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Skylab 2

Skylab 2 was the first crewed mission to the United States' Skylab orbital space station, launched by NASA on May 25, 1973, aboard a Saturn IB rocket from Kennedy Space Center, Florida.^[1] Commanded by Charles "Pete" Conrad Jr., with pilot Paul J. Weitz and science pilot Joseph P. Kerwin, the 28-day mission focused on repairing critical damage to Skylab sustained during its uncrewed launch on May 14, 1973, and conducting pioneering scientific experiments in microgravity.^[2] Despite challenges, including a jammed solar array and overheating, the crew successfully stabilized the station and gathered valuable data on human physiology, Earth resources, and solar physics, setting a U.S. record for the longest spaceflight at the time.^[3] Skylab, America's first space station, encountered severe issues shortly after liftoff when its micrometeoroid shield ripped away, causing loss of thermal protection, and one of its four solar array wings was torn off while the other remained pinned against the station's fuselage, severely limiting power generation.^[2] These failures raised doubts about the station's viability, prompting NASA to delay the crewed mission and prepare contingency repairs.^[2] Upon docking with Skylab on May 26 after eight attempts due to docking mechanism problems, the crew prioritized restoration efforts, deploying an innovative 22-by-24-foot parasol sunshade through the scientific airlock module on their first full day aboard to reduce internal temperatures from over 120°F (49°C) to a habitable 75°F (24°C).^[4] A subsequent spacewalk on June 7 by Conrad and Kerwin, lasting 3 hours and 25 minutes—the longest extravehicular activity in U.S. history at that point—attempted to free the jammed solar array using a pole-like tool, but the wing could not be fully deployed, leaving Skylab at about half its designed power capacity.^[4] Despite power constraints, the Skylab 2 crew activated the station's primary instruments, including the Apollo Telescope Mount for solar observations and the Earth Resources Experiment Package for multispectral imaging.^[2] They completed over 90% of planned medical experiments, documenting physiological effects such as muscle atrophy and fluid shifts in zero gravity, alongside Earth science studies that produced the first comprehensive orbital views of weather patterns, agriculture, and urban development.^[3] Solar physics research yielded 81% of targeted observations, advancing understanding of coronal mass ejections and sunspots.^[3] The mission concluded with 404 orbits on June 22, 1973, splashing down in the Pacific Ocean approximately 800 miles southwest of San Diego, California, where the crew, though weakened by their extended stay, walked unassisted to a helicopter.^[3] Skylab 2's success validated long-duration spaceflight capabilities, paving the way for subsequent missions (Skylab 3 and 4) and informing future programs like the Space Shuttle and International Space Station.^[2] By demonstrating in-orbit repairs and operational resilience, it marked a pivotal shift from short Apollo lunar trips to sustained human presence in space, while breaking the previous Soviet record for mission duration held by Soyuz 11.^[3]

Background and Development

Skylab Program Origins

The Skylab program originated as part of NASA's Apollo Applications Program (AAP), which aimed to repurpose surplus Apollo hardware for extended space missions following the conclusion of lunar landings. Early concepts for an orbital laboratory emerged in the early 1960s, with Wernher von Braun proposing in 1959 the use of a spent rocket stage as a space station module, building on prior studies for manned orbiting facilities. By 1965, the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) began detailed investigations into converting the Saturn V's S-IVB upper stage into a habitable Orbital Workshop (OWS), marking the shift toward a "wet workshop" design where the stage would be fueled for launch and then repurposed in orbit. This approach leveraged existing Saturn V infrastructure to create NASA's first space station without requiring entirely new launch vehicles.^[5] In July 1969, shortly after the Apollo 11 Moon landing, NASA Administrator Thomas O. Paine approved the transition to a "dry workshop" configuration, where the S-IVB stage would be outfitted on the ground as a pressurized habitat prior to launch, a decision influenced by engineering assessments favoring pre-launch modifications for reliability.^[5] The program received official authorization on July 22, 1969, and was redesignated as Skylab on February 24, 1970, by the NASA Project Designation Committee.^[6] Conversion work commenced at MSFC in early 1970, with McDonnell Douglas Astronautics contracted to transform the S-IVB into the OWS, incorporating living quarters, experiment facilities, and docking adapters; this process included subsystem integrations and tests completed by mid-1972.^[5] Key milestones included the approval of the Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM) in 1966 for solar observations and the establishment of the Skylab program office at MSFC under Wernher von Braun's oversight.^[6] Skylab represented a pivotal transition in the post-Apollo era, shifting NASA's focus from short-duration lunar expeditions to sustained orbital research and long-duration human spaceflight.^[7] Launched amid budget constraints and workforce transitions from Apollo, the program utilized the final Saturn V rocket to enable experiments in biomedical sciences, Earth resources observation, solar physics, and materials processing, aiming to study astronaut adaptation to microgravity and gather data for future space stations.^[5] Objectives emphasized practical applications, such as physiological monitoring during extended stays and high-resolution imaging of Earth's surface, bridging the gap to subsequent programs like the Space Shuttle.^[7] The unmanned Skylab launch occurred on May 14, 1973, aboard the Saturn V SA-513 from Kennedy Space Center, successfully placing the 77-ton station into a 270-nautical-mile orbit.^[7] However, 63 seconds after liftoff, the micrometeoroid shield tore away due to aerodynamic forces, exposing the workshop to extreme thermal conditions and causing temperatures to exceed 120°F (49°C) in some areas.^[6] Additionally, one of the OWS's two solar array wings was torn off by the vehicle's retrorockets approximately 10 minutes after liftoff, while the other failed to deploy because debris from the shield pinned it against the spacecraft body, limiting OWS power generation to only about 25 watts (negligible compared to the planned 12.4 kW), with primary power provided by the Apollo Telescope Mount's solar arrays.^[5]^[8] These issues necessitated urgent modifications for the subsequent crewed mission but did not compromise the station's overall habitability after ground-based contingency planning.^[7]

