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Solar deity

A solar deity is a god or goddess in mythology who personifies the Sun, symbolizing its essential roles in providing light, sustaining life, and maintaining cosmic order across ancient civilizations.^[1] These deities are typically associated with attributes such as creation, renewal, vitality, and power, reflecting the Sun's daily cycle of rise, zenith, and setting as a metaphor for birth, life, and death.^[1] Solar deities appear in diverse global cultures, often holding central positions in religious and social structures due to the Sun's influence on agriculture, timekeeping, and governance.^[1] In ancient Egypt, Ra emerged as a supreme creator god depicted with a sun disk, embodying kingship and daily renewal through his journey across the sky.^[1] Similarly, in Inca mythology, Inti served as the ancestor of rulers and patron of farming, with worship involving festivals and temple constructions to ensure bountiful harvests.^[1] In Hinduism, Surya rides a chariot drawn by seven horses, representing the life force and tied to health rituals and cosmic balance.^[1] Beyond these, solar figures like the Japanese goddess Amaterasu, who symbolizes national unity and imperial lineage, and the Mesopotamian Shamash, god of justice overseeing laws and truth, illustrate how such deities shaped spirituality, ethics, and architecture worldwide.^[1] In Mesoamerican traditions, Aztec Tonatiuh demanded sacrifices to sustain the world's motion, underscoring themes of cosmic stability and human obligation.^[1] Overall, the veneration of solar deities highlights humanity's profound connection to the natural world, influencing rituals from dawn prayers to monumental sun-aligned structures.^[1]

Overview

Definition and characteristics

A solar deity is a god or goddess who personifies the Sun, revered across ancient cultures as a divine entity embodying the sun's light, warmth, life-giving properties, and the cyclical daily journey across the sky. These deities are fundamentally tied to the sun's role in sustaining life, illuminating the world, and maintaining cosmic order, often symbolizing vitality and power. Core characteristics of solar deities include the personification of daylight as a source of truth and wisdom, associations with creation and renewal through the sun's daily rebirth at dawn, connections to prophecy via its all-seeing nature, and links to kingship as a symbol of legitimate rule and divine authority. They are commonly depicted with radiant iconography, such as emanating rays, solar disks, or chariots traversing the heavens, emphasizing their dynamic and visible presence. Unlike lunar deities, which focus on nocturnal cycles, phases, and mystery, or stellar deities centered on navigation and the night sky, solar deities highlight diurnal movement, agricultural sustenance, and physical warmth essential to daily human life. The term "solar" originates from the Latin solaris, derived from sol meaning "sun," which traces back to the Proto-Indo-European root *sawel-, denoting the sun or shining light.^[2] Cross-cultural parallels in naming appear in many traditions, where solar deities' appellations stem from linguistic roots for "sun" or "to shine," as seen in the Greek Helios from hēlios, also from *sawel-.^[3]

Historical and cultural context

Evidence of solar veneration dates back to prehistoric times, with solar symbols appearing in megalithic structures and rock art across Europe and beyond. In Britain, Stonehenge, constructed around 3000 BCE during the Neolithic period, features alignments that mark the summer solstice sunrise, where the sun rises directly behind the Heel Stone when viewed from the center of the monument, suggesting ritual observation of solar cycles. Similarly, Newgrange in Ireland, built circa 3200 BCE, incorporates a roof-box that allows the winter solstice sunrise to illuminate the inner chamber, symbolizing themes of renewal and possibly early sun worship. Rock art from the Bronze Age in Europe, spanning approximately 2500–800 BCE, often depicts solar motifs such as discs, rays, and wheeled suns, indicating widespread symbolic reverence for the sun as a life-giving force.^[4] By around 2500 BCE, solar deities had emerged prominently in ancient civilizations, integrating with societal needs like agriculture and governance. In Mesopotamia, the sun god Shamash, attested from the Early Dynastic period onward, was invoked in legal and agricultural contexts, with his rays symbolizing justice and the regulation of seasonal cycles essential for farming.^[5] In ancient Egypt, during the Old Kingdom (circa 2686–2181 BCE), Ra became the central solar deity, embodying creation and kingship, with pharaohs claiming descent from him to legitimize divine rule.^[6] Evidence from the Indus Valley Civilization, flourishing from about 2600–1900 BCE, includes seals and artifacts featuring sun-like motifs, hinting at proto-solar veneration tied to fertility and cosmic order, though explicit deities like Surya appear later in Vedic texts.^[7] Solar worship profoundly shaped cultural institutions, particularly calendars, architecture, and social hierarchies. The Egyptian civil calendar, a 365-day solar system, relied on the Sothic cycle—a 1,460-year period aligning the calendar with the heliacal rising of Sirius (Sothis), which marked the Nile flood and agricultural renewal, ensuring societal synchronization with natural rhythms.^[8] Architecturally, sun temples exemplified this devotion; the Fifth Dynasty temple of Niuserre at Abu Ghurab (circa 2420–2385 BCE) featured an open altar for solar offerings and reliefs depicting seasonal activities, underscoring the sun's role in cosmic and earthly order.^[9] Socially, pharaohs were portrayed as living incarnations of Ra, maintaining ma'at (cosmic balance) through rituals; this ideology peaked under Akhenaten (circa 1353–1336 BCE), who elevated the sun disk Aten as the sole deity, intertwining royal authority with solar divinity.^[10] With the rise of monotheistic religions, overt solar deity worship declined in many regions, yet elements persisted in folklore and symbolism. In the Roman Empire, polytheistic sun cults like Sol Invictus waned after Christianity's adoption as state religion in the 4th century CE, suppressing pagan rituals.^[11] However, solar motifs endured, influencing Christian iconography (e.g., the halo as a sun symbol) and surviving in European folklore, such as midsummer celebrations tied to ancient solstice rites, reflecting the sun's enduring role as a symbol of light and renewal.^[12]

Mythological elements

Solar narratives and cycles

Solar narratives frequently portray the daily cycle of the sun as a heroic journey, commencing with its birth at dawn, ascending to the zenith in midday triumph, and descending into apparent death at dusk, mirroring the perpetual rhythm of light's dominance and retreat. This motif often incorporates battles against forces of darkness, exemplified by the widespread archetype of the solar figure slaying a serpent-like adversary to secure the day's renewal and prevent eternal night.^[13]^[12] Seasonal narratives extend this pattern to the annual orbit, with the winter solstice serving as a pivotal moment of the sun's "death" through shortening days, followed by its rebirth as light begins to lengthen, symbolizing cosmic and terrestrial renewal. These stories underscore the sun's essential link to agricultural fertility, where the solstice heralds the revival of vegetation and sustenance, inspiring rites that invoke prosperity and communal harmony.^[14] Cosmic cycles elevate the sun's role within broader mythological frameworks, positioning it as a central agent in creation myths that initiate ordered worlds from primordial chaos, as well as in eschatological tales of dissolution through cataclysmic events like floods, only to recur in patterns of eternal return. This concept of cyclical regeneration, where solar events paradigmatically restore the cosmos, reflects a profound mythological emphasis on time's non-linear, repetitive nature rather than irreversible progression.^[15] Mythic variations distinguish between nocturnal journeys through underworld domains, where the sun confronts and overcomes subterranean perils during the night, and diurnal paths along heavenly vaults, each tradition shaping distinct ritual practices such as solstice observances that dramatize these travels—occasionally incorporating symbolic vehicles to represent the deity's passage.^[12]

Vehicles and symbols

Solar boats represent a prominent motif in ancient Egyptian mythology, portraying solar deities navigating celestial waters in reed or barge-like vessels to symbolize the sun's passage through the sky and underworld. These conveyances embody the transition between life and death, facilitating the deity's journey across riverine expanses or nocturnal realms, where the sun's light renews after darkness.^[12]^[16] Solar chariots, often horse-drawn, depict the sun's swift traversal of the heavens, underscoring themes of speed, divine power, and the inexorable cycle of day and night. The wheels of these chariots serve as metaphors for the sun's circular path, evoking renewal and the eternal rhythm of time. In representative traditions, fiery steeds pull the chariot, amplifying its association with radiant energy and cosmic momentum.^[17]^[12] Beyond vehicles, solar deities are frequently symbolized by radiant icons such as disks and emanating rays, which denote the sun's illuminating essence and life-sustaining force. Animals like falcons signify elevation and swift ascent, while lotuses evoke emergence and purity tied to solar rebirth. Colors including gold and red further emphasize solar fire, with gold representing eternal brilliance and red evoking the dawn's vital heat.^[1]^[12] These elements appear in cultural artifacts across ancient societies, such as engravings of chariots on tomb walls illustrating celestial voyages or scale models of solar boats used in funerary rituals to invoke protective journeys. Such depictions in art and ceremonial objects highlight the deities' role in ensuring cosmic order and continuity.^[16]^[1]

