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Slip ring

A slip ring is an electromechanical device that enables the transmission of power, electrical signals, and sometimes fluids or data between a stationary structure and a rotating one, allowing continuous or intermittent 360-degree rotation without twisting or tangling cables. Slip rings, also known as rotary electrical joints, collectors, or electric swivels, function through a of conductive rings mounted on the rotating component and brushes or contacts that maintain electrical connection via sliding or rolling . The rings are typically made from durable conductive materials like , , or silver alloys, while traditional brushes may use or precious metals for reliable performance; contactless technologies such as fiber optics provide low-wear, high-reliability alternatives without brushes, supporting voltage ratings from low-signal levels to several kilovolts and currents up to thousands of amperes. This design ensures reliable and power delivery even under high-speed rotation, with advancements in contactless technologies reducing wear and enabling higher data rates for modern applications. Common types of slip rings include capsule models for compact, high-precision needs; through-bore variants with hollow shafts for passing mechanical elements; and ruggedized or designs that integrate power, data, and fluid transfer for harsh environments. They can be customized based on factors such as the number of circuits (from single to over 100), rotational speed (up to thousands of RPM), environmental protection (e.g., IP65 or higher for dust and water resistance), and compatibility with protocols like Ethernet or . Slip rings are essential in numerous industries, including industrial automation for robotic arms and CNC machines, renewable energy systems like wind turbines and trackers, medical imaging equipment such as and MRI , and for antennas and systems, and applications like rotating stage platforms. Their versatility extends to oil and gas exploration, , and electric motors/generators, where they facilitate uninterrupted operation and improve mechanical performance by eliminating cable constraints. The technology traces its roots to early 20th-century for motors and generators, with significant advancements in brushless designs emerging in the to enhance reliability and reduce maintenance, and ongoing innovations focusing on high-data-rate, low-noise transmission for contemporary electromechanical systems.

Fundamentals

Definition and Purpose

A slip ring is an electromechanical device that provides a continuous electrical between stationary and rotating parts of a , enabling the transmission of , signals, or without the risk of wire twisting or entanglement. This functionality is essential in systems requiring uninterrupted 360-degree rotation, such as in motors, generators, and turntables, where it maintains reliable and delivery during continuous operation. Unlike a , which is segmented and reverses the direction of current to sustain unidirectional rotation in motors, a slip ring features continuous conductive rings that allow steady, non-reversing transmission suitable for both and applications. In contrast, rotary transformers serve as non-contact alternatives, using to transfer power and signals without physical brushes, thereby avoiding wear but often at the cost of higher complexity and lower efficiency in certain high-power scenarios. Slip rings play a critical role in enabling reliable performance across rotating systems in industries like , , and , supporting the demands of and machinery. The global market for slip rings is projected to grow at a (CAGR) of 4.2% from 2025 to 2035, driven by increasing adoption in and industrial .

Basic Working Principle

A slip ring maintains electrical continuity between stationary and rotating components through a mechanism involving stationary brushes that maintain sliding contact with rotating conductive rings. The brushes, typically made of graphite or precious metals, are positioned to ride on the surface of the rings, which are mounted on the rotating . This sliding contact enables the transfer of electrical current or signals from fixed wiring connected to the brushes to the rotating assembly attached to the rings, preventing wire twisting in applications like and turbines. Electrically, slip rings support the transmission of or power, low-level analog signals, or across their contacts. Contact resistance in these systems is generally low, ranging from 1 to 10 milliohms per , ensuring efficient power delivery. For , electrical is minimized, with levels typically under 10 mV, which preserves in sensitive applications. In terms of rotation dynamics, basic slip ring designs accommodate speeds up to 10,000 RPM, suitable for many industrial and uses. Friction and are managed by spring-loaded brushes that apply consistent contact pressure, typically 0.1 to 0.5 , to ensure stable engagement without excessive abrasion during continuous operation. For in multi-channel configurations, slip rings employ stacked conductive rings, each dedicated to a separate , allowing simultaneous transmission across multiple paths. In simple setups, is mitigated through physical spacing between rings and optimized designs that reduce , maintaining clear signal separation.