Pre-Mission Preparations and Challenges

Following the unmanned launch of Skylab on May 14, 1973, NASA engineers conducted urgent ground-based assessments to evaluate the extent of damage sustained during ascent, primarily using telemetry data from the spacecraft and observations from ground-based telescopes. These assessments revealed that the micrometeoroid shield had torn away approximately 63 seconds after liftoff, exposing the Orbital Workshop to intense solar heating and causing internal temperatures to exceed safe limits, reaching up to 129°F (54°C) in some areas. Additionally, one of the main solar array wings on the Workshop had been completely severed (torn off by retrorockets), while the other failed to deploy and remained pinned against the fuselage by debris from the shield, severely limiting OWS power contribution to only about 25 watts (well below the required levels for full operations), though the ATM arrays provided sufficient power for essential systems under constrained attitudes.^[8]^[9] To address these critical issues, NASA teams at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) and Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) rapidly developed repair tools and procedures tailored for extravehicular activity (EVA), focusing on thermal protection and power restoration. The primary solution for overheating was the "parasol" sunshade, a compact, foldable device made of aluminized Mylar bonded to nylon, designed to deploy through the Workshop's scientific airlock to provide shade without requiring an EVA. This was supplemented by a twin-pole thermal shield concept with ultraviolet-resistant coatings for longer-term use. For the solar array, engineers created a deployment kit including shear-type metal cutters, a universal handling tool, and long extension poles to cut away debris and release the jammed actuator clevis. These tools and procedures were rigorously tested in neutral buoyancy simulations at MSFC's Water Immersion Facility and JSC's Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory, using full-scale mockups of the Skylab structure and crew wearing A7LB spacesuits to replicate zero-gravity conditions and refine EVA techniques.^[10]^[4] The damage analysis necessitated significant adjustments to the Skylab 2 mission timeline, originally slated for launch on May 15, 1973—just one day after Skylab's insertion into orbit—to allow time for repair planning and verification of the station's habitability. After initial assessments confirmed the overheating and power deficits, NASA extended the delay progressively, first by five days and ultimately to 10 days, rescheduling the launch for May 25, 1973, to incorporate the new repair hardware and procedures into the mission profile. This adjustment also involved updating crew training to prioritize the parasol deployment and potential solar array EVA, ensuring the station could support the planned 28-day residency.^[2]^[11] Concurrently, preparations advanced for the Skylab 2 launch vehicle at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), where the Saturn IB rocket (designated SA-206) was integrated with Command and Service Module (CSM) 116 in the Vehicle Assembly Building. This process, completed in early May 1973 before the damage incident, involved mating the S-IB first stage and S-IVB upper stage to the CSM, followed by payload fairing installation and checkout of propulsion, guidance, and electrical systems to confirm compatibility with the modified mission objectives. The integrated stack was then moved to Launch Pad 39B for final fueling and countdown simulations, accounting for the revised timeline without major reconfiguration.^[12]^[11]

Crew and Training

Prime Crew

The prime crew for Skylab 2, the first crewed mission to the United States' inaugural space station, consisted of Commander Charles "Pete" Conrad Jr., Science Pilot Joseph P. Kerwin, and Pilot Paul J. Weitz.^[1] This trio was announced by NASA on January 19, 1972, as the primary flight team for the initial 28-day orbital residency, selected under the Skylab program's rotating crew concept that planned for three sequential teams to maximize station utilization and scientific output.^[2] Charles "Pete" Conrad Jr. served as mission commander, bringing extensive leadership experience from his prior three spaceflights, including commanding Gemini 11 in 1966 and Apollo 12 in 1969, which marked the second lunar landing.^[13] Selected as part of NASA's second astronaut group in 1962, Conrad's veteran status—making Skylab 2 his fourth orbital mission—positioned him to oversee the crew's activation of the damaged station, rendezvous operations, and repair efforts following Skylab's problematic unmanned launch.^[2] His naval aviation background and proven command of complex missions underscored his role in coordinating the team's multifaceted responsibilities.^[14] Joseph P. Kerwin, the science pilot, was a physician whose medical expertise was pivotal for Skylab 2's biomedical experiments, including studies on human adaptation to microgravity and physiological monitoring of the crew.^[15] Selected in NASA's 1965 scientist-astronaut group, Kerwin flew his first and only space mission on Skylab 2, becoming the first American medical doctor to orbit Earth and directly contributing to health-related research that informed future long-duration flights.^[15] His background as a Navy flight surgeon enhanced the mission's focus on life sciences, ensuring real-time medical oversight during the station's activation and operations.^[16] Paul J. Weitz acted as pilot, leveraging his skills as a naval aviator for precise docking maneuvers with the orbiting Skylab and handling the Apollo command module's navigation systems.^[17] A member of NASA's 1966 astronaut class, this marked Weitz's inaugural spaceflight, where his aviation proficiency—honed as a test pilot—supported the crew's approach to the station and extravehicular activities.^[18] Weitz's role emphasized operational piloting, complementing the team's scientific and command functions in the post-launch repair scenario.^[19]

