluated youth fitness through basic exercises including timed sit-ups to combat perceived declines in American physical condition.^[11]^[12] Scientific research in the 1990s began to scrutinize the traditional full sit-up, highlighting its reliance on hip flexors over abdominal muscles, which could contribute to lower back strain. A 1992 study on the validity of half sit-ups versus full sit-ups noted that the full version excessively engages hip flexors alongside abdominals, potentially increasing anterior pelvic tilt and lumbar stress, prompting recommendations for modified forms. This critique influenced a shift toward crunches, as evidenced by early 2000s analyses from the American Council on Exercise, which ranked bicycle maneuvers and captain's chair exercises higher than traditional sit-ups for targeted abdominal activation while minimizing hip flexor involvement.^[13] In the 21st century, sit-ups integrated into high-intensity training modalities like CrossFit, founded in 2000, where variations such as the glute-ham developer (GHD) sit-up emphasize full-range core engagement and stability within functional workouts.^[14] Similarly, high-intensity interval training (HIIT) protocols frequently incorporate sit-ups or their modifications for efficient core conditioning, as seen in structured routines combining them with bodyweight circuits to enhance endurance and metabolic response.^[15] Post-2010 physical therapy guidelines have adapted sit-ups for rehabilitation, favoring core stabilization alternatives like partial curl-ups over full repetitions to reduce spinal loading while rebuilding abdominal endurance, particularly for patients recovering from low back issues.^[16] The sit-up's cultural role extended through standardized fitness challenges, notably in 1980s school programs worldwide, such as the U.S. Presidential Youth Fitness Test and Canada's Fitness Award Program, which used timed sit-up counts to benchmark student health amid growing concerns over sedentary lifestyles. By the mid-2010s, digital fitness apps further embedded sit-ups in everyday routines, with trackers like LogReps and Strong Workout enabling users to log repetitions, set progressive goals, and monitor form via mobile interfaces for personalized core training.^[17]^[18]

Proper Execution

Step-by-Step Technique

To perform a sit-up correctly, begin with proper preparation to ensure alignment and safety. Lie on your back on a mat or firm surface with your knees bent at approximately 90 degrees and your feet flat on the floor, hip-width apart, to stabilize the lower body; if needed for added support, anchor the feet under a stable object or have a partner hold them. Place your hands either crossed over your chest or lightly behind your ears without interlacing fingers or pulling on the neck to avoid strain. Maintain a neutral spine by gently engaging your core to keep the natural curve in your lower back, avoiding excessive arching or flattening against the floor.^[19]^[20] The execution follows a controlled sequence to maximize abdominal engagement. First, exhale deeply while contracting your abdominal muscles to initiate the lift: curl your shoulders and upper back off the ground, keeping your chin tucked slightly toward your chest to maintain neck neutrality. Continue the flexion of your torso upward, rolling through the movement until you reach an upright position where your elbows (or hands) touch or approach your knees, ensuring the motion comes primarily from the core rather than momentum. Pause briefly at the top to hold the contraction. Then, inhale steadily as you lower your torso slowly and with control back to the starting position, allowing your upper back and shoulders to fully contact the floor without bouncing or jerking. This full range of motion ensures effective muscle activation.^[19]^[20]^[21] Incorporate a consistent breathing pattern to support intra-abdominal pressure and core stability throughout the exercise. Exhale during the ascent (the exertion phase of lifting) to brace the core and facilitate smoother torso flexion, then inhale during the descent to recover and prepare for the next repetition. This rhythmic breathing prevents breath-holding, which can increase blood pressure, and enhances overall control.^[19]^[21] For beginners, aim for 10-20 repetitions per set, focusing on quality and controlled tempo rather than speed or volume to build foundational strength without compromising form. Perform 2-3 sets with 30-60 seconds of rest between them, gradually increasing as proficiency improves.^[19]^[21]

