Social undermining

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Social undermining refers to behaviors directed toward another person that express negative affect, such as anger or dislike, provide negative evaluations of the person's attributes or efforts, and actively hinder the achievement of their instrumental goals. Introduced by Vinokur and van Ryn (1993) in psychological research on close relationships, this concept highlights interactions distinct from social support, operating as an independent factor rather than its mere opposite.^[1] In organizational settings, social undermining manifests as intentional actions by colleagues or supervisors to impede an individual's progress, reputation, or relationships, often through subtle criticism, gossip, or withholding resources.^[2] Antecedents include envy, competition, and perceived threats to one's status, while it is commonly studied in workplaces like hotels and police forces where interpersonal dynamics are intense.^[3] Empirical investigations, such as those among unemployed individuals and employees, demonstrate its prevalence across diverse groups, with no significant variations by gender or employment status.^[1] The consequences of social undermining are predominantly negative, exerting stronger adverse effects on well-being than the benefits of social support in many cases.^[1] It predicts declines in mental health, increased emotional exhaustion, physical symptoms, and reduced job performance, often mediated by stress responses like procrastination.^[2] In longitudinal studies, higher levels of undermining predict poorer mental health outcomes, underscoring its role as a significant stressor.^[1] Factors like positive psychological capital can buffer these effects, highlighting potential interventions to mitigate its impact.^[2]

Definition and Foundations

Core Definition

Social undermining refers to behaviors intended to hinder, over time, an individual's ability to establish and maintain positive interpersonal relationships, achieve work-related success, and preserve their general psychological well-being, often manifesting through subtle negative actions such as criticism, gossip, or withholding support. This phenomenon was first conceptualized in psychological research as the negative counterpart to social support, highlighting its role in interpersonal dynamics where negativity actively obstructs rather than aids personal progress.^[4] Key characteristics of social undermining include its intentional nature, distinguishing it from accidental harm, as perpetrators consciously engage in actions to disrupt the target's goals. It occurs within relational contexts, such as close personal interactions, where the behavior targets the individual's social bonds or aspirations rather than involving overt physical aggression. The focus remains on goal disruption, emphasizing psychological and relational interference over direct confrontation. Social undermining can take overt forms, such as direct criticism or interference with tasks, or covert forms, like passive-aggressive remarks that subtly erode confidence or progress. These manifestations underscore its subtlety in interpersonal settings, allowing it to persist without immediate detection. Social undermining is frequently positioned as the counterpart to social support, yet empirical evidence establishes them as independent constructs rather than mere opposites on a single continuum. Social support encompasses behaviors that promote well-being, facilitate goal achievement, and foster positive interpersonal connections, such as offering encouragement or assistance. In contrast, social undermining involves intentional actions designed to impede these outcomes, including expressing negativity, withholding resources, or devaluing the target's efforts, thereby diminishing relational quality, success, and overall psychological health. This distinction is evident in their differential impacts: while social support yields stable but moderate benefits, undermining produces more intense and variable detrimental effects on mental health.^[4]^[1] Unlike workplace bullying, which entails persistent, systematic aggression often rooted in a perceived power imbalance and aimed at personal degradation through intimidation or humiliation, social undermining emphasizes targeted interference with specific relational or performance goals without requiring ongoing repetition or dominance hierarchies. Bullying typically manifests in overt hostility like verbal abuse or exclusion to assert control, whereas undermining operates more relationally and subtly, focusing on eroding the target's progress or reputation through indirect means such as subtle criticism or rumor-spreading. This goal-oriented focus differentiates undermining from the broader, status-enforcing nature of bullying.^[5]^[6] In relation to workplace incivility, social undermining requires explicit intent to harm the target's objectives, distinguishing it from incivility's characteristic ambiguity regarding motives. Incivility includes mild discourtesies like interrupting or ignoring, which may annoy but lack deliberate goal disruption. Undermining, however, systematically conveys negativity to prevent success or relational maintenance, making its harmful intent unambiguous and its effects more profound on well-being.^[5] The concept of social undermining originated in the early 1990s, coined by Vinokur and van Ryn to capture negative relational dynamics in contexts like unemployment support networks, evolving from broader examinations of social interactions' dual positive and negative valences. Theoretically, it aligns with stress and coping models, such as Lazarus and Folkman's framework, wherein undermining functions as an acute interpersonal stressor that provokes threat appraisals, negative affect, and maladaptive coping responses, exacerbating vulnerability to psychological strain.^[4]^[7]