Backup and Support Crews

The backup crew for Skylab 2 consisted of Russell L. "Rusty" Schweickart as commander, Story Musgrave as science pilot, and Bruce McCandless II as pilot, selected to serve as fully trained replacements in the event that any prime crew member was unable to fly.^[20]^[2] These astronauts underwent rigorous preparation equivalent to the prime crew, ensuring seamless transition if needed, and their assignment followed NASA's standard practice of rotating experienced personnel to maintain mission continuity across the Skylab program.^[21] The support crew, comprising four astronauts—Robert L. Crippen, Henry W. Hartsfield Jr., William E. Thornton, and Richard H. Truly—played essential ground-based roles in mission preparation and execution.^[22]^[23]^[24] They were responsible for developing and refining mission procedures, conducting simulations to test emergency scenarios, and serving as capsule communicators (CapComs) during the flight to relay critical information between Mission Control and the orbiting crew.^[2] Thornton's expertise as a physician-astronaut, for instance, contributed to biomedical protocol development, while the team's collective efforts ensured robust support for the prime crew's repair and scientific objectives.^[23] There was significant overlap in training between the backup and support crews, with backups like Schweickart actively participating in full mission rehearsals, including simulated altitude tests and procedure validations alongside the prime crew.^[21] This integration enhanced overall readiness, and the backups were positioned as potential prime crew for Skylab 3 should delays or issues arise, reflecting NASA's contingency planning for the program's sequential missions.^[25]

Mission Objectives and Design

Scientific and Technical Objectives

The primary scientific and technical objectives of Skylab 2 centered on repairing and activating the Skylab space station following its launch damage, while conducting a comprehensive program of research to advance knowledge in human spaceflight. Following Skylab's launch damage on May 14, 1973, mission objectives were revised to prioritize repairs, including contingency extravehicular activities (EVAs) developed in the intervening 11 days before the Skylab 2 launch. The crew was tasked with restoring functionality to critical systems, including deploying a substitute sunshade to replace the micrometeoroid shield torn away during ascent and freeing a jammed solar array to restore power generation. Additionally, they aimed to activate key components such as the Multiple Docking Adapter, Airlock Module, and Apollo Telescope Mount to enable full station operations. These efforts were essential to salvage the orbital laboratory and demonstrate the feasibility of manned space station missions.^[2] A core goal was to perform the planned experiments across multiple disciplines, including approximately 14 major investigations in biomedical studies on crew physiological responses to microgravity, solar physics observations, Earth resources monitoring, and materials science investigations. Biomedical experiments focused on assessing cardiovascular changes, fluid shifts, and muscle atrophy during extended space exposure to inform future long-duration missions. Solar physics research emphasized coronal and chromospheric phenomena, while Earth resources work involved multispectral imaging to evaluate land use, agriculture, and geological features. These experiments, totaling hundreds of hours of dedicated research time, sought to expand scientific understanding without delving into post-mission outcomes.^[2] Technical objectives included validating a 28-day human spaceflight duration to test crew endurance and operational efficiency in a space station environment, evaluating habitability through daily routines and subsystem performance, and demonstrating multiple docking capabilities with the station's adapter. The mission targeted proof-of-concept for sustained orbital habitation, including waste management, food preparation, and sleep accommodations in zero gravity, to support subsequent Skylab crews. Habitability assessments also involved monitoring environmental controls like temperature and humidity after repairs.^[1] Prominent among the experiments was the Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM), a solar observatory mounted externally on Skylab, designed to capture high-resolution images and spectra of the Sun's atmosphere using eight instruments across four separate telescopes powered by dedicated solar arrays. The ATM aimed to study solar flares, prominences, and magnetic fields to enhance understanding of solar-terrestrial interactions. Complementing this, the Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP) utilized cameras, scanners, and spectrometers to conduct remote sensing of Earth's surface, targeting applications in resource mapping, pollution detection, and oceanography from a 435-kilometer orbit. These packages represented the mission's emphasis on observatory-style science from a stable platform.^[2]