Gender and diversity

Solar deities exhibit significant gender variations across cultures, often reflecting societal structures and perceptions of the sun's attributes. In many patriarchal societies, particularly those influenced by Indo-European traditions, solar deities are predominantly male, symbolizing active, penetrating light associated with power, justice, and visibility.^[18] This masculinization aligns with cultural emphases on male dominance, where the sun's intense, life-sustaining yet potentially destructive rays evoke warrior-like qualities.^[19] In contrast, female solar deities appear in matrilineal or early agrarian cultures, where the sun embodies nurturing warmth, fertility, and cyclical renewal tied to growth and birth processes.^[19] These representations highlight the sun's role in sustaining life and agriculture, mirroring maternal care and the earth's productive cycles. Androgynous or dual-gendered solar forms are rarer, typically symbolizing a balance between opposing forces such as day and night, creation and destruction, or unity of cosmic principles. Such depictions often emerge in traditions that transcend binary gender norms, emphasizing harmony in the sun's dual nature as both benevolent and formidable. For example, in ancient Egyptian mythology, deities like Atum exhibit androgynous creative aspects.^[20] These gender diversities are shaped by local ecology and societal gender roles; for instance, arid environments may favor fierce, male personifications to evoke the sun's harsh intensity, while fertile regions lean toward female forms linked to abundance.^[18] Patriarchal shifts historically reinforced male solar identities, overriding earlier female associations in some lineages.^[19]

African traditions

Ancient Egyptian deities

In ancient Egyptian religion, Ra served as the central solar deity, embodying the sun as the supreme creator and ruler of the gods, often depicted with a falcon head crowned by a solar disk and uraeus. As the source of life and order (ma'at), Ra was believed to have emerged from the primordial waters of Nun at Heliopolis, self-generating the world through his creative word or tears. During the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BCE), Ra syncretized with the Theban god Amun, forming Amun-Ra, a composite deity representing the hidden power of creation fused with solar vitality, who became the preeminent patron of the Egyptian state and empire.^[21] Horus, another key solar figure, manifested as the falcon-headed sky god whose right eye symbolized the sun, linking him to kingship and the daily ascent of the sun across the heavens; he was frequently portrayed as Ra's son or avenging eye.^[22] Atum, associated with the setting sun in Heliopolitan cosmology, was revered as the self-created progenitor who completed the solar cycle by merging with Ra at dusk, embodying completion and renewal.^[23] A notable deviation in solar worship occurred during the Amarna Period under Pharaoh Akhenaten (c. 1353–1336 BCE), who promoted the Aten—the visible sun disk with rays ending in hands offering life (ankh)—as the exclusive, monotheistic deity, suppressing traditional polytheism and closing temples to other gods. This cult emphasized the Aten's role as the sole sustainer of life, accessible only through the pharaoh and his family, though it was short-lived and reversed after Akhenaten's death.^[10] The Aten's imagery drew from earlier solar traditions but abstracted Ra's form into a disembodied disk, reflecting a theological shift toward universal benevolence without anthropomorphic intermediaries.^[24] Mythologically, Ra's role dominated solar narratives, as he undertook a perilous daily voyage in his solar barque across the sky by day, transitioning to a night journey through the Duat (underworld) aboard the Mesektet barque, where he battled the giant chaos serpent Apophis to prevent cosmic disorder and ensure dawn's arrival. This eternal struggle, aided by gods like Set and Isis, symbolized the triumph of light over darkness and was depicted in funerary texts such as the Book of the Dead.^[25] Solar motifs extended to the afterlife, where the righteous reached the Field of Reeds—a paradisiacal realm perpetually lit by Ra's rays—granting eternal vitality and agricultural abundance, reinforcing the sun's role in resurrection and judgment. The solar boat motif, central to these myths, highlighted themes of protection and cyclical renewal.^[26] Worship of these deities was integral to state religion, centered in grand temples like Karnak, the vast complex at Thebes dedicated primarily to Amun-Ra, where hypostyle halls and obelisks facilitated rituals aligning pharaonic power with solar cycles.^[27] Annual festivals, such as the Wepet-Renpet (Opening of the Year) on the Nile's inundation, involved processions, offerings, and solar rites invoking Ra's rebirth to bless fertility and kingship, often culminating in temple reenactments of divine unions.^[28] Pharaohs embodied solar divinity as "sons of Ra," legitimizing their rule through solar iconography and rituals that equated their reign with the sun's eternal order, ensuring prosperity for Egypt.^[21]

Sub-Saharan African deities

In Sub-Saharan African traditions, solar deities often embody creative forces intertwined with animistic beliefs, where the sun symbolizes life-giving energy, moral order, and ancestral continuity south of the Sahara. These figures differ from more centralized pantheons by emphasizing localized, oral cosmologies that integrate solar reverence with communal rituals and environmental cycles. Among the Kongo people of Central Africa, Nzambi Mpungu (also known as Nzambi a Mpungu) serves as the supreme creator deity, associated with the sky and the sun as a source of fire and vital energy.^[29] This entity is viewed as the origin of all life force, embodying an omnipotent power that permeates the universe and influences human affairs through spiritual intermediaries.^[30] In Kongo cosmology, Nzambi Mpungu's solar aspect links to divination practices, where priests invoke solar-derived energies to interpret omens and maintain harmony between the living and the ancestral realm.^[31] Further east, among the Kalenjin peoples of Kenya, Asis represents a male sun god revered as a benevolent provider and guarantor of righteousness, residing in the sky and symbolized by the sun's daily journey.^[32] Asis is contrasted with the moon, which embodies lesser or more erratic forces, positioning the sun as the primary emblem of stability and prosperity in agricultural and pastoral life.^[33] Rituals involving solar oaths invoke Asis to enforce moral codes, such as during communal disputes or initiations, where participants swear by the sun's unerring light to affirm truth and deter wrongdoing. These practices underscore Asis's role as an omnipotent overseer, with prayers directed eastward at dawn to seek blessings for fertility and protection. Among the Dogon of Mali, solar elements integrate with broader stellar cosmology, particularly through connections to the Sirius system, where the sun (nay) is created by the creator Amma from a clay disc and plays a role in their myths as a life-giving force symbolized as female and associated with motherhood and vitality, alongside their esoteric knowledge of stars like Po Tolo (Sirius B).^[34] This positions the sun as part of Dogon ancestral narratives, symbolizing renewal and the transmission of knowledge across generations. Equatorial Sub-Saharan practices often blend solar veneration with ancestor worship, evident in rituals like solar dances that mimic the sun's path to honor life cycles and invoke protective spirits.^[35] Scarification symbols, such as radiating patterns on the skin, mark initiates with solar motifs representing enlightenment and lineage ties in communities from the Congo Basin to the Sahel.^[36] These embodied arts integrate with ancestral cults, where solar-aligned ceremonies in forested regions reinforce communal bonds, fertility rites, and the perpetual renewal of vital energies.