Construction and Materials

Key Components

A slip ring comprises several core physical elements that enable reliable electrical during rotation. The rotating rings, typically arranged as concentric conductive bands mounted on a , serve as the primary pathways for and signals between and rotating parts. brushes function as flexible contacts that maintain continuous sliding engagement with the rings to facilitate this . The acts as an insulating enclosure that protects the internal components from environmental hazards, while mounting hardware, such as bearings and shafts, ensures precise alignment and smooth operation of the . The brush-ring interface incorporates features to enhance and . Helical grooves on the rings promote uniform , remove debris like carbon dust from the contact area, and reduce wear on both brushes and rings. In high-reliability applications, multi-finger or multi-filament brushes provide by offering multiple points of contact, minimizing the risk of signal interruption if individual fingers degrade. Slip rings are available in various assembly configurations to suit different integration needs. Through-bore designs feature a hollow center that allows passage of a , enabling direct mounting on rotating machinery. Capsule-style assemblies offer a compact, self-contained form factor ideal for space-constrained environments like . The number of circuits can range from a single ring for basic power transfer to over 100 rings stacked along the for multi-path signal and power transmission in complex systems. Safety features are integrated to protect against operational hazards. Seals and gaskets enclose the assembly, providing to dust and moisture ingress, with ratings up to IP68, offering dust-tight protection and to continuous immersion beyond 1 meter under manufacturer-specified conditions.

Materials and Manufacturing

Slip rings are constructed using materials selected for their electrical , , , and compatibility with operational environments. The conductive rings, which form the rotating or pathways for electrical , are typically made from precious metals or alloys such as , silver, or alloys to ensure low electrical and protection against oxidation. -plated alloys, for instance, provide excellent while minimizing wear in high-cycle applications, whereas silver or alloys are favored for stable due to their to tarnishing. In cost-sensitive scenarios, alternatives like or are employed, offering adequate performance for where is less critical. The brushes, which maintain continuous contact with the rings, are engineered from materials that balance wear resistance, friction, and electrical noise levels. Graphite or carbon-based composites are commonly used for high-speed or low-current applications, as they provide self-lubricating properties and tolerate dusty environments, though they may generate more noise in sensitive signal paths. For low-noise signal transmission, precious metal alloys such as gold-plated palladium or Paliney 7 (a gold-palladium-silver alloy) are preferred, enabling reliable performance in precision systems by reducing contact resistance variations. Advanced composites, incorporating metals into graphite matrices, further enhance durability by minimizing wear on both brushes and rings during extended operation. Insulation and housing components are chosen to provide electrical isolation and mechanical protection without compromising the device's compactness or environmental resilience. Polymers like (PTFE) or are widely used for insulating spacers and substrates due to their high , low , and chemical inertness, preventing unintended current paths between circuits. Ceramics offer superior in high-temperature or high-voltage scenarios, providing thermal stability and resistance to arcing. For the housing, lightweight metals such as aluminum alloys ensure structural integrity in harsh conditions, including and exposure, while variants add resistance for marine or industrial uses. Manufacturing slip rings involves precision processes to achieve tight tolerances and reliable performance across multiple circuits. Conductive rings are fabricated using CNC machining or precision turning to form concentric grooves with micron-level accuracy, ensuring uniform contact surfaces. applies thin layers of , silver, or other metals to the rings and brushes, enhancing conductivity and corrosion through electrolytic deposition. For multi-circuit assemblies, automated winding and techniques connect wires to rings, enabling complex configurations with up to hundreds of channels while maintaining . includes testing, where each circuit's is verified to be under 1 to confirm low-loss , alongside insulation checks exceeding 1000 megohms to prevent shorts.

Historical Development

Origins and Early Innovations

The development of slip rings emerged in the late during the , as electrical engineers addressed the need to transmit power and signals to rotating components in emerging machinery such as s and early motors. Pioneering work by figures like in the 1880s contributed to advancements in design that laid groundwork for systems. Similarly, Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky's invention of the three-phase slip ring around 1889 marked a key milestone, allowing external resistors to control starting torque in asynchronous machines. Early slip ring designs were rudimentary, typically consisting of carbon brushes—often graphite-based—sliding against or rings to maintain during rotation. These setups were initially applied in equipment and primitive electric motors, where they facilitated signal transfer in rotating telegraphic instruments and experimental generators. By the turn of the , slip rings saw adoption in AC generators for from stationary exciters to rotating fields in large-scale plants. This integration supported the growth of centralized power generation, as seen in early installations where slip rings handled excitation currents for synchronous generators. During , refinements in brush materials, shifting toward more durable composites, improved performance in high-altitude applications that required reliable rotary electrical connections under harsh conditions. Initial implementations faced significant challenges, including rapid brush wear from friction and electrical sparking that could disrupt contact. These issues prompted innovations in materials and design to reduce friction and extend component life in industrial rotating machinery.