Spacecraft Configuration and Parameters

The Skylab 2 mission employed the Saturn IB launch vehicle, designated SA-206, to place the Apollo Command and Service Module (CSM) 116 into Earth orbit for rendezvous and docking with the pre-deployed Skylab space station. The Saturn IB configuration included the S-IB-6 first stage, powered by eight H-1 engines delivering a total sea-level thrust of approximately 1.64 million pounds-force, the S-IVB-206 second stage with a single J-2 engine providing 225,000 pounds-force of vacuum thrust, and the Instrument Unit (IU-206) for inertial guidance and flight control. The total launch vehicle mass at ignition was 592,888 kg.^[12]^[26] CSM 116 followed the Block II Apollo architecture, adapted for extended-duration operations with modifications to the docking system, including an extended probe for compatibility with Skylab's Multiple Docking Adapter (MDA). The CSM consisted of the Command Module for crew habitation and reentry, the Service Module housing propulsion, power, and life support subsystems, and the Spacecraft/LM Adapter interfacing with the launch vehicle. Its launch mass was 19,979 kg, supporting three crew members with the Service Propulsion System capable of velocity changes up to 1,300 feet per second for orbital maneuvers.^[26]^[27] The Skylab Orbital Workshop, launched unmanned on May 14, 1973, via Saturn V SA-513, formed the core of the station and included the modified S-IVB tank as the primary habitable volume, a damaged MDA for docking operations, the Airlock Module enabling extravehicular activities, and the Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM) for solar observations. Launch damage to the MDA and one of the workshop's solar arrays compromised initial functionality, necessitating in-mission repairs.^[12] Mission parameters targeted an initial parking orbit of 150 km perigee by 352 km apogee following S-IVB cutoff, with subsequent CSM burns raising the orbit to match Skylab's nominal near-circular path at approximately 428 km perigee and 438 km apogee, a 50° inclination to the equator, and an orbital period of 94.5 minutes. The flight profile planned for 404 orbits to achieve the 28-day mission duration.^[28]^[29]^[3] Skylab's electrical power subsystem centered on deployable solar arrays integrated with the Orbital Workshop and ATM, nominally generating up to 12.4 kW, though post-repair operations relied on the restored arrays for 10-12 kW to power station systems and experiments. Life support infrastructure, including the Environmental Control System, was configured to maintain a habitable atmosphere, thermal regulation, and resource recycling for three crew members throughout the planned 28-day occupancy, with redundant capabilities for extended contingencies.^[7]^[10]

Planned Extravehicular Activities

The Skylab 2 mission planned for three extravehicular activities (EVAs) to address station repairs and routine maintenance following the damage sustained during Skylab's launch. The first EVA, estimated at 20 minutes, was intended as a brief stand-up visual inspection of the damaged areas, including the micrometeoroid shield and solar arrays. This short excursion from the Command Module hatch before docking aimed to provide initial assessments of the extent of debris and structural issues.^[30] The second planned EVA, allocated approximately 3.5 hours, focused on deploying the jammed solar array to restore power generation. Astronauts were to use the airlock module to exit the station, cut away obstructing debris with specialized tools, and extend the array wing. The parasol-style sunshade was a separate internal deployment through the scientific airlock, not part of this EVA. This activity was critical for restoring power generation and temperature control, with procedures rehearsed extensively in neutral buoyancy simulators to ensure precise maneuvering around the station's exterior.^[31] The third EVA, planned for about 2 hours toward the mission's end, involved retrieving exposed film cassettes from the Apollo Telescope Mount and performing minor maintenance tasks, such as inspecting external experiments and securing loose components. This retrieval was essential for returning solar observation data to Earth, with the crew tasked with transferring the cassettes via tethers to avoid loss in orbit.^[30] Crew members Joseph Kerwin and Paul Weitz were designated as primary extravehicular crewmen, supported by commander Charles Conrad monitoring from inside, drawing on their Apollo-era training for coordinated roles during these activities.^[31] The EVAs utilized A7LB spacesuits, modified from the Apollo lunar suits for improved mobility and thermal protection in orbital conditions, integrated with the Universal Extravehicular Activity Mobility Unit (EMU) for life support.^[32] Specialized tools included long-handled cutters for debris removal, extension poles for sunshade deployment, and universal wrenches for maintenance, all stowed in the airlock and tested for zero-gravity functionality.^[30] Contingency procedures emphasized safety during untethered phases, such as using secondary safety tethers and restraint points on the station's handrails to prevent drift, with predefined abort criteria for immediate return to the airlock if suit malfunctions or thermal excursions occurred.^[31] Emergency protocols included rapid repressurization sequences and backup communication channels to the command module, ensuring the crew could ingress within minutes if needed.^[31]

Launch and Initial Operations

Launch Sequence

The Skylab 2 mission lifted off on May 25, 1973, at 9:00 a.m. EDT from Launch Complex 39B at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, aboard the Saturn IB launch vehicle designated SA-206.^[28]^[33] This vehicle consisted of the S-IB first stage and the S-IVB upper stage, configured to deliver the Apollo Command and Service Module (CSM-116) to low Earth orbit for rendezvous with the orbiting Skylab space station.^[28] The ascent began with the S-IB stage's four RP-1-powered engines igniting at liftoff, propelling the stack along a 90° azimuth before rolling to 47.58° east of north approximately 10 seconds later to align with the planned orbital plane.^[33] The first stage burned for about 142 seconds, achieving a velocity of roughly 2,040 m/s at an altitude of 59 km before engine cutoff and stage separation.^[28]^[33] The S-IVB stage then ignited its single J-2 engine, continuing powered flight for approximately 436 seconds and reaching maximum dynamic pressure around 67 seconds into the overall ascent at 12.84 km altitude.^[28]^[33] Total powered flight lasted roughly 586 seconds, or about 9 minutes and 46 seconds, culminating in S-IVB engine cutoff and insertion into an initial parking orbit of 150 by 352 km at a 50° inclination.^[28]^[33] Following insertion, the crew—Commander Charles Conrad, Pilot Paul Weitz, and Science Pilot Joseph Kerwin—initiated an attitude hold maneuver to establish a posigrade local horizontal orientation approximately 21 seconds after cutoff.^[28] Post-insertion activities included systems checks to verify spacecraft performance and health, with the CSM separating from the S-IVB stage about 16 minutes after launch at 960 seconds mission elapsed time.^[28]^[33] The crew then oriented the CSM for the upcoming rendezvous phase, conducting preliminary navigation sightings and configuring systems for the approach to Skylab.^[28] These steps ensured the vehicle was stable and ready for the orbital adjustments planned over the next several hours.^[28]