European traditions

Greco-Roman mythologies

In ancient Greek mythology, Helios was revered as the Titan god who personified the sun, driving a fiery chariot across the sky each day from his golden palace in the east, beyond the River Oceanus, to bring light and warmth to the world.^[37] As the embodiment of the sun's radiant power, Helios was also considered the god of sight and a vigilant witness to all earthly events, owing to his elevated vantage point that allowed him to observe everything below.^[37] This all-seeing nature made him a guardian of oaths; Greeks frequently invoked Helios in solemn vows, believing his unblinking gaze ensured truthfulness and punished perjury.^[37] A prominent myth involving Helios centers on his son Phaethon, who, doubting his divine parentage, persuaded Helios to let him drive the sun chariot for a day. Unable to control the powerful horses, Phaethon veered wildly, scorching the earth and nearly destroying humanity until Zeus struck him down with a thunderbolt to save the world; the fallen youth plummeted into the Eridanus River, transforming his sisters, the Heliades, into poplars weeping amber tears. Over time, particularly from the Hellenistic period onward, Helios underwent syncretism with Apollo, the Olympian god of light, music, and prophecy, blending the Titan's cosmic role with Apollo's attributes of illumination and foresight; this merger elevated the solar deity's cultural prominence in art, literature, and cult practices.^[38] In Roman tradition, the indigenous solar deity Sol, initially known as Sol Indiges, represented an ancient, native god of the sun integrated into the early Roman pantheon, with a temple dedicated to him on the Quirinal Hill dating back to the 8th century BC.^[39] By the late empire, under Emperor Aurelian in 274 CE, Sol evolved into Sol Invictus, the "Unconquered Sun," promoted as a supreme protector of the state amid military and political crises; Aurelian established grand games and a priesthood for Sol Invictus, emphasizing his role as an invincible force symbolizing imperial resilience.^[39] This cult reflected Eastern influences while rooting in Roman solar worship, with Sol Invictus often depicted in radiate crowns and chariot motifs akin to Helios. Roman narratives and rituals further highlighted solar themes, such as the triumph processions where victorious generals rode in four-horse chariots through the city, evoking the sun god's daily journey and divine favor in warfare.^[40] Worship of these solar figures included oracles like that at Didyma, dedicated primarily to Apollo but incorporating Helios-Apollo syncretism, where priests delivered prophecies under the sun's auspices.^[38] Festivals such as Saturnalia, celebrated in mid-December near the winter solstice, incorporated motifs of solar rebirth through feasting, role reversals, and lights symbolizing the sun's return, foreshadowing the later Dies Natalis Solis Invicti on December 25.^[39]

Northern European mythologies

In Northern European mythologies, encompassing Germanic, Celtic, Baltic, and Slavic traditions, solar deities often embody the sun's life-giving and cyclical nature within pre-Christian pagan frameworks, frequently depicted as feminine figures traversing the sky in chariots or associated with seasonal renewal.^[41] In Germanic and Norse lore, the sun is personified as Sól, a radiant goddess who drives a chariot across the heavens, pursued by ravenous wolves named Sköll and Hati that seek to devour her during Ragnarök.^[41] Sól is the daughter of Mundilfari and sister to Máni, the moon god, with their celestial journeys reflecting the eternal chase of day and night in the cosmos.^[42] Celtic traditions feature solar deities like Lugh, an Irish god of multifaceted skills including craftsmanship and warfare, often linked to the sun through his epithet "Lámfada" (of the long arm) and his role in harvest festivals.^[43] In Gaulish contexts, Belenus emerges as a healing deity associated with solar brightness, invoked for vitality and light, with his name deriving from Indo-European roots meaning "to shine."^[44] Baltic mythology centers on Saulė, the Lithuanian sun goddess portrayed as a maternal figure who weaves the fabric of day and nurtures life, symbolized by amber as tears shed for her imprisoned daughter, the dawn.^[41] Her myths include cosmic creation narratives where she emerges from a primordial egg, establishing the sun's path through the sky gates at dawn and dusk.^[41] Slavic pantheons highlight Dazhbog as a solar god of fortune and prosperity, considered the ancestor of the Slavic peoples, who bestows wealth and rides a fiery chariot to illuminate the world.^[45] Complementing him is Jarilo, a youthful deity embodying the sun's spring aspect, whose annual cycle of disappearance in winter and return in summer mirrors themes of death and rebirth tied to fertility rites.^[46] Across these traditions, shared motifs include the wheel as a solar emblem representing the sun's eternal rotation and solstice rituals like blots honoring seasonal turning points, often intertwining solar figures with thunder gods such as Perun or Thor for cosmic balance.^[41]

Asian traditions

East Asian mythologies

In East Asian mythologies, solar deities often embody cosmic order, fertility, and imperial legitimacy, with prominent female figures reflecting cultural emphases on harmony between heaven and earth. In ancient Chinese traditions, Xihe serves as the primary solar goddess, depicted as the consort of the high god Di Jun and mother of ten suns, each manifested as a three-legged crow that rode across the sky in a chariot drawn by dragons. This myth, rooted in texts like the Huainanzi and Shan Hai Jing from the Warring States period (c. 475–221 BCE), portrays Xihe as the divine charioteer who bathed the suns in the Valley of Enlightenment, ensuring the daily solar cycle. The legend underscores the sun's vital role in agriculture and seasonal renewal, with Xihe's nurturing aspect symbolizing maternal oversight of celestial rhythm.^[47]^[48]^[49] A related Chinese narrative involves the archer Houyi, who intervened when all ten suns appeared simultaneously during the reign of Emperor Yao around 2000 BCE, scorching the earth and disrupting balance. Tasked by the gods, Houyi shot down nine suns with his bow, leaving one to sustain life, an act celebrated in ancient folklore as restoring harmony and earning him immortality. This myth, preserved in the Shan Hai Jing and Huainanzi, highlights themes of heroic intervention against cosmic chaos, with the surviving sun's crow as a enduring solar emblem in later art and ritual.^[50]^[49] In Japanese Shinto mythology, Amaterasu Ōmikami emerges as the central sun goddess, born from the left eye of the creator god Izanagi during his purification ritual, as detailed in the Kojiki (712 CE). Enraged by her brother Susanoo's rampage, she retreated into a cave, plunging the world into darkness until lured out by a sacred dance and mirror, restoring light and establishing her as ruler of the High Plain of Heaven. As ancestress of the imperial family, Amaterasu's descent through her grandson Ninigi legitimized the Yamato rulers, with her worship centered at Ise Grand Shrine since the 5th century CE, where rituals like the niinamesai harvest offering invoke solar blessings for prosperity. This cult evolved from earlier male solar deities among Ise's Ama people, incorporating Korean influences to emphasize Amaterasu's feminine solar sovereignty.^[51]^[52] Korean mythology features Haemosu as a solar rider and son of the heavenly god Hwanin, who descended in a five-dragon chariot to wed a mortal princess, fathering the founder of Goguryeo in the Samguk Yusa (1281 CE). This narrative parallels Chinese solar myths, portraying Haemosu as a bringer of light and divine kingship. Ancient Korean tombs, such as those of Goguryeo (37 BCE–668 CE), incorporate solar motifs like radiant sun discs and god figures in murals, symbolizing eternal life and cosmic protection, as seen in the Ohoebun Tomb's depictions of the sun deity Haesin. Vietnamese traditions show faint parallels, with solar goddesses like Mat Ga Trong invoked in folk tales as carriers of daylight in palanquins, echoing regional motifs of divine solar descent.^[53]^[54]^[55]^[56] Solar elements permeate East Asian practices, notably in the lunisolar calendar underpinning Lunar New Year celebrations, where solar terms like lichun (start of spring) align rituals with the sun's position to renew cosmic balance and ensure bountiful harvests. In imperial cults, empresses occasionally embodied solar divinity; for instance, Japanese saio priestesses at Ise served as living incarnations of Amaterasu, while Chinese empresses like Wu Zetian (r. 690–705 CE) drew on solar symbolism in state rituals to assert heavenly mandate, blending mythology with political authority. These practices reinforce solar deities' role in fostering societal harmony and agricultural cycles.^[57]^[58]^[52]^[59]