Contexts of Occurrence

Workplace Dynamics

Social undermining is prevalent in organizational settings, contributing to substantial economic costs estimated at around $6 billion annually in the United States due to associated productivity losses and turnover.^[8]^[3] Abusive supervision represents a key form of social undermining in hierarchical workplace interactions, characterized as the sustained display of hostile verbal and non-verbal behaviors—such as public ridicule, belittling, or intimidation—directed at subordinates, excluding physical contact.^[9]^[10] These actions intentionally undermine employees' performance, confidence, and well-being, leading to reduced job satisfaction, heightened emotional exhaustion, and increased intentions to quit.^[9]^[11] A bottom-line mentality (BLM) among leaders or employees exacerbates social undermining by fostering a narrow focus on achieving financial or operational outcomes at the expense of ethical considerations, employee morale, or long-term relational health.^[12]^[13] This profit-driven mindset prompts behaviors like pressuring subordinates unethically or neglecting supportive interactions when short-term gains appear threatened, thereby normalizing undermining tactics within teams.^[14]^[15] Among peers, social undermining often manifests through subtle competitive actions such as gossip, social exclusion from team activities, or stealing credit for colleagues' contributions, particularly in resource-scarce environments where individuals vie for promotions, recognition, or limited opportunities.^[16]^[17] These behaviors erode trust and collaboration, as perpetrators prioritize personal advancement over collective success.^[3] Recent research, including a 2024 systematic review, highlights the connections between social undermining and counterproductive employee responses like cyberloafing—non-work internet use during work hours—and burnout, with supervisor undermining sequentially mediating these outcomes through emotional strain and reduced engagement.^[8]^[18]^[19]

Personal Relationships

Social undermining in romantic partnerships often involves behaviors such as criticizing a partner's goals, withholding emotional support during challenging times, or actively interfering with personal aspirations, which contribute significantly to marital dissatisfaction.^[20] These actions, distinct from overt conflict, erode the foundational elements of intimacy and trust by conveying disapproval or hindrance toward the partner's well-being and progress. For instance, in couples facing financial strain, one partner's undermining behaviors—such as negative evaluations or destructive interference—exacerbate depressive symptoms and reduce relationship satisfaction for both individuals.^[20] In family dynamics, social undermining appears through parental or sibling actions like belittling achievements, toxic interference in adult children's personal decisions such as marriages, or consistent negative feedback that undermines autonomy.^[21] Such behaviors parallel forms of emotional abuse, where family members express hostility or devaluation that hinders emotional development and relational harmony. Studies on adolescents and their families highlight how perceived social undermining from parents independently predicts negative affect and emotional distress, often more potently than a lack of support.^[21] For example, kin undermining among low-income African American families has been linked to poorer adjustment and strained family relations, underscoring its role in perpetuating cycles of emotional harm.^[22] Within friendships, social undermining manifests subtly through mocking a friend's ambitions, spreading rumors, or engaging in behaviors that sabotage social standing, in stark contrast to the mutual encouragement found in supportive bonds. These actions hinder personal growth and create relational imbalance, often driven by underlying envy or competition. Research on close relationships indicates that such undermining in peer networks correlates with heightened negative emotions and reduced well-being, as friends' negative evaluations disrupt the expected reciprocity of positive regard.^[23] Across personal relationships, social undermining consistently diminishes relational quality by eroding trust and intimacy to a greater extent than overt conflicts, as evidenced in longitudinal studies of couples where undermining predicted declines in mental health and partnership stability independent of supportive interactions.^[23] Research indicates cultural variations in interpersonal dynamics; for example, in collectivistic cultures, heightened ingroup vigilance may influence expectations of negative behaviors within close groups.^[24]