Modern Advancements

Following , slip ring technology underwent significant evolution, particularly in the mid-20th century, driven by demands from emerging applications. A shift toward contacts, such as and silver alloys, enhanced conductivity, reduced wear, and ensured reliability in high-altitude and environments. By the , mercury-wetted designs were introduced to address low-torque requirements, providing low-resistance connections with minimal friction, as demonstrated in early testing for space applications. These advancements marked a transition from basic carbon brush systems to more specialized materials, improving performance in demanding conditions. In the through 2025, slip ring technology has focused on , enhanced , and extreme environment tolerance. For , compact designs with outer diameters under 10 mm have enabled seamless power and signal transfer in space-constrained joints, supporting applications in surgical and robots. Data transmission capabilities have advanced to support rates up to 1 Gbps via Ethernet-compatible channels, facilitating control in automated systems. High-temperature variants, operating up to 200°C or more, incorporate insulators for thermal stability, proving essential in like scanners where continuous rotation generates heat. Market growth has been propelled by the sector, particularly turbines, where slip rings now handle power loads exceeding 10 kW to manage yaw and rotations in harsh conditions. Innovations include designs integrating power, high-speed data, and pneumatic channels in single units, reducing system complexity for industrial automation. Standards have evolved accordingly, with IEC 60034-1 updated in for rating and performance of rotating electrical machines. These developments underscore slip rings' role in enabling reliable, multi-modal transmission in modern electromechanical systems.

Types

Mechanical Slip Rings

Mechanical slip rings represent the conventional baseline design for rotary electrical interfaces, utilizing solid brushes in sliding contact with conductive rings to enable continuous power and across rotational boundaries. These devices are prized for their robustness and adaptability in a wide array of rotating systems, where reliability under varying loads and speeds is essential. In their core design, mechanical slip rings employ brushes made from precious metals such as or silver alloys, or composites, which maintain electrical contact against rings typically constructed from durable metal alloys like -plated or . This configuration supports configurations with 1 to 50 independent circuits, accommodating currents up to 20 A per channel and operational speeds reaching 5,000 RPM, making them suitable for moderate- to high-demand applications. Key variants include cylindrical models, which feature axial mounting for compact integration into end-of-shaft assemblies, and through-hole designs that allow the slip ring to encircle and integrate directly with a rotating for enhanced mechanical stability. These mechanical slip rings exhibit impressive wear life, typically enduring 10 to 100 million revolutions before requiring maintenance, depending on factors like brush material and operating conditions. Performance characteristics include low , generally below 5 mΩ, which minimizes signal degradation and loss during operation. They excel in mixed scenarios, reliably handling both high- circuits and low-level analog or signals within the same unit. For military and applications demanding high reliability, many mechanical slip rings comply with standards, ensuring robust data bus integrity in harsh environments.

Mercury-Wetted Slip Rings

Mercury-wetted slip rings utilize liquid mercury to form a conductive interface between rotating and stationary components, replacing traditional solid brushes with a fluid pool that bonds molecularly to the contact surfaces. This design achieves near-zero electrical resistance, typically less than 1 mΩ, and eliminates mechanical wear due to the absence of solid-to-solid . The mercury is contained within sealed capsules or enclosures to prevent leakage and contamination, ensuring safe operation in controlled environments. These slip rings excel in applications requiring high-speed rotation and minimal torque, with operational speeds reaching up to 3600 RPM in specialized systems, though typical models support 2000 RPM or less. The low-friction mercury interface allows for smooth, low-torque performance, making them suitable for devices. They transmit sensitive signals with exceptional , supporting voltages down to and frequencies up to 200 MHz while maintaining low noise levels below 0.20 mV peak-to-peak. The operational temperature range is generally -30°C to 60°C, limited by mercury's solidification point at approximately -39°C and seal material constraints, though some designs extend to 100°C. Despite their performance benefits, mercury-wetted slip rings face significant drawbacks due to mercury's , which poses neurotoxic risks and environmental hazards if seals fail. Regulatory restrictions, particularly under the EU's Directive since 2006, limit their use in and many industrial applications, with prohibitions in sectors like food manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, and devices without specific exemptions. Lifespan is constrained by seal integrity, typically 5-10 years or equivalent to hundreds of millions of revolutions, after which mercury containment may degrade. Post-2010 trends indicate a shift away from mercury-wetted designs toward solid-state and alternatives, driven by compliance pressures and advancements in non-toxic rotary connectors. Exemptions for critical uses in applications requiring high operating cycles, including high-resolution in , as well as dental equipment, , and military systems, remain valid under Annex IV exemption 42 until 21 July 2026, with ongoing reviews for further renewals.