South and West Asian mythologies

In South and West Asian mythologies, solar deities embody themes of light, covenant, and cosmic order, reflecting Indo-Iranian and Semitic influences across diverse traditions. In Hinduism, Surya serves as the principal solar god, portrayed as a charioteer deity traversing the heavens in a golden chariot pulled by seven horses, symbolizing the sun's daily journey and its life-sustaining rays.^[60] This Vedic figure is central to rituals, notably invoked through the Gayatri mantra in the Rigveda, which praises Savitr—the solar aspect of the divine—for illuminating the mind and dispelling ignorance.^[61] Devotion to Surya manifested in monumental architecture, such as the 13th-century [Konark Sun Temple](/page/Konark_Sun Temple) in Odisha, India, designed as a colossal chariot with intricate wheel carvings representing the sun's orbit and dedicated to his worship.^[62] Zoroastrianism features Mithra as a prominent yazata (divine being) embodying covenants, truth, and solar guardianship, often depicted as a warrior upholding oaths and cosmic harmony under Ahura Mazda.^[63] His solar attributes link him to light's triumph over darkness, with iconography including the tauroctony—a bull-slaying scene symbolizing fertility and renewal, rooted in Indo-Iranian sacrificial myths.^[64] Mithra's festivals aligned with equinoxes, celebrating seasonal transitions and his role in maintaining the world's order, as seen in Avestan hymns like the Mihir Yasht.^[65] In Armenian mythology, Mihr emerges as a solar fire god with deep Indo-Iranian origins, derived from the Avestan Mithra, and positioned as the son of the supreme deity Aramazd, overseeing light, oaths, and martial prowess.^[66] As a personification of illuminating rays, Mihr guided heroes in battle and was honored in spring festivals, blending solar and fiery elements in pre-Christian Armenian cosmology.^[67] Medieval Armenian manuscripts, such as those from the 5th to 13th centuries, preserve references to Mihr's cult through Christian historians' accounts of pagan survivals, including temple sites like the sanctuary at Garni.^[68] Pre-Islamic Arabian traditions revered Shams as a sun goddess within the South Arabian pantheon, particularly among the Himyarites and in kingdoms like Hadramawt and Qataban, where she was invoked for protection and fertility alongside astral deities. Inscriptions from temple sites, such as those in the Sabaean region, depict Shams as a celestial patron, her worship intertwined with lunar and stellar cults in a polytheistic framework. The Yazidi tradition extends this solar reverence through Tawûsî Melek, the Peacock Angel, who embodies divine wisdom and intermediarieship, with the peacock symbolizing solar immortality and rebirth in ancient motifs.^[69] Tawûsî Melek's role connects to sun-facing prayers at dawn, alongside figures like Sheikh Shams, reflecting astral veneration in Yezidi cosmology.^[70] Silk Road interactions fostered syncretisms in solar worship, where Zoroastrian Mithra and Hindu Surya influenced Central Asian iconography, as evidenced in Bactrian and Sogdian art from the 2nd to 8th centuries, portraying Iranian deities in Hindu stylistic garb to blend covenant-keeping solar motifs with Vedic chariot symbolism.^[71] Trade routes facilitated this exchange, merging Zoroastrian light-versus-darkness dualism with Hindu solar vitality in multicultural hubs like Khotan.

American traditions

Mesoamerican mythologies

In Mesoamerican mythologies, particularly among the Aztecs and Maya, solar deities were central figures embodying the life-giving yet demanding force of the sun, often linked to cycles of creation, destruction, and renewal. Among the Aztecs, Huitzilopochtli served as the primary solar and war god, depicted as a hummingbird or eagle warrior who required human sacrifices to sustain his daily journey across the sky.^[72] As the patron deity of the Mexica people, he guided their migrations and symbolized the empire's martial prowess, with rituals emphasizing his role in combating darkness.^[73] Complementing Huitzilopochtli, Tonatiuh represented the sun of the current era, known as the Fifth Sun, ruling over a world characterized by movement and earthquakes.^[74] Aztec cosmology portrayed Tonatiuh as a fierce entity demanding nourishment through blood offerings to prevent cosmic collapse.^[75] In Maya traditions, Kinich Ahau, meaning "sun-eyed lord," was the principal sun god, often shown with a square eye and filed teeth in codices and sculptures.^[76] He appears in the Popol Vuh as a divine ruler associated with rulership and the heavens, where the Hero Twins' victory in the underworld ball game elevates one to become the sun.^[77] Solar motifs also feature prominently in the Dresden Codex, an 11th- to 12th-century manuscript containing glyphs depicting Kinich Ahau in eclipse tables and ritual calendars, underscoring the sun's role in timekeeping and prophecy. Mesoamerican narratives framed the sun within cyclical world ages, each ending in catastrophe to pave the way for renewal; in Aztec lore, the Five Suns myth describes four prior eras destroyed by jaguars, wind, fire, and flood, with the current Fifth Sun under Tonatiuh fated for earthquakes unless sustained by sacrifice.^[78] The ball game ritualized solar themes, symbolizing rivalry between sun and moon, as seen in the Popol Vuh where the Hero Twins' contest against underworld lords mirrors celestial battles, with the victors ascending as luminaries.^[79] Worship practices integrated solar veneration through architectural alignments and offerings. At Chichen Itza, the Pyramid of Kukulkan creates a shadow serpent descending its steps during equinox sunsets, evoking the feathered serpent god's renewal of the sun's cycle.^[80] Aztec rites for Huitzilopochtli and Tonatiuh involved human sacrifices atop pyramids like the Templo Mayor, where hearts were extracted to "feed" the sun and ensure its rebirth, reflecting beliefs in blood as the vital force combating nightly devouring by darkness.^[81]

Andean and North American mythologies

In the Inca Empire, Inti was revered as the supreme solar deity and considered the divine father of the Inca emperors, who claimed direct descent from him to legitimize their rule.^[82] The emperor, known as the Sapa Inca or "sole ruler," embodied Inti's earthly representative, overseeing religious ceremonies that reinforced solar worship as central to state ideology.^[83] A key site of veneration was the Qorikancha temple in Cusco, constructed in the 15th century and dedicated exclusively to Inti, its walls once sheathed in gold sheets to reflect sunlight and symbolize the sun's radiance.^[84] This temple complex, often called the "Golden Enclosure," served as the empire's religious nucleus, housing solar artifacts and mummified rulers in rituals honoring Inti's life-giving power.^[85] Beyond the imperial core, Andean folklore preserved localized solar concepts, such as notions of an eternal or perpetually renewing sun in Quechua traditions, reflecting broader indigenous views of solar cycles tied to agricultural renewal.^[12] In North American indigenous traditions, solar deities varied across tribes but often embodied creation and sustenance. Among the Lakota, Wi was personified as a powerful sun spirit invoked during the Sun Dance, a ritual of renewal where participants danced and fasted to connect with Wi's energy for communal healing and vision.^[86] The Hopi revered Tawa as the creator-sun god who emerged from the underworld to shape the world, guiding humanity through successive worlds in their emergence myths.^[87] Similarly, in Zuni cosmology, Awonawilona represented the primal creator who initiated existence through thought, emerging as dual solar and earthly forces to birth the universe from darkness.^[88] Key practices across these traditions emphasized solar renewal. The Inca celebrated Inti Raymi, an annual winter solstice festival in Cusco involving sacrifices, processions, and offerings to ensure Inti's return and bountiful harvests. In North American Plains cultures like the Lakota, the Sun Dance incorporated piercing and endurance tests under the sun to seek visions and restore balance.^[89] Vision quests, common among many tribes, involved solitary fasting and exposure to the sun for spiritual insight, often at sacred sites marked by petroglyphs depicting sun wheels—circular motifs symbolizing solar paths and cosmic order.^[90]

