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Squab

Squab is the culinary term for a young domestic pigeon, typically harvested at around four weeks of age when it is still unfledged and unable to fly, making it a tender and prized meat for consumption.^[1] This bird, derived from utility pigeon breeds, features dark, lean meat with a mild gamey flavor reminiscent of duck, and it is primarily valued for its breast, which remains moist due to a protective fat layer.^[1] Squab is farm-raised by small-scale breeders using only five to six specific breeds of pigeons suitable for meat production, where breeding pairs are kept in pens and the young are removed from the nest just before fledging to ensure tenderness.^[1]^[2] Historically, squab has been a staple protein across cultures for thousands of years, with evidence of its consumption dating back to ancient Egypt around 3000 B.C., and it was enjoyed in ancient Rome, medieval Europe, and various Asian, Middle Eastern, and African societies as a delicacy accessible to all social classes.^[2]^[3] In the United States, squab was once a common and affordable poultry option in the 19th and early 20th centuries, rivaling chicken in popularity, but it declined mid-century due to the rise of industrial chicken farming and shifting consumer preferences.^[4] Today, it remains a specialty item, more expensive than chicken but comparable to other game birds, often served in fine dining for its rich yet subtle taste.^[1] In preparation, squab is sold ready-to-cook—plucked, gutted, and sometimes partially deboned—and is best cooked medium-rare to medium-well to preserve its juiciness, using methods such as roasting whole, grilling, frying, or braising in dishes like confit or stuffed preparations.^[1] Nutritionally, it is leaner than fattier birds like duck or goose, offering a high-protein option with balanced fat content that enhances flavor without excess calories.^[1] Its versatility shines in global cuisines, from European roasts and Middle Eastern tagines to Asian-inspired stir-fries or Moroccan pastilla pies, underscoring its enduring role as a gourmet ingredient.^[1]^[5]

Definition and Terminology

Definition

Squab is defined as a young, immature domestic pigeon of the species Columba livia domestica, typically harvested at under four weeks of age.^[6]^[7] At this developmental stage, the bird generally weighs between 300 and 500 grams, features underdeveloped flight feathers that prevent flight, and retains a covering of downy plumage characteristic of its nest-bound existence.^[8]^[9]^[10] The physical characteristics of squab contribute to its distinct qualities, with the meat being exceptionally tender due to the bird's immature age and limited physical activity.^[11] Since squabs remain in the nest and do not fly, their breast muscles develop without the rigor of exercise, resulting in soft, plump tissue that is prized for its delicacy.^[12] Although classified under poultry in regulatory standards, squab occupies a niche status more akin to game birds than standard domesticated fowl like chickens or turkeys, owing to its specialized rearing for gourmet consumption and darker, richer meat profile.^[13]^[11] This positioning highlights its role as a premium, less common protein source in culinary traditions.

Terminology and Variations

The term "squab" originates from a Scandinavian source, likely the dialectal Swedish word skvabb, meaning "loose, fat flesh," and entered English in the mid-17th century to describe a young, unfledged bird, particularly a pigeon.^[14] This usage evolved from earlier senses denoting something soft or plump, reflecting the bird's tender, undeveloped state at harvest.^[15] In English, "squab" is synonymous with "young pigeon," "pigeon squab," or "nestling pigeon," emphasizing birds that have not yet flown or developed adult feathers.^[16] Equivalent terms appear in other languages, such as pichón in Spanish for a young pigeon suitable for eating, and kobato (子鳩) in Japanese, denoting a fledgling pigeon often in culinary contexts.^[17] The phrase "milk pigeon" is sometimes used informally to highlight the bird's diet of crop milk during early development. Regional variations in terminology and criteria for squab primarily center on age at harvest, with practices typically targeting birds aged 26 to 30 days for optimal tenderness and flavor.^[18] In production systems, including in China, squabs are typically harvested at 28 days old.^[19]

Historical Development

Ancient and Medieval Origins

The domestication of pigeons, the primary source of squab, originated in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt around 3000 BCE, where they were selectively bred for both culinary and communicative purposes. Archaeological evidence from cuneiform tablets in Mesopotamia and hieroglyphic records in Egypt reveals that pigeons were raised for their tender young (squabs) as a reliable protein source, complementing seasonal food shortages, while adults were trained as messengers to carry information across distances. This dual utility marked one of the earliest instances of avian husbandry, with Egyptian texts describing offerings of pigeons in religious ceremonies that included their consumption.^[20]^[21] In ancient Greece and Rome, squab evolved into a prized delicacy featured prominently in elite banquets, symbolizing affluence and refinement. Greek sources highlight pigeons' role in disseminating news, such as Olympic results from the 8th century BCE, but culinary texts also note their use in stews and roasts among the upper classes. By the 1st century CE, the Roman cookbook De Re Coquinaria attributed to Apicius detailed elaborate recipes for squab, such as stewing it with dill, coriander, and reduced wine or pairing wood pigeons and squabs with peppery vinegar sauces, underscoring its status in symposia and imperial feasts where exotic bird preparations showcased culinary prowess.^[22]^[21] During the Middle Ages in Europe, particularly from the 12th century onward, squab production became integral to monastic farming and noble diets, supported by widespread dovecote construction. Monastic communities in England and across the continent maintained large pigeon flocks for sustainable meat yields, with archaeological bone analyses from sites like those in Anglo-Norman abbeys confirming regular consumption of squab alongside other fowl to adhere to dietary rules allowing bird flesh on fast days. Records of 12th-century English feasts, such as those documented in manorial accounts and royal banquets, list squab in multi-course menus, often roasted or in pies, reserved for nobility to assert social hierarchy amid feudal land management practices that privileged lords with exclusive rights to keep pigeons.^[23]^[24]