Rendezvous, Docking, and Station Activation

The Skylab 2 crew, consisting of Commander Charles Conrad Jr., Pilot Paul J. Weitz, and Science Pilot Joseph P. Kerwin, launched aboard a Saturn IB rocket from Kennedy Space Center's Launch Complex 39B at 9:00 a.m. EDT on May 25, 1973, achieving an initial orbit of 150 by 352 kilometers at a 50° inclination.^[6] During the subsequent six-hour period, the Command and Service Module (CSM) executed four orbital maneuvers using its Reaction Control System thrusters to circularize the orbit at approximately 424 by 415 kilometers, aligning with Skylab's orbital parameters for rendezvous.^[34] These burns, commencing roughly 7.5 hours post-launch, included a groundtrack phasing burn, two midpoint burns, and a terminal phase initiation burn, culminating in station-keeping at about 200 meters from the station during the fifth orbital revolution.^[6] Rendezvous commenced around 5:00 p.m. EDT, with the crew performing a flyaround inspection to visually assess Skylab's pre-launch damage, including the loss of its micrometeoroid shield and one solar array wing.^[6] Initial contact occurred at 5:56 p.m. EDT, achieving soft docking via the CSM's probe-and-drogue mechanism to the station's Multiple Docking Adapter.^[6] However, retraction of the probe to establish a hard seal failed repeatedly due to misalignment and capture latch issues, requiring eight attempts over the next several hours.^[6] Conrad, drawing on his Apollo experience, directed manual interventions: the crew donned pressure suits, depressurized the command module tunnel, and partially disassembled the docking probe to clear obstructions and realign components, a process spanning approximately 3.5 hours of troubleshooting.^[34] Hard docking was finally secured at 11:50 p.m. EDT, ending a 22-hour first workday for the crew.^[6] On May 26, 1973, following leak checks and atmospheric verification, the crew opened the hatch and entered the Orbital Workshop at 3:30 p.m. EDT, marking the first human access to an American space station.^[6] Activation began with repressurization of the station, involving four cycles of depressurization and repressurization using nitrogen to purge residual contaminants and achieve a breathable atmosphere at 5.0 psi oxygen partial pressure.^[6] Basic systems checkout ensued, prioritizing environmental controls, power distribution, and communications amid persistent overheating from the lost shield, which had elevated interior temperatures to over 130°F (54°C) and caused outgassing of materials.^[34] Between 5:00 and 7:30 p.m. EDT, the crew deployed a temporary twin-pole parasol sunshade through the scientific airlock, reducing temperatures to a more tolerable 90°F (32°C) within hours and stabilizing the thermal environment for subsequent operations.^[6] Full systems verification continued through May 27–29, confirming functionality of critical subsystems like attitude control and life support before transitioning to experiment setup.^[6]

In-Flight Mission

Repair Operations

During the Skylab 2 mission, the crew conducted essential engineering repairs to address damage sustained during the station's launch on May 14, 1973, which included the loss of the micrometeoroid shield and jamming of one solar array by launch debris.^[8] The most significant repair involved freeing the jammed solar array during Extravehicular Activity 2 (EVA-2) on June 7, 1973. Commander Charles Conrad and Science Pilot Joseph P. Kerwin, supported by Pilot Paul J. Weitz inside the station, spent 3 hours and 25 minutes outside, using a 25-foot pole fitted with a cable cutter to slice through an aluminum strap binding the array and a rope tethered to the Apollo Telescope Mount to pull the hinge free, successfully deploying the array to full extension. This action restored the station's electrical power from approximately 25% of designed capacity—provided solely by the Apollo Telescope Mount arrays—to nearly full operational levels, enabling the continuation of scientific experiments.^[35]^[4] To mitigate overheating caused by the missing shield, the crew deployed a temporary sunshade on May 26, 1973, shortly after docking and station activation. Working through the scientific airlock without an EVA, they extended an aluminum-coated Mylar and nylon "parasol" sail measuring about 6.7 by 7.3 meters, designed by NASA engineer Jack Kinzler and sewn by Johnson Space Center seamstresses. The deployment reduced internal workshop temperatures from over 51°C (124°F) to a habitable 24°C (75°F) within three days, preventing damage to equipment and ensuring crew safety.^[36]^[37] Additional repairs included troubleshooting issues with the attitude control system, where high drift rates in the rate gyroscopes—caused by gas bubbles in the flotation fluid—were identified and managed through operational adjustments to maintain station stability. The crew also performed waste management tasks, ejecting accumulated trash through the airlock to clear storage space and the docking port area, supporting overall station habitability during the 28-day mission.^[38]