Oceanian traditions

Polynesian mythologies

In Polynesian mythologies, solar deities often embody the life-sustaining power of the sun, intertwined with creation, navigation, and ancestral voyages across the Pacific. These figures reflect the islands' reliance on celestial observations for survival, where the sun's path guided wayfinding and marked seasonal cycles essential for agriculture and fishing. Unlike more anthropomorphic solar gods in other traditions, Polynesian solar entities frequently appear as distant or elemental forces, subdued or harnessed by culture heroes to benefit humanity.^[91] In Hawaiian mythology, Kāne stands as a prominent solar deity within the creator triad alongside Kū and Lono, revered for his role in forming the heavens, earth, sun, moon, stars, and humanity from red earth and divine spittle, breathing life into the first man.^[92] As the "great Sun of Kāne," he governs the sky from sun to earth, associating him with sunlight, fresh water, and procreative forces that sustain forests and life itself.^[93]^[94] Kāne's life-giving essence is evoked in chants like the Kumulipo, where he emerges as a god of light amid primordial darkness, symbolizing renewal and the sun's vital energy. Pele, the volcano goddess, complements this through her fiery domain, which parallels solar heat in forging new land from molten rock, embodying creation's destructive yet regenerative power in eruptions that expand the islands.^[95] Among the Māori of New Zealand, Rā (or Tamanuiterā) represents the distant sun god, whose rapid daily course once shortened days, hindering human labors until the demigod Māui intervened. In the legend, Māui and his brothers wove flax ropes to snare Rā as it rose from its eastern pit, beating it with his ancestor's jawbone until it promised to traverse the sky slowly, lengthening daylight for fishing, weaving, and cultivation. This narrative underscores the sun's harnessed benevolence, with Rā's subdued path ensuring prosperity. Solar motifs, evoking Rā's rays and cycles, appear in whakairo (wood carvings) on meeting houses, where spiral patterns inspired by natural forms like ferns symbolize celestial journeys and ancestral ties to the sun's enduring light.^[96]^[97] In other Polynesian traditions, such as Tahitian, Tangaroa (or Ta'aroa) embodies a solar aspect within creation chants, emerging from a cosmic egg in primordial chaos to split its shell into heaven and earth, birthing light and order akin to the sun's dawning role in illuminating the world. These chants, recited in rituals, invoke Tangaroa as the originator of celestial bodies, linking solar energy to the universe's foundational harmony. In Samoan lore, figures like Alo'o le La, the "Child of the Sun," personify dawn's radiant onset, bridging night and day as a celestial offspring who embodies the sun's nurturing warmth and the transition to productive hours.^[98]^[99] Polynesian practices highlight solar deities' practical reverence, particularly in wayfinding, where navigators tracked the sun's rising and setting positions relative to stars and swells to traverse vast oceans, as seen in the "star houses" system positioning Lā (the sun) eastward for orientation during voyages. Heiau temples in Hawaii, such as Hapaialiʻi on Hawaiʻi Island (dated 1411–1465 CE), feature pillars aligned to solstices—the left marking winter sunset for peace and rains, the right for summer sunset signaling harvest and preparation—serving as calendars to synchronize rituals, fishing, and agriculture with solar cycles. These alignments underscore the sun's integral role in ancestral navigation and temporal governance across Polynesia.^[91]^[100]^[101]

Australian Aboriginal traditions

In Australian Aboriginal traditions, solar deities are integral to Dreamtime narratives, where ancestral beings shape the world during a timeless creation period known as the Tjukurpa or Alcheringa. These stories portray the sun not as a distant celestial body but as a living ancestor, often female, who traverses the sky to bring light, life, and order to the land. Unlike linear cosmologies in other cultures, Aboriginal solar lore emphasizes cyclical, interconnected relationships between sky, earth, and people, encoded in oral songs, art, and ceremonies that guide navigation, kinship, and seasonal knowledge.^[102] Among southeastern groups like the Euahlayi, the sun is embodied by Yhi, a powerful female ancestor who awakens life from primordial darkness. In creation stories, Yhi emerges to illuminate the barren world, breathing vitality into seeds, animals, and humans, transforming inertia into vibrant existence; her journey across the sky symbolizes renewal and the pursuit of harmony, as she chases the moon-man Bahloo in an eternal dance of light and shadow. This narrative underscores the sun's role as a life-giving force tied to fertility and the emergence of all things from the void.^[103]^[104] In the Yolngu traditions of Arnhem Land, the sun-woman Walu carries a bag of fire across the sky, igniting dawn each morning by kindling a small blaze and adorning herself with red ochre to scatter glowing hues at sunrise. As she travels from east to west, her fire illuminates the day, descending into an underground camp at night to rest, explaining the cycle of light and darkness; this portrayal highlights gender fluidity in solar beings, with Walu as a feminine entity embodying both creation and daily rhythm in a matrilineal cosmic order.^[105]^[106]^[102] Central desert peoples, such as the Warlpiri, integrate solar totems into songlines—sacred pathways of ancestral travel that map the landscape, linking the sun-woman to vital waterholes, food sources, and kinship networks. These songlines encode the sun's path as part of totemic lore, where solar ancestors establish laws of relatedness and custodianship over country; for instance, solar eclipses are interpreted as the sun-woman temporarily concealed by the moon-man during intimate union, reinforcing themes of celestial kinship and balance.^[102]^[107] Cultural practices vividly express these solar narratives through corroboree ceremonies, where dancers mimic the sun's arc across the sky with rhythmic movements, songs, and body paint to reenact ancestral journeys and invoke Dreamtime power. Rock art further preserves this heritage, with sun symbols—often concentric circles or radiant motifs—dating back thousands of years, as seen in ancient sites across Arnhem Land and the Kimberley, serving as enduring markers of astronomical observation and spiritual connection.^[108]^[109]

Melanesian traditions

In Melanesian mythologies, solar deities also play key roles in creation and daily life. Among the Huli people of Papua New Guinea, Ni is revered as the sun goddess, associated with light and warmth that sustains agriculture and community rituals. Additionally, Dudugera is depicted as a sun god who traverses the sky, bringing daylight and influencing seasonal changes vital for hunting and planting. These figures highlight the sun's importance in Melanesian cosmology, where solar cycles guide navigation, ceremonies, and environmental stewardship across diverse island groups.^[110]

Influences in major religions

Christian solar motifs

Early Christianity incorporated solar motifs from Roman pagan traditions, particularly those associated with Sol Invictus, the Unconquered Sun, to articulate theological concepts of light and renewal.^[39] A prominent example is the repurposing of the Natalis Invicti festival on December 25, originally dedicated to Sol Invictus as recorded in the Chronography of 354 CE, which featured games and celebrations marking the sun's "rebirth" at the winter solstice.^[39] Under Emperor Constantine, who had promoted Sol Invictus imagery following his vision before the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 CE, the date was adopted for Christmas in 336 CE, aligning Christ's nativity with solar renewal to facilitate the integration of Christian observance into the Roman calendar.^[39] In early Christian iconography, Christ was frequently depicted as Sol Iustitiae (Sun of Justice), drawing directly from solar deity representations. A notable 3rd-century mosaic from the Tomb of the Julii in the Vatican Necropolis portrays Christ riding a chariot drawn by horses, with rays emanating from his head and holding a globe symbolizing dominion, mirroring Sol Invictus while incorporating Christian vines to evoke scriptural themes of light and salvation.^[111] Similarly, a 3rd-century fresco in the Vatican Grottoes under St. Peter's Basilica shows Christ as Helios or Sol Invictus in a chariot, blending pagan solar triumph with Christian motifs like the vines of Dionysus reinterpreted as Christ's.^[112] The halo, or nimbus, emerged in Christian art around the 4th century as a radiant disk signifying divine glory, adapted from earlier solar disks in Roman and Iranian iconography to denote Christ's spiritual radiance.^[113] Theological connections further emphasized solar symbolism, with Jesus described as the "light of the world" in John 8:12, paralleling the sun's daily renewal and illuminating humanity's path from darkness.^[114] This motif of Christ as the eternal light source transformed pagan solar renewal into a metaphor for resurrection and salvation, as explored in early Church interpretations of biblical light imagery.^[114] Architectural alignments in churches reinforced these links, with many early structures oriented eastward to capture the sunrise, symbolizing Christ's resurrection; some Byzantine examples align specifically with Easter sunrise, integrating solar cycles into liturgical space.^[115] Into the medieval period, solar motifs persisted through associations with saints whose feasts coincided with seasonal solar transitions. St. Martin of Tours, celebrated on November 11, became linked to the onset of winter's lengthening nights—midway between the autumn equinox and winter solstice—evoking themes of light enduring darkness, much like solar saints in earlier traditions.^[116] This timing tied Martin's legacy of charity and military patronage to harvest-end rituals, subtly perpetuating solar renewal narratives within Christian hagiography.^[116]