Causes and Perpetrator Factors

Envy is defined as a painful emotion arising from the perception that another person possesses a desirable attribute or achievement that one lacks, often triggered by upward social comparisons where individuals evaluate themselves against superiors. This emotion manifests in two distinct forms: benign envy, which motivates self-improvement to match the envied individual's level, and malicious envy, which fosters resentment and a desire to diminish the other's advantage through destructive actions. Upward social comparisons serve as a key mechanism linking envy to social undermining, as they heighten feelings of inferiority and resentment, prompting individuals to engage in behaviors that hinder the envied target's progress to restore perceived equity. For instance, 2024 research demonstrates that malicious envy drives unethical acts, including social undermining, as a means to "level the playing field" by obstructing the superior party's goals.^[25] This process is particularly evident in competitive environments where resources are limited, escalating envy into overt goal-blocking tactics such as withholding support or spreading negativity. Envy-driven social undermining appears in specific relational dynamics, including leaders envying subordinates when the latter's performance threatens hierarchical status, leading to supervisory sabotage.^[26] Similarly, among peers in competitive settings, envy prompts undermining to prevent rivals from advancing, as seen in team environments where individual success is zero-sum.^[27] Empirical studies confirm that individuals perceived as envied targets experience heightened social undermining, with this effect moderated by the target's sense of injustice; for example, a 2025 study in Tehran found that envy perceptions intensified undermining behaviors when targets felt unfairly disadvantaged.^[28] Overall, these findings underscore envy's role as a situational catalyst for undermining, distinct from stable personality traits that may amplify susceptibility.

Individual Differences Among Perpetrators

Individuals with high levels of Machiavellianism exhibit a greater propensity for social undermining, as this trait involves manipulative tendencies to achieve personal goals, particularly during periods of organizational change where status threats are perceived.^[29] Similarly, narcissism positively correlates with interpersonal counterproductive behaviors such as workplace bullying, which encompasses elements of social undermining like demeaning others to elevate one's position.^[30] Low agreeableness, a Big Five trait, is negatively associated with such behaviors, indicating that agreeable individuals are less inclined to undermine colleagues.^[30] Collectively, the dark triad traits—Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy—predict higher engagement in counterproductive work behaviors, including social undermining, especially under leadership styles that emphasize agency over communion.^[31] Gender differences influence social undermining, with women showing higher tendencies when experiencing elevated work-family conflict, as this depletes their perceptions of person-organization fit more severely than for men.^[32] Cultural variations also play a role; in collectivist societies, social undermining is more likely to arise from symbolic awards due to heightened group harmony concerns, whereas individualistic cultures may buffer such responses through emphasis on personal achievement.^[33] A notable overlap exists between victims and perpetrators of social undermining, where those who experience it often become perpetrators themselves through mechanisms like reduced interpersonal justice perceptions and depleted self-regulatory resources, leading to moral disengagement that justifies harming others.^[34] Recent 2025 research among nurses indicates that resilience mediates the negative relationship between social undermining and psychological empowerment, helping targets buffer its adverse effects by enhancing emotional resources.^[35]