Daily Activities and Experiments

The Skylab 2 crew followed a structured daily routine designed to maximize scientific productivity while maintaining crew health during their 28-day mission. The typical workday spanned 16 hours, from approximately 6 a.m. to 10 p.m. Houston time, encompassing experiment operations, data analysis, housekeeping, meals, and exercise, followed by 8 hours of sleep for all three crew members simultaneously.^[39] This schedule was adjusted periodically to align with orbital passes over specific Earth regions or solar observation windows, ensuring coordinated shifts among Commander Charles Conrad, Science Pilot Joseph Kerwin, and Pilot Paul Weitz. Exercise was integrated into the routine, with each crew member allocated 30 minutes daily on the bicycle ergometer to counteract the effects of microgravity on cardiovascular fitness and muscle tone; the device could be used in foot or hand mode for versatility.^[40] Non-EVA experiments formed the core of daily scientific activities, focusing on biomedical monitoring and Earth observations. Biomedical efforts included the use of the lower body negative pressure (LBNP) device to simulate gravitational stress and assess orthostatic tolerance; early in-flight tests on Skylab 2 revealed exaggerated heart rate and blood pressure responses compared to preflight baselines, highlighting fluid shifts in microgravity, though no clear adaptation trend emerged over the mission.^[41] Earth photography was conducted using handheld Hasselblad cameras equipped with 80mm lenses and color infrared film, allowing crew members to document geological and environmental features during free observation periods; for instance, images captured color variations in bodies of water like the Great Salt Lake due to human-made structures.^[42] These activities complemented the automated Earth Resources Experiment Package but emphasized manual, opportunistic imaging to support resource mapping and atmospheric studies. Logistical operations ensured habitability and supported the experiment schedule. Food preparation involved rehydrating freeze-dried packets—such as entrees, beverages, and desserts—using chilled water from onboard systems, with meals like turkey gravy or stewed vegetables consumed three times daily in the wardroom; the system provided a balanced, palatable diet while minimizing waste and weight.^[43] Waste management utilized a suction-based collection for urine and feces, with airflow to separate solids from the collection area and overboard venting of liquids after processing, while molecular sieves handled odors, CO2, and moisture to maintain cabin air quality.^[44] Attitude control for experiment pointing relied on three control moment gyroscopes (CMGs), each generating 315 Nms of angular momentum at 9100 rpm, enabling station-keeping within approximately 0.5 arc minutes without frequent thruster use, sufficient for most operations; finer pointing for specific experiments like the Apollo Telescope Mount achieved 2.5 arcseconds using additional systems.^[45]

Actual Extravehicular Activities

The first extravehicular activity (EVA-1) of the Skylab 2 mission occurred on May 26, 1973, when pilot Paul J. Weitz conducted a solo stand-up EVA lasting 39 minutes.^[6] During this brief excursion through the command module's side hatch, Weitz inspected the damaged Skylab station exterior and photographed the jammed solar array and micrometeoroid shield.^[46] This EVA served primarily as a visual assessment to aid ground controllers in planning subsequent repairs, marking the initial human presence outside the vehicle shortly after docking.^[6] The second EVA (EVA-2) took place on June 7, 1973, involving commander Charles "Pete" Conrad Jr. and science pilot Joseph P. Kerwin, who spent 3 hours and 25 minutes outside the station.^[4] Their primary objective was to free the jammed port-side solar array wing on the orbital workshop, using specialized tools including a 25-foot pole-mounted cable cutter and a makeshift rope pulley system developed during the mission's repair operations.^[4] The activity extended longer than initially planned due to unexpected debris and a stubborn aluminum strap binding the array, requiring multiple attempts before successful severance and deployment, which restored critical power to the station.^[6] This EVA was the first full untethered spacewalk for the United States since Apollo 17 in December 1972.^[4] On June 19, 1973, the third and final EVA (EVA-3) was performed by Conrad and Weitz over 1 hour and 36 minutes.^[47] Focused on scientific maintenance, the pair retrieved exposed film cassettes from the Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM) for return to Earth and calibrated Earth observation equipment to ensure accurate data collection.^[47] The EVA proceeded nominally without major deviations, allowing the crew to secure the retrieved materials and verify instrument alignments before re-entering the airlock module.^[6] Across the three EVAs, the Skylab 2 crew accumulated a total of 5 hours and 40 minutes of extravehicular time, demonstrating effective adaptation to on-orbit challenges and enabling the mission's continuation.^[6]