Pancake Slip Rings

Pancake slip rings, also known as flat or disc slip rings, employ a compact, planar design consisting of concentric conductive rings arranged on a disc-shaped , with radial brushes making sliding to facilitate continuous electrical during . This eliminates the cylindrical barrel of traditional slip rings, drastically reducing the axial to as little as 6-25 mm, in contrast to the 50 mm or more required by cylindrical variants, making them ideal for applications with severe height constraints. In terms of performance, these slip rings typically handle currents up to 10 A per and support rotational speeds of up to 300 RPM under standard conditions, though higher speeds may compromise longevity. The larger contact area between the radial brushes and rings leads to increased wear compared to cylindrical designs, resulting in a of 20-50 million revolutions depending on load, speed, and environmental factors. Multi-layer stacking for additional circuits introduces challenges, as thin insulating layers—often made from materials like —must prevent and arcing in the confined space without adding significant thickness. Pancake slip rings find particular suitability in space-limited setups such as industrial turntables, indexing tables, and packaging machinery, where their low profile enables integration without compromising rotational functionality. Advancements in the 2020s have focused on PCB-integrated constructions, utilizing FR4 substrates for the ring layout to achieve even thinner profiles (under 10 mm) and seamless incorporation into hybrid electronic systems, enhancing reliability and reducing assembly complexity in modern automation.

Fiber Optic Slip Rings

Fiber optic slip rings, also known as fiber optic rotary joints (FORJs), are specialized devices that enable the of optical signals across a rotating without physical contact between s. They function as rotating optical couplers, utilizing lenses, prisms, or mirrors to precisely align and direct light beams from stationary to rotating channels, thereby maintaining during continuous . These designs support configurations with 1 to over 100 optical paths, and variants integrate electrical slip rings for simultaneous and transfer. Common types include single-channel and multi-channel (such as double-channel) rotary joints, which vary in the number of paths and compatibility. Single-mode FORJs operate effectively at wavelengths like 1310 to 1550 , supporting long-distance, low-loss , while multi-mode variants are compatible with shorter wavelengths such as 850 to 1300 for higher over moderate distances. Multi-channel designs can accommodate 2 to 109 paths, often using (WDM) to optimize capacity without additional physical fibers. Performance characteristics emphasize high reliability in demanding environments, with data rates reaching up to 10 Gbps per and insertion losses typically below 1 for single-pass configurations, ensuring minimal signal . These devices are inherently immune to (), making them ideal for EMI-sensitive applications, and they support rotation speeds up to 2,000 RPM with lifespans exceeding 50 million revolutions. Return losses often exceed 40 , further enhancing signal quality. Recent developments from 2024 to 2025 have focused on to enable compact FORJs for unmanned aerial vehicles like drones, where small form factors (as low as 6.8 mm ) support high-speed data in lightweight systems. Integration with testing equipment has also advanced, leveraging fiber optics for ultra-high-bandwidth, low-latency connections in and applications, driving market growth projected at 4.5% CAGR through 2035.