Consequences for Targets

Health Impacts

Social undermining contributes to physical health deterioration by disrupting individuals' adherence to healthy nutrition and exercise routines. Additionally, the chronic stress induced by undermining behaviors elevates the risk of stress-related conditions such as hypertension, as negative social interactions in relationships erode overall physical well-being and exacerbate physiological arousal like elevated blood pressure.^[36] On the mental health front, targets of social undermining experience heightened levels of depression, anxiety, and burnout. Longitudinal research demonstrates that social undermining exerts a stronger adverse influence on mental health outcomes compared to the mere absence of social support, with concurrent and predictive effects on psychological distress across multiple time points.^[37] Recent 2025 studies further confirm this, showing that perceived undermining behaviors significantly increase symptoms of anxiety and depression while diminishing life satisfaction and psychological empowerment.^[19]^[28] These health impacts operate through mechanisms involving chronic stress responses, including elevated cortisol levels from social stressors, which undermine personal resilience and self-efficacy over time.^[38] Such effects are particularly pronounced in vulnerable populations like women and minorities.^[39]

Emotional and Behavioral Responses

Victims of social undermining often experience intense emotional reactions, including anger, shame, and lowered self-esteem, which stem from the relational betrayal inherent in such behaviors, distinguishing them from general workplace stress by emphasizing interpersonal harm over mere task demands. Anger arises particularly when victims attribute undermining to malicious or greedy motives, heightening perceptions of offense severity and prompting affective responses focused on the offender's intent. Shame and diminished self-esteem emerge as victims internalize the undermining as a personal devaluation, exacerbating feelings of inadequacy within social or professional networks.^[40] These emotional responses frequently lead to rumination, where individuals repeatedly dwell on the undermining event and its implications, a process mediated by perceptions of being the subject of envy from perpetrators.^[40] Interpersonal rumination prolongs emotional distress by reinforcing negative self-perceptions and relational tensions, often resulting in heightened anxiety as a precursor to broader affective strain.^[40] Behaviorally, targets may initially respond with withdrawal or avoidance to protect themselves from further harm, particularly when anger dominates short-term reactions akin to a fight-or-flight response. Over time, however, these can evolve into reduced job performance due to persistent rumination depleting cognitive resources, or escalate to counter-undermining and retaliation in close relationships, perpetuating cycles of negative reciprocity through moral disengagement.^[41] Such retaliatory behaviors often arise from resource depletion following initial emotional regulation efforts, leading to long-term patterns of hypervigilance or learned helplessness in repeated exposures.^[41] Individual variations influence these responses; resilient individuals, characterized by higher psychological resilience, exhibit adaptive behaviors such as seeking social support, which buffers the emotional impact and prevents escalation to maladaptive rumination or withdrawal. Recent research underscores how interpersonal rumination mediates the pathway from social undermining to behavioral outcomes, with envy perceptions amplifying these effects across workplace teams.^[40]

Mitigation Strategies

Individual Coping Mechanisms

Individuals facing social undermining can employ cognitive reframing to reinterpret the behavior as a reflection of the perpetrator's insecurities rather than a valid assessment of their own abilities, thereby fostering self-compassion and reducing self-doubt.^[42] This approach involves shifting focus from personal shortcomings to the offender's motives, such as envy or personal stress, which helps preserve self-esteem and emotional equilibrium.^[43] For instance, research highlights forgiveness models where targets reframe undermining incidents to release resentment, contrasting with non-forgiveness that allows adverse effects to persist.^[42] In a 2024 time-lagged study of 229 employees, forgiveness buffered the adverse effects of undermining on well-being by mitigating negative affect and somatic complaints.^[43] Seeking social support represents another key strategy, where targets actively leverage networks of friends, family, or professional therapy to validate their experiences and rebuild confidence eroded by undermining.^[44] Emotional and informational support from others can buffer the isolating impact of undermining, promoting adaptive coping by countering feelings of helplessness.^[45] Therapeutic interventions, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy tailored to workplace or relational conflicts, further aid in processing the trauma and restoring a sense of agency.^[44] Studies indicate that higher levels of perceived social support directly predict lower distress and more effective problem-focused coping among those experiencing undermining.^[45] Boundary-setting through assertive communication enables targets to confront undermining directly yet non-aggressively, clarifying unacceptable behaviors and protecting personal space without provoking escalation.^[46] This involves using "I" statements to express the impact of the behavior—such as "I feel undermined when my contributions are dismissed"—while maintaining composure to de-escalate potential conflict.^[46] Effective boundary assertion not only deters repeated incidents but also reinforces the target's self-respect, transforming passive endurance into proactive defense.^[47] Building resilience counters the goal-disrupting nature of social undermining through practices like mindfulness, which cultivates present-moment awareness to detach from ruminative thoughts, and techniques to reaffirm personal objectives.^[48] Mindfulness training reduces emotional reactivity to undermining by enhancing emotional regulation and stress tolerance, allowing targets to respond rather than react impulsively.^[48] A 2025 cross-sectional study of 385 nurses demonstrated that psychological resilience fully mediates the negative link between social undermining and empowerment, with resilient individuals exhibiting lower burnout and higher job satisfaction despite exposure.^[49] This mediation underscores resilience's role in transforming undermining's disruptions into opportunities for growth, particularly in high-stress fields like nursing.^[49]