Common Errors

One frequent error during sit-up performance is pulling on the neck or using the hands to assist the lift, which shifts the workload away from the abdominal muscles and places undue strain on the cervical spine. This often occurs when individuals interlace their fingers behind the head and yank forward, leading to potential neck discomfort or injury rather than effective core engagement. To correct this, hands should be placed lightly behind the ears or crossed over the chest, with the focus on initiating the movement through abdominal contraction while keeping the head, neck, and torso aligned.^[22]^[23] Another common mistake involves relying on momentum or swinging the body upward, which diminishes the targeted muscle activation in the abs and heightens stress on the lower back by allowing uncontrolled spinal flexion. This rapid, jerky motion reduces the exercise's effectiveness for building core strength and can contribute to improper form that exacerbates back discomfort. The remedy is to perform repetitions slowly and deliberately, emphasizing controlled ascent and descent to ensure the abdominals bear the load, as outlined in standard technique guidelines.^[24]^[23] Performers often fail to achieve a full range of motion by not fully extending the back to the floor at the start or failing to lift the torso perpendicular to the ground at the top, which limits the stretch and contraction of the rectus abdominis and reduces overall effectiveness. Partial reps compromise the exercise's ability to promote spinal flexion and core development. Correction requires consciously lowering until the lower back contacts the surface and rising until the upper body is upright, maximizing muscle involvement without compromising form.^[23] Improperly anchoring the feet, such as hooking them under a fixed object, over-recruits the hip flexors like the iliopsoas, which assist in lifting but dominate the movement and minimize isolated abdominal work while increasing lumbar stress. This setup can lead to imbalances favoring hip-driven motion over pure core isolation. For better ab targeting, feet should remain unanchored and flat on the floor, promoting greater rectus abdominis activation and reduced hip flexor involvement, as supported by electromyographic analysis.^[25]

Variations

Basic Variations

Basic variations of the sit-up modify the standard form—lying supine on the floor with knees bent and feet flat—to adjust difficulty, reduce strain, or emphasize abdominal activation for beginners and intermediate practitioners. These changes focus on leg position, arm placement, surface angle, and foot stabilization to promote accessibility while maintaining core engagement. The knee-bent position, where the knees are flexed at approximately 90 degrees with feet flat on the floor, is a foundational adaptation that reduces involvement of the hip flexors compared to straight-leg sit-ups. In straight-leg variations, the extended legs increase leverage for the hip flexors (such as the iliopsoas), which can dominate the movement and potentially strain the lower back, making the exercise less effective for isolating the rectus abdominis. By contrast, bending the knees shortens the lever arm and minimizes hip flexor recruitment, allowing greater emphasis on the abdominal muscles during the initial 20-30 degrees of trunk flexion, which is ideal for beginners building core strength without excessive compensatory muscle use. Arm position also influences ease and safety in basic sit-ups. Placing the hands across the chest, with arms folded and fingers touching the opposite shoulders, is a simpler option that decreases the exercise's difficulty by reducing the distance the torso must travel and avoiding additional leverage from extended arms. This position is commonly recommended in fitness protocols to prevent pulling on the neck. In comparison, positioning the hands behind the head with fingers interlaced increases the challenge by extending the moment arm, requiring more abdominal effort to lift the upper body, but it heightens the risk of neck strain due to loaded cervical flexion if the head is pulled forward improperly.^[26] Performing sit-ups on an incline board, rather than the flat floor, introduces gravitational resistance to progressively increase intensity. On a flat floor, the body moves horizontally with minimal external load beyond body weight, suitable for novices. An incline setup—typically with the head positioned lower than the feet at a 15-30 degree angle—alters the movement plane, forcing the abdominals to work against gravity throughout the full range of motion, thereby enhancing muscle activation and difficulty without needing added weights.^[27] Foot positioning further refines abdominal focus in basic sit-ups. Keeping the feet unanchored, with heels lifting slightly off the ground during the ascent, promotes pure abdominal contraction by limiting hip flexor assistance and encouraging the rectus abdominis to drive the motion independently. This contrasts with anchored feet, secured under a bar or held by a partner, which provides stability but increases hip flexor activation (e.g., rectus femoris) to counteract the pull, potentially shifting emphasis away from the core. Unanchored feet thus support better isolation for foundational training, though they may reduce overall reps for those still developing strength.