Hybrid and Specialized Types

Hybrid slip rings represent advanced designs that integrate multiple transmission media into a single rotating , combining electrical and signal channels with optical and pathways. These systems typically support electrical currents up to 100 A for , alongside signals and optic channels, while incorporating rotary unions for such as air or with flow rates reaching up to 10 L/min. Manufacturers like DSTI and produce these hybrid solutions to enable seamless operation in applications requiring simultaneous transfer of , , and fluids without mechanical interruption. Specialized variants address extreme operational demands, such as high-current configurations using silver-graphite contacts capable of handling over 200 A, commonly applied in equipment where robust power delivery is essential. High-temperature models employ materials for and structural integrity, allowing reliable performance at temperatures up to 250°C, as seen in CT scanners that require continuous rotation under thermal stress. Smart slip rings further enhance functionality by incorporating integrated encoders for real-time position feedback, facilitating precise control in dynamic systems. These and specialized types often feature customizable ratings for , ranging from IP65 for and to higher seals for harsh conditions. In 2025, emerging trends include IoT-enabled monitoring capabilities, where embedded sensors provide data for , reducing downtime by tracking wear and performance metrics in . Practical examples include pneumatic slip rings used in robotic grippers to transmit for actuation alongside electrical signals, enabling unlimited in automated handling tasks. Additionally, CT-specific designs with spiral configurations support continuous helical scanning by maintaining uninterrupted data and power flow during .

Applications

Industrial and Manufacturing

In industrial and manufacturing settings, slip rings are essential for enabling continuous rotation in heavy machinery involved in material handling processes. They are commonly integrated into winders, cable reels, and packaging machines to facilitate uninterrupted power and signal transmission during operations like winding, rewinding, and lamination of materials, preventing cable tangling and ensuring smooth functionality. For instance, in cable reeling systems, slip rings support the transmission of electrical signals and power to rotating drums, allowing for reliable operation in environments such as ports and manufacturing floors. Slip ring motors, also known as wound rotor induction motors, play a critical role in applications requiring variable speed drives, particularly in cranes where high starting torque and precise speed control are necessary for lifting and positioning heavy loads. These motors use slip rings to connect external resistors to the , enabling adjustable resistance for smooth acceleration and deceleration without excessive . Representative examples include their use in and equipment like Ferris wheels and turntables, where slip rings provide 360° rotation for powering lights, motors, and control systems without wire twisting. In assembly lines, slip rings are integrated into robotic arms to handle signals and power in the 5-20A range, supporting tasks such as , , and material transfer in automated . At larger scales, high-power slip ring variants rated at 50 kW or more are employed in demanding environments like steel mills, where they drive rolling mill motors for processing metal sheets and coils under continuous rotation. The slip ring market has grown to approximately USD 1.6 billion as of 2025, with increasing adoption of hybrid types combining electrical and data channels to support automation in initiatives, enhancing connectivity in smart factories.

Renewable Energy Systems

Slip rings play a critical role in , particularly in rotation-dependent mechanisms that enable efficient power generation and control. In wind turbines, they are essential for yaw and pitch control systems, allowing continuous transmission of power and signals between stationary and rotating components to optimize orientation relative to . These devices typically handle 1-5 kW per in applications, supporting actuators that adjust angles for maximum energy capture while mitigating loads during high winds. In hydroelectric generators, slip rings facilitate excitation by delivering to the field windings via brushes, ensuring stable synchronous operation and in large-scale plants. Design adaptations for renewable environments emphasize durability against harsh conditions, with weatherproof enclosures rated IP66 or higher for offshore wind installations to withstand saltwater corrosion, humidity, and extreme temperatures. High-current variants, often integrated as hybrid types, support the elevated power demands of these systems while maintaining . Under variable loads from fluctuating or flows, advanced slip rings achieve a exceeding 20 years, utilizing low-wear materials like metal fiber brushes to minimize in remote locations. The integration of slip rings in renewables is fueling market growth, with demand projected to drive a 4.5% (CAGR) for the global slip ring sector through 2035, largely due to expanding and capacities. slip rings for trackers combine power and to enable precise dual-axis rotation for enhanced photovoltaic efficiency. However, challenges persist in large-scale deployments, such as ensuring vibration resistance in slip rings for turbines with 100m+ s, where dynamic stresses from blade flexing demand robust designs to prevent signal loss or wear.