Organizational and Relational Interventions

Organizational interventions for social undermining in workplaces often involve structured training programs designed to promote civility and respectful interactions. The Civility, Respect, and Engagement in the Workplace (CREW) program, a six-month initiative featuring weekly meetings focused on dialogue and behavioral change, has been shown to increase perceptions of civility and reduce supervisor incivility among participants.^[50] Similarly, shorter formats like the 90-minute online Respect in the Workplace training enhance employees' self-efficacy in handling uncivil behaviors, though effects on actual incivility levels may vary.^[50] Human resources policies targeting abusive supervision, such as zero-tolerance approaches under frameworks like Dignity at Work, incorporate clear reporting procedures and disciplinary measures, leading to significant reductions in bullying incidents.^[50] These policies emphasize leadership commitment to ethical standards that balance bottom-line goals with employee well-being, fostering environments where undermining behaviors are systematically addressed.^[50] In relational contexts, such as intimate partnerships and family dynamics, interventions prioritize rebuilding trust through therapeutic approaches. Couples and family therapy, including cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) protocols, help victims of emotional abuse—often manifesting as social undermining—by addressing patterns of criticism and sabotage over structured sessions, resulting in up to a 60% decrease in intimate partner violence, including emotional components.^[51] Boundary enforcement strategies, integrated into advocacy interventions like the 12-week Empowerment Program, empower individuals to limit external family interference that exacerbates relational undermining, improving social support and autonomy.^[51] Recent studies on emotional abuse highlight the role of these therapies in restoring relational equity without requiring separation.^[51] Broader policy measures include anonymous reporting systems that encourage disclosure of undermining incidents without fear of retaliation, as seen in comprehensive anti-bullying policies that integrate formal and informal resolution channels.^[50] Cultural shifts aimed at reducing envy-driven competition involve promoting collaborative norms through leadership modeling and reward structures that emphasize collective success over individual rivalry, thereby diminishing the motivational roots of undermining behaviors.^[19] Evaluations of these interventions demonstrate effectiveness, particularly through empowerment-focused programs. For instance, resilience-building initiatives in high-stress settings like nursing have been found to mediate the negative effects of social undermining on psychological empowerment, with indirect effects (β = -0.032, p < 0.001) contributing to improved well-being and reduced burnout.^[19] Systematic reviews as of 2025 indicate mixed effectiveness of interventions for workplace mistreatment, including social undermining, with calls for more longitudinal research to assess sustained impacts. Multi-level approaches combining training and policy, such as CREW, yield sustained reductions in incivility and turnover intentions when implemented with ongoing evaluation.^[50] These systemic strategies complement individual coping mechanisms by creating supportive structures that prevent recurrence.^[50] Future directions include enhanced team-building exercises that build psychological safety and preempt undermining through trust-building, as suggested in reviews of mistreatment interventions.^[50] Such innovations aim to scale preventive efforts across organizational and relational settings.^[50]

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