Advanced Modifications

Weighted sit-ups introduce additional resistance to the standard exercise by holding a medicine ball, weight plate, or dumbbell against the chest or overhead, which increases the torque on the abdominal muscles and elevates the overall intensity. To perform them, lie on the floor with knees bent and feet flat, grasp the weight securely, engage the core to lift the torso until the forearms touch the thighs, hold briefly, and lower controlled. This variation primarily targets the rectus abdominis while also engaging the obliques, quadriceps, and hip flexors, leading to faster strengthening and tightening of the core compared to unweighted versions. It is recommended for advanced practitioners, starting with 5-10 pounds to minimize strain on the back and spine.^[28] Twisting sit-ups, often incorporating elements of Russian twists, emphasize the obliques by adding a rotational component during the upward phase of the lift. The performer lies supine with knees bent, lifts the torso while rotating the upper body to one side to touch the elbow toward the opposite knee, then alternates sides on the descent or subsequent reps; a medicine ball can be held for further challenge. This targets the external and internal obliques alongside the rectus abdominis, enhancing rotational strength, posture, and balance, which benefits activities involving torso twisting. Unlike basic variations, the added rotation increases oblique activation without compromising the primary flexion motion. Partner-assisted sit-ups provide controlled overload through dynamic interaction, such as the sit-up toss where two individuals face each other, perform alternating sit-ups while passing a medicine ball at the peak of the lift using chest and triceps power. Resistance bands can anchor to a stable point behind the performer, looped around the back or feet to resist the upward motion during rollups or crunches, adding variable tension for progressive challenge. Gym machines like the seated crunch or decline bench facilitate similar overload: on the former, shins secure under pads while handles pull the torso forward against stacked weights; on the latter, the angled platform increases gravitational pull for weighted torso lifts. These methods enhance core engagement and coordination, allowing precise progression while reducing solo execution risks.^[29]^[30]^[31]

Fitness Benefits

Muscular and Core Strength Gains

A randomized controlled trial involving women with diastasis recti abdominis demonstrated that a curl-up program (a sit-up variant) over 12 weeks significantly increased rectus abdominis thickness, measured via ultrasound, alongside maximal abdominal strength, without exacerbating inter-recti distance.^[32] This suggests potential for muscle thickening in specific populations under mechanical tension, similar to other skeletal muscles.^[33] Core endurance can improve through sit-up training due to prolonged time under tension, which enhances the ability of abdominal muscles to sustain contractions during dynamic activities. A randomized controlled trial found within-group improvements in timed sit-up performance over 12 weeks in untrained individuals, though no between-group differences compared to other training types.^[34] This adaptation may translate to better stability in daily tasks and sports, as the rectus abdominis and associated core muscles develop greater fatigue resistance.^[4] Sit-ups also promote development in supporting muscles, including the obliques and transverse abdominis, fostering improved posture and balance. Electromyographic studies show that standard sit-ups activate the external obliques at approximately 59% of maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) and the internal obliques at 62% MVIC, while the transverse abdominis reaches about 41% MVIC, indicating balanced recruitment across the core.^[4] Over time, this leads to strengthened lateral stabilization and deeper core compression, reducing compensatory movements during compound lifts or athletic maneuvers.^[35] Note that sit-up benefits are often observed within broader core training programs, with ongoing research favoring a mix of dynamic and isometric exercises for optimal endurance and safety. Effective training protocols differentiate between strength and endurance goals. For muscular strength and hypertrophy, perform 3 sets of 8-12 repetitions with added weight (e.g., holding a plate during decline sit-ups), allowing 2-3 minutes of rest to maximize load and recovery.^[33] In contrast, for core endurance, use 3 sets to maximum repetitions with bodyweight, emphasizing controlled tempo and minimal rest (30-60 seconds), which builds sustained tension capacity over 4-6 weeks.^[34]