Medical, Aerospace, and Other Sectors

In applications, slip rings are essential for enabling continuous in imaging equipment while maintaining reliable power and data transmission. In computed () scanners, hybrid fiber optic slip rings facilitate high-speed, low-noise operation, supporting rotational speeds up to 300 RPM with low insertion losses to ensure minimal signal degradation during image acquisition. These designs combine electrical and optical channels for seamless transfer of high-bandwidth data, such as video, without electrical noise interference. In () systems, specialized non-magnetic slip rings support and patient table , allowing precise positioning and continuous 360-degree movement while avoiding interference with strong magnetic fields. In the and sectors, slip rings provide robust solutions for extreme environments, where compact and durable designs are critical for mission reliability. slip rings, with their low-profile concentric ring configuration, are widely used in antennas for de-spin assemblies and in unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for gimbal-mounted cameras and electro-optic systems, operating effectively in temperature ranges from -55°C to 125°C to withstand harsh orbital and flight conditions. These miniature variants ensure uninterrupted power and in applications like the Predator UAV's sensor platforms. Additionally, slip rings enable 24/7 operation in beacons, where conventional designs with brushes and rings facilitate continuous rotation for identification lighting, though modern variants often eliminate slip rings through alternative drive systems for reduced maintenance. Beyond these sectors, slip rings support rotational freedom in diverse precision applications. In , they enable joint rotation in manipulators by transmitting power and signals through rotating interfaces, allowing continuous 360-degree motion in robotic arms without tangling, as seen in systems for advanced and . In , capsule or miniature slip rings power turntables, providing reliable electrical connections for revolving platforms in theatrical productions and ensuring uninterrupted operation during dynamic performances. As of 2025, emerging trends in slip ring technology include the integration of smart features for health in environments. Intelligent slip rings incorporate sensors and data analytics for , wear and performance in real-time to enhance reliability in applications such as systems. These advancements, often using hybrid designs like fiber optic variants, prioritize condition-based to prevent failures in extreme conditions.

Advantages and Limitations

Operational Benefits

Slip rings provide unlimited 360° continuous capability, eliminating the risk of cable twisting, tangling, or that would otherwise limit operational freedom in rotating systems. This feature supports seamless power and data transmission across multiple channels within a single compact unit, accommodating both electrical power and various signal types simultaneously for enhanced . For medium-duty applications, such as standard industrial turntables or monitoring equipment, slip rings offer a cost-effective solution typically priced under $500 per unit, making them accessible for widespread deployment without compromising performance. In terms of reliability, slip rings contribute to low failure rates in systems like high-voltage motors, where (MTBF) can exceed 100,000 hours in well-designed models, ensuring long-term stability in demanding environments. Electrical slip ring designs incorporate shielding and grounding techniques to provide strong resistance to (EMI), maintaining during high-speed rotations. Their scalability allows handling from low-power signals as small as 1 W up to high-power loads of 100 kW, adapting to diverse operational needs across sectors like manufacturing and . Efficiency gains from slip rings include significantly reduced in continuous rotation applications, as their robust construction minimizes interruptions compared to traditional wired alternatives. Compared to slip cables, which degrade over time due to repeated flexing and are unsuitable for extended rotations, slip rings offer superior longevity and performance in harsh, continuous-use conditions, such as those in wind turbines or robotic arms.

Challenges and Maintenance Considerations

One primary challenge in slip ring operation is wear due to between the brushes and rotating rings, which can limit the lifespan of typical slip rings to around 10 million revolutions. from dust, moisture, or debris can accumulate on the contact surfaces, leading to electrical shorts by compromising between channels. Additionally, custom hybrid slip rings, which integrate electrical, pneumatic, or fluid channels, can incur high costs due to specialized design and manufacturing requirements. Environmental factors further complicate slip ring performance, as temperature extremes can degrade materials like plastics and metals, reducing electrical conductivity and mechanical integrity. In applications such as wind turbines, excessive vibration can cause misalignment between brushes and rings, accelerating wear and intermittent contact issues. To ensure longevity, maintenance practices include periodic brush replacement to prevent failures from excessive wear. Cleaning protocols involve using compressed air or a soft brush to remove debris from brushes and rings without introducing abrasives that could exacerbate friction. Diagnostic tools, such as resistance meters, are essential for measuring contact resistance and detecting early signs of degradation or contamination. For low-power applications, wireless alternatives like can replace slip rings to avoid mechanical wear, though they are constrained by bandwidth limits typically under 2 Mbps, making them unsuitable for high-data-rate needs.

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