Other religious incorporations

In Islam, the sun is depicted as a created sign of divine power and order, as articulated in Surah Ash-Shams (Quran 91:1–6), where oaths are sworn by the sun and its brightness, the moon following it, the day unveiling it, the night concealing it, the heaven and its builder, and the earth and its spreader, emphasizing the sun's role within a purposeful cosmic framework.^[117] This portrayal underscores the sun not as a deity but as evidence of Allah's sovereignty over creation. In Sufi mysticism, solar symbolism manifests prominently through figures like Shams Tabrizi (c. 1185–1248), a 13th-century Persian wandering mystic whose name "Shams" literally means "sun," symbolizing his role as an illuminating spiritual guide who profoundly influenced Jalaluddin Rumi's transformation into a poet of divine love.^[118] Judaism features subtle solar motifs in Enochic literature, particularly the Astronomical Book of 1 Enoch (chapters 72–82), which details the sun's precise movements, portals of rising and setting, and integration into a 364-day solar calendar, portraying it as an obedient element of God's ordered cosmos rather than a deified entity.^[119] These texts, part of Second Temple Jewish apocalyptic writings (c. 3rd–1st century BCE), use solar imagery to affirm divine control over heavenly bodies, influencing later calendrical and eschatological thought. The Temple menorah, a seven-branched golden lampstand described in Exodus 25:31–40, serves as a metaphor for divine light and wisdom, with its branches evoking the illumination of God's presence and human knowledge guided by the central eternal flame, explicitly distinguishing it from pagan solar deities by symbolizing spiritual enlightenment within monotheistic worship.^[120] In Buddhism, Marici (Sanskrit: Mārici) emerges as a solar bodhisattva associated with rays of light and the sun, revered as a protector who grants invisibility and averts obstacles for warriors and travelers, often depicted with multiple arms wielding weapons and riding a boar or solar chariot.^[121] Originating in Indian Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions around the 5th–7th centuries CE, her cult spread to East Asia, where she embodies the dawn's triumph over darkness. In Japanese syncretism, Marici (known as Marishiten) blends with indigenous solar elements, paralleling the Shinto goddess Amaterasu in protective and luminous roles, particularly among samurai who invoked her for victory and concealment in battle during the medieval period.^[122] Beyond these traditions, the Bahá'í Faith employs solar rising symbolism to represent the unity of religions, likening progressive divine revelations to the sun's daily ascent illuminating all humanity equally, as articulated in the writings of Bahá'u'lláh (1817–1892), where the sun signifies eternal truth emerging anew across ages and faiths.^[123] Similarly, Mandaeism, an ancient Gnostic religion, incorporates solar prayers in its dawn rituals, such as daily invocations praising the rising light as a manifestation of the Great Life's radiance, recited three times daily facing north to symbolize ascent from material darkness to spiritual purity.^[124]

Modern religious movements

Occult and esoteric traditions

In the late 19th century, Theosophy, founded by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky in 1875, introduced the concept of the Solar Logos as the divine intelligence governing the solar system, embodying universal wisdom and the creative principle underlying cosmic evolution. Blavatsky elaborated this in The Secret Doctrine (1888), describing the Solar Logos as a triad of logoi—the unmanifest, manifest, and creative aspects—that manifests through the seven planetary spirits, serving as the unseen heart of the universe and the source of spiritual illumination for humanity. This framework positioned the Sun not merely as a physical body but as a portal to higher consciousness, influencing subsequent esoteric interpretations of solar divinity as a unifying force across traditions.^[125] Blavatsky further symbolized the Sun as the higher self or Atman, the immortal spiritual essence within each individual, drawing from Hindu and Platonic ideas to portray it as the radiant core of life force that animates the material world. In The Secret Doctrine, she explained that the visible Sun reflects an invisible spiritual counterpart, acting as the "heart and matrix" of all solar system forces, providing vital energy for human evolution and enlightenment. This depiction emphasized the Sun's role in bridging the personal ego with divine wisdom, a theme central to Theosophical meditation and cosmology.^[126]^[127] The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, established in 1888, integrated solar symbolism into its initiatory rituals, equating the Sun with alchemical gold as the emblem of perfected enlightenment and the philosopher's stone. In the Neophyte ritual, the Hierophant's throne in the East represents the rising Sun of Life and Light, invoking solar energies to awaken the aspirant's inner divinity and facilitate ascent through the Kabbalistic Tree of Life. These practices drew on Hermetic and Rosicrucian traditions, using solar invocations to align the practitioner with transformative forces of illumination and spiritual rebirth.^[128]^[129] Western esotericism during this era revived ancient solar deities like the Egyptian Ra and Hindu Surya, adapting them into syncretic magical frameworks amid advances in Egyptology. Ra, as the self-created sun god of light and order, was incorporated by Theosophists and Golden Dawn members using sources like E.A. Wallis Budge's translations of the Book of the Dead, symbolizing divine kingship and cosmic renewal in rituals for invocation and empowerment. Similarly, Blavatsky highlighted Surya as the visible solar deity in Vedic lore, representing the eye of the universe and divine vision, which influenced Theosophical views on solar worship as a path to universal brotherhood. Solar invocations to these figures became staples in occult magic, calling upon their energies for personal illumination and alchemical transmutation.^[130]^[131] Aleister Crowley, during his early involvement with the Golden Dawn from 1898 to 1900, composed poems and hymns invoking solar motifs, such as those in Songs of the Spirit (1898), which celebrated the Sun as a source of ecstatic vitality and mystical union predating his later Thelemic system. These works reflected his exploration of solar symbolism as a conduit for divine inspiration and poetic prophecy.^[132]

Contemporary new religions

In Thelema, a religious philosophy founded by Aleister Crowley in 1904 and developed through the 1940s, the solar deity manifests prominently as Ra-Hoor-Khuit, portrayed as the crowned and conquering child of Horus and a dynamic expression of the hawk-headed sun god Ra, embodying the fiery, active force of the Aeon of Horus.^[133]^[134] Central to Thelemic practice are the solar adorations prescribed in Crowley's Liber Resh vel Helios (sub figura CC), a ritual text directing devotees to perform invocations four times daily—at dawn to Ra, noon to Ahathoor in her triumph, sunset to Tum, and midnight to Khephra—honoring the Sun's eternal journey in its bark, with Ra-Hoor-Khuit positioned at the helm as the vigilant solar power.^[135] These rites, involving specific gestures, invocations, and meditations, cultivate alignment with the solar life-force to advance the Great Work of spiritual attainment.^[135] Wicca, a modern Neopagan religion formalized in the 1950s through the Gardnerian tradition established by Gerald Gardner, incorporates solar deities within its liturgical calendar, the Wheel of the Year, where the Horned God—often syncretized with figures like Cernunnos—represents the masculine solar principle that waxes and wanes with the seasons, symbolizing fertility, vitality, and the sun's cyclical dominion over nature. Litha, the summer solstice sabbat observed around June 21, serves as a key rite honoring the sun at its zenith, featuring bonfires, herbal gatherings, and invocations to the solar god for abundance and protection, rituals that echo ancient seasonal patterns while emphasizing communal harmony with the earth.^[136] Kurozumikyō, one of Japan's earliest new religions established in the early 19th century by Shinto priest Munetada Kurozumi (1780–1850), revolves around direct sun worship as the core of its doctrine, with Kurozumi revered as a living kami and solar avatar who attained divine unity through ecstatic communion with the rising sun. The foundational practice, nippai or "sun adoration," entails daily meditation and prostration before the sunrise to absorb the sun's healing energies, fostering physical vitality, spiritual purification, and harmony between humans and the divine cosmos.^[137] This ritual, drawn from Kurozumi's visionary experiences, positions the sun as the supreme, unifying deity, enabling practitioners to channel its light for therapeutic and transformative purposes.^[137] Post-1970s global trends in New Age spirituality have amplified solar veneration through practices like solar yoga, particularly Surya Namaskar sequences, which involve rhythmic sun salutations and mantra recitations to invoke the sun's pranic energy for inner awakening and holistic healing, blending Vedic roots with contemporary wellness paradigms.^[138] In eco-pagan circles, sun festivals at solstices have proliferated as earth-centered celebrations, integrating rituals of gratitude and renewal to affirm environmental stewardship, often featuring communal dances, solar alignments, and invocations that highlight the sun's role in sustaining ecological balance.^[139]