Overall Health Advantages

Regular incorporation of sit-ups into a fitness routine strengthens the core muscles, which supports improved posture and may reduce the incidence of lower back pain. A cluster-randomized controlled trial among military recruits demonstrated that core muscle functional strength training significantly lowered the incidence of low back pain (10.8% vs. 20.8% in controls) while enhancing lumbar muscle endurance and alleviating associated dysfunction.^[36] Sit-ups contribute to metabolic benefits when integrated into circuit training protocols, elevating calorie expenditure and supporting weight management efforts. For an individual weighing 155 pounds (70 kg), performing moderate-intensity circuit training that includes sit-ups can burn around 240 calories in 30 minutes, promoting fat loss through sustained elevated heart rate and post-exercise oxygen consumption.^[37] This metabolic boost aids in overall energy balance, as regular core-focused circuits help maintain a higher resting metabolic rate by preserving lean muscle mass, thereby facilitating sustainable weight control without excessive dietary restriction.^[38] Beyond isolated strength, sit-ups enhance functional fitness by improving power transfer in dynamic activities such as running and throwing sports. A systematic review with meta-analysis revealed that core training programs showed a significant large effect on throwing/hitting distance (ES = 3.42, p = 0.03) but a small non-significant effect on velocity (ES = 0.30, p = 0.14), optimizing force transmission from the lower to upper body for efficient energy utilization during explosive movements.^[39] In runners specifically, core strength exercises like sit-ups have been shown to lead to better 5,000-meter performance, though without significant enhancements in running kinetics or lower-extremity stability.^[40] Incorporating sit-ups into exercise routines also links to mental health advantages through endorphin release and stress reduction, as supported by research from the 2010s. Aerobic and resistance exercises, including core work like sit-ups, stimulate endorphin production while lowering cortisol levels, thereby mitigating acute stress responses and enhancing emotional resilience.^[41] A 2011 review highlighted that regular physical activity routines containing such exercises alleviate long-term depression and anxiety symptoms by promoting neurochemical changes that foster well-being.^[42]

Risks and Safety

Potential Injuries

Improper or excessive performance of sit-ups can lead to lower back strain due to repeated lumbar flexion and the use of momentum, which increases compressive and shear forces on the intervertebral discs.^[43] These forces, measured at up to 3,300 N during traditional sit-ups, exceed safe thresholds for the lumbar spine and contribute to disc bulging or herniation over time, particularly in individuals with pre-existing spinal vulnerabilities.^[44] Neck strain is a common injury associated with the hands-behind-head variation of sit-ups, where pulling on the head exacerbates cervical flexion and can result in muscle tears or sprains from improper alignment and jerking motions.^[45] This risk is heightened when the exercise relies on upper body momentum rather than core engagement, leading to undue stress on the cervical vertebrae and surrounding soft tissues.^[46] High-volume sit-up training without adequate rest can cause overuse injuries to the hip flexors, specifically iliopsoas tendinitis, as the exercise demands repetitive hip flexion that irritates the tendon insertion at the femur.^[47] Symptoms include anterior hip pain and snapping sensations, often exacerbated in activities involving prolonged or intense bending of the hip joint.^[48] Studies indicate that sit-ups pose a higher risk of spinal injuries compared to crunches, with biomechanical analyses showing greater lumbar stress and compression in sit-ups due to full trunk flexion.^[49] For instance, military research has linked routine sit-up protocols to increased incidence of lower back issues, prompting shifts toward alternative core exercises to reduce injury prevalence.^[50]