Mission Conclusion

Undocking and Reentry

On June 22, 1973, after 28 days of operations aboard the Skylab space station, the crew of Charles Conrad Jr., Paul J. Weitz, and Joseph P. Kerwin completed a final checkout of the station's systems and undocked the Command and Service Module (CSM). The undocking initiated the mission's conclusion, with the crew conducting a fly-around maneuver to photograph and document the station's exterior, including the deployed parasol sunshade and solar array repairs performed earlier in the mission.^[47] Following undocking, the crew stowed biological samples, film cassettes, and other materials in the Command Module for return to Earth, donned their pressure suits, and secured the spacecraft hatches to prepare Skylab for its uncrewed intermission period. A separation burn was executed using the Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters to establish a safe distance from the station, ensuring no collision risk during the subsequent orbital maneuvers. The CSM then entered a coast phase prior to reentry preparations.^[47] The reentry profile began with a deorbit burn performed by the Service Propulsion System (SPS) engine in the Service Module, which retrofired to lower the perigee and commit the spacecraft to atmospheric entry. During the descent, the CSM maintained attitude control via RCS thrusters through the period of communications blackout caused by the plasma sheath. Peak deceleration reached 6.5 g as the ablative heat shield dissipated reentry heating, targeting a landing site in the Pacific Ocean consistent with the mission's overall 28-day duration.^[6]^[48]

Landing and Recovery

The Skylab 2 command module splashed down in the Pacific Ocean on June 22, 1973, at 9:49 a.m. EDT, approximately 800 miles southwest of San Diego, California, after a mission duration of 28 days, 49 minutes, and 49 seconds, completing 404 orbits.^[3] The landing occurred 6.5 miles from the prime recovery ship, USS Ticonderoga (CVS-14), achieving an on-target splashdown that marked the successful conclusion of the first crewed Skylab mission.^[47] Recovery operations commenced immediately, with Navy personnel from the USS Ticonderoga securing the command module and lifting it aboard the ship 39 minutes after splashdown using cranes and recovery swimmers.^[47] The crew—Charles Conrad, Joseph Kerwin, and Paul Weitz—emerged from the capsule unassisted but unsteady, undergoing initial medical examinations in the ship's Skylab Mobile Medical Laboratory, where they were monitored for signs of deconditioning.^[3] A recovery helicopter then airlifted the astronauts and their flight surgeon to San Clemente, California, for a ceremonial meeting with President Richard Nixon and Soviet General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev, after which they flew by transport plane to Houston, Texas, for further debriefing and rehabilitation at the Johnson Space Center.^[3] Post-landing assessments confirmed the crew was in good overall condition, having lost weight and muscle mass during the mission but exhibiting no serious medical issues.^[47] Minor readaptation challenges, such as unsteadiness and fluid shifts causing temporary dizziness, were noted during debriefings, consistent with physiological responses to reentry and gravity transition observed in extended spaceflight.^[3] The crew walked the deck of the Ticonderoga the following day, demonstrating effective short-term recovery.^[47]

Scientific Results and Legacy

Key Experiment Outcomes

The Skylab 2 mission yielded significant scientific data across multiple disciplines, with the crew dedicating substantial time to observations despite initial challenges from station damage. The Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM) captured over 29,000 images of solar activity, enabling detailed analysis of solar phenomena.^[47] In solar physics, the ATM instruments provided unprecedented high-resolution imagery that advanced understanding of solar flares and associated events. On June 15, 1973, the crew documented a major X-ray solar flare, capturing its spatial structure and temporal evolution in extreme ultraviolet and X-ray wavelengths. This observation, one of the first detailed records of such an event from space, contributed to insights into the flare's morphology and energy release mechanisms.^[47]^[49] Biomedical experiments focused on human adaptation to microgravity, yielding foundational data on physiological changes during extended spaceflight. The crew conducted cardiovascular assessments using the bicycle ergometer, logging extensive exercise sessions to evaluate deconditioning effects. Results indicated reduced stroke volume and cardiac output during post-flight exercise, highlighting early cardiovascular adaptations that informed countermeasures for future missions. Additionally, bone density measurements via single-photon absorptiometry showed losses of up to 8% in the calcaneus after the 28-day flight, underscoring the need for enhanced preventive strategies against skeletal demineralization in long-duration space travel.^[50]^[51] Earth resources investigations via the Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP) produced multispectral imagery that validated remote sensing techniques for terrestrial monitoring. The crew acquired photographs covering diverse regions, identifying geological structures such as fault lines and landforms in areas like the southeastern United States, as well as assessing crop health through vegetation signatures in infrared bands. These data demonstrated the efficacy of orbital multispectral imaging for environmental and agricultural applications, with analyses confirming its utility in mapping and resource management.^[52]^[53] Overall, the mission amassed 392 hours of experiment operations, encompassing solar, biomedical, and Earth observations, with resulting datasets archived at the NASA Johnson Space Center for ongoing analysis and legacy research.^[54]^[55]