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The main issue of this paper is the role of two empresses: Chinese Wu Zhao (624-705) and Japanese Koken (Shotoku,. 718-770) in the history and religion in China ...
[63]
The Many Representations of the Ancient Hindu Sun God
Apr 23, 2025 · Often depicted as a celestial being traversing the sky in a horse-drawn chariot, Surya is the sun god in Hinduism. Once a prominent Vedic figure, today his ...
[64]
(PDF) The Gayatri Mantra: A Comprehensive Analysis of Its Spiritual ...
Aug 22, 2025 · This paper presents a comprehensive examination of the Gayatri Mantra, one of the most revered Sanskrit verses in Hindu tradition.
[65]
The Konark Temple's Construction: A Critical Review of the ...
The Konark temple was built with the dual purpose of showcasing the glory of his victory and devotion to the Sun God. The ancient artisans' knowledge, skills, ...
[66]
Iran (Chapter 6) - The Cambridge Companion to Ancient ...
The other was Mithra. While Mithra was a complex deity, the essence of his being was that he was foremost the god “Covenant;” that is, he presided over all ...
[67]
Bull-Killer, Sun Lord - Archaeology Magazine Archive
Aug 24, 2010 · In Roman reliefs, Mithras kills a bull, an action called a tauroctony. In Indo-Iranian myths, men sacrifice cattle to please the gods. Sacrifice ...Missing: covenant festivals
[68]
LacusCurtius • Mithraism: an essay by David Fingrut
Mar 31, 2018 · As a deity connected with the sun and its life-giving powers, Mithras was known as 'The Lord of the Wide Pastures' who was believed to cause ...
[69]
A Study of Mitra (mihr) Character in Iranian and Indian Myth
Traditional Mihr worship goes back to the very ancient periods. Mihr has been an important god in the myths of various countries in different periods of history ...
[70]
Armenian Legends and Festivals - Project Gutenberg
The god Mihr represented fire, and was the son of Aramazd.7 He guided ... The only visible fire-god worshipped by the Armenians was the sun, to which ...
[71]
ARMENIA AND IRAN iii. Armenian Religion - Encyclopaedia Iranica
Evidence for the study of ancient Armenian religion comes primarily from the works of 5th-century Armenian Christian historians, although later medieval sources ...<|separator|>
[72]
Malak-Tāwūs: The Peacock Angel of the Yezidis - jstor
The peacock was a solar symbol in Ancient India and Egypt: it symbolised ... As for the second aspect of the nature of Malak-Tawus, the in- corporated ...Missing: Tawûsî | Show results with:Tawûsî
[73]
The Yezidi Wednesday and the Music of the Spheres | Iranian Studies
Jan 1, 2022 · The article points to the Yezidi worship of the Moon and the Sun and related angels (Melek Fakhradin and Melek Sheikh Shams) and connects it ...Missing: aspects | Show results with:aspects
[74]
(PDF) Iranian gods in Hindu garb. The Zoroastrian pantheon of the ...
The paper explores the interaction between Zoroastrianism and Hindu iconography in the artistic expressions of pre-Islamic Central Asia
[75]
The Image of Huitzilopochtli in Mexico and Europe - jstor
Huitzilopochtli was a solar god and the god of war. More than this, he came to embody the feats and as- pirations of the Aztec-Mexica people themselves.
[76]
Huitzilopochtli (deity) | Research Starters - EBSCO
Huitzilopochtli is a central deity in Aztec mythology, revered as the god of war and associated with the sun. He played a pivotal role in the migration of the ...
[77]
https://www.mesoweb.com/publications/Christenson/PopolVuh.pdf
[78]
Tonatiuh (deity) | Research Starters - EBSCO
Tonatiuh is the Aztec sun god, central to their pantheon, source of warmth and fertility, and the fifth sun, often depicted with an eagle feather headdress.Missing: scholarly | Show results with:scholarly
[79]
https://www.mayaarchaeologist.co.uk/public-resources/maya-world/the-maya-ballgame-and-its-associated-symbolism/
[80]
[PDF] Popol Vuh: Sacred Book of the Quiché Maya People - Mesoweb
This volume is the culmination of nearly twenty-five years of collaboration with friends and colleagues who have been more than generous with their time, ...
[81]
Aztec Creation Myth | Research Starters - EBSCO
The Aztec Creation Myth narrates the origins of the universe and humanity through a series of divine events and sacrifices.
[82]
https://mavcor.yale.edu/sites/default/files/article_pdf/floyd_emily_medium_study.pdf
[83]
The Sunlight Effect of the Kukulcán Pyramid or The History of a Line
Mar 10, 2010 · When the sunlight bathes the Kukulcán Pyramid in the Mayan city of Chichén-Itzá during the equinox sunset, it casts seven triangles of light and shadow.
[84]
[PDF] AZTEC HUMAN SACRIFICE - Mesoweb
Huitzilopochtli-patron god of the Aztecs-was conceived as the sun and a warrior. His main temple, the great pyramid known as Coatepetl. ("Hill of the Snakes"),.Missing: renewal | Show results with:renewal
[85]
[PDF] The Naturalistic and Anthropomorphic in Inca Metalwork - MAVCOR
The most common characterization in the scholarly literature on Inca metalwork of gold and silver is of gold as “sweat of the sun” and silver as “tears of moon.
[86]
[PDF] The Envisioned Holy Andean Kingdom of Peru and the ...
Nov 27, 2021 · The Coricancha temple, the most renowned religious shrine in the Andean south, was built to worship the sun itself. It is our opinion that ...
[87]
[PDF] The Role of Ornament in Inka- Style Architecture of Cusco, Peru
Gold plating on the Qorikancha, often interpreted as the temple of the sun, would have caught and amplified the rays of Inti, the Inka solar deity. Stone bosses ...
[88]
[PDF] The Indigenous Capilla de Cantuña: The Catholic Temple of The Sun
Korikancha was a temple considered the Inca world's literal center and dedicated to the sun deity, Inti. Written accounts describe the building covered in ...
[89]
[PDF] Leadership Trails: Lessons from the Lakota Sun Dance - ValpoScholar
Feb 3, 2014 · It is a yearly event, typically taking place in mid- to late summer, and is led by a medicine man with the assistance of other spiritual leaders.
[90]
[PDF] A STUDY OF CREATION STORIES: THE WAY THINGS BEGAN
Hopi Creation Myth. In the beginning there was only the Endless Waters and two beings: Tawa the Sun God and Spider Woman the Earth Goddess.61 Tawa controlled ...
[91]
[PDF] Mimesis and the Logical Operations of Nature and Culture in Myth in ...
Dec 15, 2017 · In the Zuni creation myth, of which the emergence myth cited above forms a part, the All-father Awonawilona performs the initial stage of the ...
[92]
[PDF] The Lakota Sun Dance and Ethical Intercultural Exchange - Journals
The article explores ethical questions of non-Native people practicing the Lakota Sun Dance, and the author's goal is to share thoughts about the tradition ...
[93]
[PDF] Medicine Wheels and Cultural Connections - Stanford Solar Center
The Medicine Wheels in North America were built by the ancient Plains Indians, ... fasting (vision quest) enclosures. Examples of these can be found nearby ...Missing: indigenous | Show results with:indigenous
[94]
Wayfinding and Navigation - University of Hawaii at Manoa
Master Polynesian navigators memorize the rising and setting positions of hundreds of stars. One way of helping to organize this information is the Hawaiian ...
[95]
[PDF] THE EISENHOWFR LIBRARY - Ulukau.org
the Babylonian triad, corresponding to the Hawaiian triad, as the fust real creators and organisers of the universe. The New Zealand legend, above referred ...
[96]
Indigenous Religion of Hawaiʻi
### Summary of Pele and Solar Associations in Hawaiian Mythology
[97]
https://teara.govt.nz/en/whakairo-maori-carving
[98]
[PDF] The Cult of Pele in Traditional Hawai 'i - Bishop Museum
ABSTRACT. This paper is an attempt to reconstruct the cult of Pele, volcano goddess of Hawai'i, as it existed in pre-European Hawai'i.
[99]
How Māui slowed the sun - Mātauranga Māori
Māui's power and ability could never be questioned again, he had succeeded in taming the sun. From that day until this, Tamanuiterā has always travelled slowly ...
[100]
Whakairo – Māori carving | Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand
Jun 8, 2017 · Māori carving developed its own unique style, including the curved patterns and spirals inspired by New Zealand plants such as ferns.
[101]
[PDF] TA'AROA IN THE CREATION MYTHS OF THE SOCIETY ISLANDS
Ta'aroa, the god of creation, emerges from an egg/seed in chaos. His shell splits into heaven and earth, which then unite to create other gods.
[102]
Alo’o le La : Child of the Sun - LEARN ALCHEMICAL
Oct 2, 2024 · Alo'o le La, or the “Child of the Sun,” holds a central place in Samoan mythology, symbolizing the deep connection between nature and ...
[103]
UH engineering team discovers ancient Hawaiian calendar system ...
Feb 24, 2025 · The research team found that the left-most pillar marked the winter solstice, associated with a season of precipitation and peace. In contrast, ...