Preventive Measures

To minimize injury risk during sit-up exercises, incorporating a proper warm-up routine is essential, as it increases blood flow to the abdominal and hip muscles while improving flexibility and reducing muscle strain. Dynamic stretches, such as torso twists, leg swings, and gentle marching in place for 5-10 minutes, target the core and hips effectively before performing sets of sit-ups.^[51] Progression should be gradual to allow the body to adapt and prevent overuse injuries, starting with fewer repetitions (e.g., 8-12 per set for beginners) and incorporating rest days of at least 48 hours between sessions targeting the same muscle groups. According to ACSM guidelines, novice trainees should perform resistance exercises 2-3 days per week, gradually increasing volume and intensity by 10-20% as strength improves, while monitoring for signs of fatigue.^[52] Maintaining proper form is critical to avoid excessive spinal stress; individuals can use mirrors or work with a certified trainer to ensure the lower back remains neutral and the movement is controlled, lifting only the shoulder blades off the ground rather than performing full sit-ups. For beginners with existing back issues, safer alternatives like planks—holding a forearm plank position for 20-30 seconds—can build core stability without the flexion demands of sit-ups.^[53]^[54] Sit-ups are contraindicated for individuals with a history of spinal conditions, such as herniated discs or lower back pain, due to the potential for increased disc compression and strain. Per ACSM guidelines, those with such conditions should consult a healthcare professional or certified exercise specialist before incorporating sit-ups to assess risks and receive personalized modifications.^[53]^[55]

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Jul 7, 2020 · Exercise reduces levels of the body's stress hormones, such as adrenaline and cortisol. It also stimulates the production of endorphins.
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Dec 1, 2011 · But the effects of physical activity extend beyond the short-term. Research shows that exercise can also help alleviate long-term depression.
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Lumbar compressive and shear forces during various trunk curl-up ...
The lumbar compressive and shear forces were determined using a computer model, BIOMECH6, during the performance of the longlaying, hooklaying and bench curl- ...
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Do Crunches and Sit-ups Get A Bad Rap?
Apr 29, 2019 · Crunches and sit-ups are controversial; sit-ups impose high spinal compression, while crunches lack the same flexion. Some argue that high ...Missing: ACE 1997
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3 Types of Exercise That Can Cause Neck Pain
Sit-ups. Traditional full-body sit-ups can cause neck pain due to the misalignment of the head and neck and the jerkiness that often accompanies the motion.
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Iliopsoas Tendinopathy - Physiopedia
Iliopsoas tendinopathy refers to a condition that affects the insertion of the muscle on the femur, and can occur with repetitive hip flexion.
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[PDF] ILIOPSOAS BURSITIS / TENDINITIS - Edinburgh Orthopaedics
Frequent Signs and Symptoms: Pain with activities such as kicking or bending the hip up, and sit ups. Pain lifting the leg up, such as getting in a car or ...
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Apr 18, 2016 · So sit-ups might lead to back pain, but only in some people. It's a good excuse not to do them. But if you want to crunch those abs, is there a ...
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Study investigates sit-ups vs. core strengthening during APFT | Article
The results of this early study demonstrated that training and strengthening of core muscles does not pose any risk of increasing failure rates on the APFT.Missing: gains paper
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The best exercises for your warm-up - Harvard Health
Nov 1, 2022 · Other warm-up activities to perform before vigorous exercise include marching in place, arm sweeps (sweeping your arms overhead), torso ...The Best Exercises For Your... · Boosting Your Energy · Starting To ExerciseMissing: abdominal | Show results with:abdominal<|separator|>
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American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Progression ...
The recommendation for training frequency is 2-3 d x wk(-1) for novice training, 3-4 d x wk(-1) for intermediate training, and 4-5 d x wk(-1) for advanced ...
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None
### Summary of Sit-Ups, Abdominal Exercises, Contraindicated Exercises, Safe Techniques, Injury Risks, and Preventive Measures
[59]
[PDF] Contraindicated Exercises - NCSF
Contraindicated exercises include lat pull-downs behind the head, shoulder presses behind the head, leg lifts/throws, and anchored sit-ups.<|separator|>
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[PDF] ACSM-CPT Crosswalk
the benefits, risks, and contraindications for a wide variety of resistance ... exercises (for example, straight-leg sit-ups, double leg raises, full squats,.