Impact and Legacy

Skylab 2 marked the inaugural crewed mission to the United States' first space station, setting a precedent for long-duration human spaceflight by achieving a 28-day orbital stay, the longest for any American crew at the time and surpassing the previous record of 24 days held by the Soviet Soyuz 11 mission.^[3] This accomplishment, completed by astronauts Charles Conrad, Paul Weitz, and Joseph Kerwin from May 25 to June 22, 1973, demonstrated the feasibility of extended operations in low Earth orbit and directly paved the way for the subsequent Skylab 3 and Skylab 4 missions, which extended durations to 59 and 84 days, respectively.^[1] The mission's success in salvaging a critically damaged station validated NASA's ability to conduct repairs in space, establishing Skylab as a foundational step toward permanent orbital habitats.^[2] Technologically, Skylab 2's repair operations profoundly influenced future programs, with the improvised parasol sunshade deployment—designed by the crew to mitigate thermal issues—serving as a model for thermal protection systems on the Space Shuttle and International Space Station (ISS).^[2] The mission's extravehicular activities (EVAs), including the June 7 spacewalk to free a jammed solar array, provided critical lessons in unrestrained maneuvering and tool usage that informed EVA protocols for the Shuttle era and ISS assembly, emphasizing redundancy and on-orbit improvisation.^[3] These advancements shifted NASA's design philosophy toward modular, repairable structures capable of withstanding launch anomalies.^[56] Scientifically, the mission's data from the Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM) laid groundwork for modern solar weather prediction by capturing unprecedented high-resolution imagery of solar flares and coronal structures, enabling better forecasting of geomagnetic storms affecting Earth.^[2] In human factors research, over 90% of medical experiments were completed, revealing insights into microgravity's effects on physiology, such as fluid shifts and muscle atrophy, which informed countermeasures like enhanced exercise regimens for later missions.^[3] Science Pilot Joseph Kerwin, NASA's first physician in space, conducted in-flight medical assessments that shaped protocols for monitoring crew health during prolonged exposure, influencing standards still used in ISS operations and deep-space planning.^[47] Culturally, Skylab 2 boosted public fascination with space exploration through live television broadcasts from orbit, including the first color TV transmissions from a U.S. space station, which allowed viewers to witness daily activities and repairs in real time.^[1] Televised press conferences, such as the crew's in-orbit session on June 14, 1973, humanized the astronauts and engaged millions, fostering greater support for NASA's post-Apollo endeavors amid waning interest following the Moon landings.^[3] This media outreach not only highlighted orbital research's potential but also reinforced spaceflight's role in national prestige, as evidenced by President Nixon's congratulatory message and the crew's subsequent meeting with him during a presidential summit.^[2]

Artifacts

Mission Insignia

The Skylab 2 mission insignia, designed by acclaimed science fiction illustrator Frank Kelly Freas, depicts a stark silhouette of the Skylab orbital workshop in profile against a stylized Earth globe partially eclipsing a radiant sun with extending solar flares. The design employs a limited color palette of deep blues and earth tones for the planet, black for the station, and golden hues for the solar elements, creating a high-contrast emblem suitable for embroidery. Freas crafted the patch in collaboration with the crew, drawing from multiple sketches to emphasize simplicity and visual impact for both color and monochrome reproduction.^[57] Symbolically, the sun and its flares represent the mission's focus on solar physics observations and experiments, while the Earth underscores studies in resource monitoring and atmospheric phenomena conducted from orbit. The central Skylab silhouette symbolizes the workshop's role as a habitable laboratory for biomedical research and long-duration spaceflight, evoking a sense of pioneering human presence in near-Earth space. The crew names—Charles Conrad, Jr., Joseph P. Kerwin, and Paul J. Weitz—are inscribed in a blue orbital ring encircling the imagery, with "Skylab I" at the base, reflecting an initial numbering convention that predated the official designation of the manned missions.^[57]^[58] The insignia was worn by the crew on their fire-resistant flight suits throughout the 28-day mission, prominently displayed on the exterior of the Command and Service Module, and reproduced in official NASA documentation, posters, and commemorative items to represent the flight's achievements. Approved by NASA in early 1973, it marked one of the few instances where an external artist contributed to a crew patch, blending artistic flair with mission objectives.^[58]^[57]

Spacecraft Location

The Command Module (CM) from Skylab 2, designated CSM-116, is currently on long-term loan from the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum to the National Museum of Naval Aviation in Pensacola, Florida, where it has been on public display since 1974.^[59] This all-Navy crewed spacecraft, which carried astronauts Charles Conrad Jr., Paul J. Weitz, and Joseph P. Kerwin on the 28-day mission, remains in its post-flight configuration, showcasing the heat shield marks from reentry and interior details preserved for educational purposes.^[47] Skylab 2's contributions to the overall Skylab space station included hardware integration with the Orbital Workshop (OWS), the station's core living and working module derived from a modified Saturn V S-IVB stage. The OWS, along with the attached Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM) and other components, operated until the uncontrolled reentry of the entire Skylab complex on July 11, 1979, over the Indian Ocean near Western Australia, with most of the structure disintegrating in the atmosphere.^[60] Surviving remnants from the reentry, including fragments of the ATM's solar telescopes and structural elements, were recovered and are preserved in museums; for instance, five of the original eight flight instruments from the ATM, which conducted pioneering solar observations during Skylab 2 and subsequent missions, are held in the National Air and Space Museum's collection in Washington, D.C.^[61] The Saturn IB launch vehicle (SA-206) used for Skylab 2 delivered the crew to orbit from Kennedy Space Center's Launch Complex 39B on May 25, 1973, but its first stage (S-IB-6) impacted in the Atlantic Ocean and was not recovered for preservation.^[33] Related Saturn IB hardware from the Skylab program, such as the unused SA-209 first stage intended as a backup, is on display at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex in Florida, representing the era's launch infrastructure.

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