[104]
(PDF) Ideology, ceremony and calendar in pre-contact Hawai'i
Aug 6, 2025 · The archaeoastronomical evidence supports this conclusion, in that the enclosure is precisely aligned upon the horizon rising point in AD 1600 ...
[105]
[PDF] The Astronomy of Aboriginal Australia
In most Aboriginal cultures, the Moon is male and the Sun is female. For example, the Yolngu people of Arnhem Land in the far north of Australia, tell how Walu, ...
[106]
[PDF] ECLIPSES IN AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINAL ASTRONOMY
In Euahlayi oral traditions, the Sun is a woman named Yhi who falls in love with the Moon man, Bahloo.
[107]
creation myth -mystiq in australian aborginal stories - Academia.edu
Aborgins believed Yhi Sun Goddess brought life to the world. In the beginning the world lay quiet, in utter darkness. There was no vegetation, no living or ...
[108]
Sun – Australian Indigenous Astronomy
In Yolngu traditions of Arnhem Land in the far north of Australia, the Sun woman is Walu. She lights a small fire each morning, which we see as the dawn. She ...
[109]
https://www.bradshawfoundation.com/australia/new_dating_techniques_reveal_australias_oldest_known_rock_painting_and_its_a_kangaroo/index.php
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In Aboriginal culture, Songlines are like libraries — and they store ...
Oct 3, 2023 · What are Songlines? Songlines can be visualised as corridors or pathways of knowledge that crisscross the entire continent, sky and water.Missing: sun totems kinship<|separator|>
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https://www.judaism-and-rome.org/tomb-julii-mausoleum-m
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Australia's Oldest Known Rock Art - Bradshaw Foundation
Australia's oldest known rock art is a 17,300-year-old kangaroo painting in the Kimberley, dated by mud wasp nests, and is the oldest intact painting.<|control11|><|separator|>
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Tomb of the Julii (Mausoleum M) - Judaism and Rome
jpeg · Mosaic of Christ-Sol - "Tomb of the Julii" - The image is. Mosaic of Christ-Sol. Original Location/Place: Vatican Necropolis, St Peter's Basilica ...Missing: 3rd | Show results with:3rd
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Christ as Sol Invictus (St. Peter's Basilica): Art in the Christian Tradition
Feb 21, 2007 · The Dionysian vines in the background become the vines of Christ." -- [from Wikimedia]. Date: 3rd century. Building: St. Peter's Basilica.
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The halo: A symbol that spread around the world - BBC
Jun 24, 2021 · The earliest examples of a disc halo come from the 300s BC in the religious art of ancient Iran. It seems to have been conceived as a ...
[116]
Christian Solar Symbolism and Jesus the Sun of Justice
$$108.00 Free delivery over $35Feb 24, 2022 · This pioneering study of Christian sun symbolism describes how biblical light motifs were taken up with energy in the early Church.Missing: Sol | Show results with:Sol
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Land- and Skyscapes of the Camino de Santiago: An Astronomy ...
Finally, the churches of Aragon comprise an unusual group, possibly with Easter alignments towards sunrise and sunset on the chosen day. A similar case can ...
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https://westerneuropeanstudies.com/index.php/4/article/download/2293/1577/3324
[119]
Surah Ash-Shams - 1-15 - Quran.com
Read and listen to Surah Ash-Shams. The Surah was revealed in Mecca, ordered 91 in the Quran. The Surah title means "The Sun" in English and consists ...
[120]
[PDF] Western European Journal of Historical Events and Social
Shams al-Din Muhammad Tabrizi, a wandering Sufi mystic, met Rumi in Konya around 1244. At that time, Rumi was already a respected Islamic scholar and theologian ...
[121]
Sufi whirling - Wikipedia
It is a customary meditation practice performed within the sema, or worship ... symbolic imitation of planets in the Solar System orbiting the Sun.
[122]
Babylonian Astronomy and the Astronomical Book of Enoch - Arcalog
It contains detailed observations of the movements of the sun, moon and stars and correlates their movements through a solar year – the earliest record of ...
[123]
Understanding the Jewish Menorah - Biblical Archaeology Society
Jews who fled Jerusalem after the First Jewish Revolt settled in the south and created oil lamps showing the menorah, as one expression of their yearning to ...Missing: metaphor deity
[124]
A Buddhist Protector Goddess — Marichi and her Iconography
Apr 15, 2024 · A Buddhist deity and a bodhisattva, Marichi is seen as a remover of darkness, obstacles and evil, as symbolised in her association with light, the sun and ...
[125]
Shinto Deities in Japan, Japanese Shinto-Buddhist Syncretic Deities
Amaterasu is the child of Izanagi 伊邪那岐命 and Izanami 伊邪那美命 (creator gods of Japanese mythology). Japan's imperial family claims direct decent from her ...Missing: syncretism | Show results with:syncretism
[126]
Sun (Symbolism) - Bahaipedia, an encyclopedia about the Bahá'í Faith
Feb 8, 2024 · The Sun is arguably the most important symbol in the Baha'i faith. It is the symbol of truth and unity.Missing: solar | Show results with:solar
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https://theosophy-ult.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/The-Mystery-of-The-Sun.pdf
[128]
Solar Logos - Theosophy World
The Solar Logos represents what is meant by the title God. It has three aspects (the first, second and the third Logoi), and contains the seven planetary Logoi.
[129]
Our Sun and The True Sun - T H E O S O P H Y
The doctrine that there is a true sun of which the visible one is a reflection, and that in this true one there is spiritual energy and help.
[130]
[PDF] THE MYSTERY OF THE SUN
FROM “THE SECRET DOCTRINE” BY H. P. BLAVATSKY. This "mystery," or the origin ... It represents to the world what the Higher Self is to the man. It is ...
[131]
Neophyte Ritual of the Golden Dawn - Hermetic Library
Jan 30, 2017 · Hiero: My place is on the Throne of the East, which symbolizes the rise of the Sun of Life and Light – my duty is to rule and govern this Hall ...
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Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn in the Outer Ritual for 3 = 8
... Sun and Gold; the crescent denotes the Moon and Silver. Respectively, they are analogous to the Red and the White alchemical natures. The cross is the symbol ...
[133]
[PDF] The Relationship of Esotericism and Egyptology, 1875–1930
The purpose of this work is to explore the interactions between occultism and scholarly Egyptology from 1875 to 1930. Within this timeframe, numerous ...
[134]
Surya - Theosophy Trust
Surya is both the god and his visible orb. As charioteer of himself, his booted legs disappear, making him seem one with his vehicle. Circling the solar system, ...
[135]
[PDF] Aleister Crowley - poems - - HolyBooks.com
God's sun lit noontide and his moon midnight,. While above all, true centre of our world,. True source of light, our great love passion-pearled. Gave all its ...Missing: solar 1904
[136]
Thelema — Aum Ha Oasis OTO
The religion known as Thelema was founded in 1904 by the English poet and mystic Aleister Crowley (1875 – 1947), who is regarded as its prophet.<|separator|>
[137]
Chapter III not very Solar? | College & Temple of Thelema: Forums
(1) Ra-Hoor-Khuit is clearly supposed to be a solar deity. The connections between RHK and "solar worship," Tiphareth, and the Holy Guardian Angel have been ...
[138]
Liber Resh vel Helios sub figura CC - Sacred Texts
Hail unto Thee who art Ra in Thy rising, even unto Thee who art Ra in Thy strength, who travellest over the Heavens in Thy bark at the Uprising of the Sun.Missing: Khuit child Horus
[139]
Wheel of the Year - World History Encyclopedia
Jan 28, 2019 · The Wheel of the Year is a symbol of the eight Sabbats (religious festivals) of Neo-Paganism and the Wicca movement which includes four solar festivals.
[140]
Marukoto: The Teaching of Roundness
... Munetada Kurozumi, the Founder of Kurozumikyo, worshipped Kami through the rising sun, expressing his sincere gratefulness. At the that moment he felt Kami ...Missing: nippai source
[141]
The Ancient Solar Yoga | American Institute of Vedic Studies
Jun 9, 2025 · The Vedic Yoga is a “Yoga of light,” which is a “Solar Yoga” or “Yoga of the Sun.” Vedic Dharma is probably our best preserved ancient system.Missing: pagan festivals 1970s
[142]
The Sun in Pagan Beliefs and Practices
Jun 20, 2024 · The sun has been a central figure in Pagan beliefs and practices for millennia. As the source of light, warmth, and life, it holds profound significance in ...Missing: eco- 1970s