Modern Evolution

During the Renaissance in France, squab emerged as a prized gourmet item at royal and noble banquets, reflecting its status as a delicacy among the elite. For instance, at a 1549 banquet hosted by the city of Paris, the menu featured 99 squabs alongside other birds like turtle doves and chickens, showcasing the bird's integration into high-end culinary displays.^[25] Agricultural advancements further elevated its production; in 1600, writer Olivier de Serres advocated for pigeon towers (pigeonnier) in his treatise on farming, enabling noble households to maintain a steady supply of fresh squab meat year-round.^[25] By the 18th and 19th centuries, squab's popularity extended to England, where it appeared in traditional dishes like Devonshire squab pie—a savory pastry originally containing pigeon but often adapted with mutton and apples in later recipes. This pie, documented in 18th-century cookbooks by Martha Bradley, gained prominence in Victorian-era cooking, symbolizing regional gourmet traditions.^[26] In the 20th century, squab production shifted toward industrialization, particularly in the United States and Europe following World War II, as demand for efficient poultry sources grew amid post-war economic recovery. In the US, commercial farming of utility pigeons for squab had established roots by the early 1900s, peaking before WWII when it served as a common protein alongside chicken; however, by the 1960s and 1970s, production declined sharply due to the dominance of factory-farmed chicken, which offered lower costs and higher yields—per capita chicken consumption rose from 28 pounds in 1960 to over 90 pounds by the late 20th century.^[5] In Europe, France led as the continent's primary producer, with squab farming becoming more structured through specialized breeds and facilities, though on a smaller scale than chicken operations; by the late 20th century, the country supported hundreds of producers raising pigeons for meat markets.^[27] This era marked squab's transition from artisanal to commercial practices, though it remained niche compared to mass-produced poultry.^[18] Entering the 21st century, Western consumption of squab has continued to wane, overshadowed by abundant chicken supplies and evolving perceptions of pigeons as urban pests rather than food animals, leading to minimal domestic production—estimated at around 1.3 million squabs annually in the US, mostly for ethnic markets.^[5] Recent studies highlight animal welfare considerations in squab rearing, such as fostering methods and early weaning impacts on growth, prompting some ethical scrutiny in industrialized systems.^[28] Conversely, demand has surged in Asian markets, particularly China, where pigeon farming ranks as the fourth-largest poultry sector, producing over 80% of the global supply—approximately 680 million squabs yearly—for its high-protein, low-fat profile in dishes like roasted pigeon.^[29] In the Middle East, squab maintains strong cultural significance in cuisines of countries like Egypt and Lebanon, where it features in festive meals, supporting steady regional growth amid broader poultry trends.^[6]

Husbandry and Production

Breeding and Rearing

Breeding squab involves selective pairing of domestic pigeons (Columba livia domestica) optimized for rapid reproduction and offspring growth, with hens typically laying a clutch of two eggs every 4-6 weeks during peak seasons.^[18] The incubation period lasts approximately 17-18 days, during which both parents alternate brooding duties to maintain optimal temperature around 37.5°C.^[30] Selective breeding programs emphasize traits such as fast-maturing squabs reaching market weight (around 500g) in under 30 days and high clutch viability, often using utility breeds like White Kings or French Mondains derived from historical utility lines.^[31]^[18] Upon hatching, squabs are entirely dependent on parent-provided crop milk—a nutrient-rich, curd-like secretion from the crop lining—for the first 7 days, which supplies essential proteins, lipids, and probiotics for rapid initial growth.^[32] From days 8-21 (or up to 28 days in some systems), the diet transitions to a mix of regurgitated grains and crop milk, promoting skeletal and muscle development until the squabs achieve near-adult size while remaining flightless and nest-bound.^[33] This rearing phase completes one breeding cycle in about 2 months, allowing pairs to produce 6-8 clutches annually under controlled conditions.^[18] Recent advancements include molecular breeding targeting genes like MSTN for enhanced growth performance (as of 2025).^[34] Commercial facilities for squab production feature lofts designed to house 100-500 breeding pairs, typically allocating 1-2 square feet per pair for nesting boxes (12x12x12 inches) and 2-3 times that area for perches and flight space to minimize stress and aggression.^[31] Environmental controls include adjustable ventilation systems, humidity regulation (60-70% to promote growth and curb respiratory issues), and waterproof, sloped flooring with removable trays for daily waste removal to prevent pathogen buildup.^[34]^[35] Disease prevention prioritizes biosecurity against threats like pigeon paramyxovirus-1 (PPMV-1), with measures such as vaccination protocols, quarantine for new birds to reduce viral transmission risks.^[36]

Care, Feeding, and Slaughter

In commercial squab production, young pigeons are initially nourished by crop milk secreted by their parents, a nutrient-rich substance high in proteins and fats that supports rapid early growth. After the first week, the feeding regimen transitions to a diet of whole grains and seeds, primarily corn and peas, to promote steady weight gain toward a target of approximately 400-500 grams by maturity. This balanced nutrition, typically comprising 13-16% protein and around 2,900 kcal/kg metabolizable energy, emphasizes high-quality, mold-free grains supplemented with minerals like grit, limestone, and trace elements to enhance digestive health and meat tenderness without excess fat deposition.^[18]^[31]^[37] Health care in squab rearing focuses on preventive measures to minimize disease outbreaks in dense commercial settings. Vaccination protocols commonly include immunization against pigeon pox using wing-web application under veterinary permit, administered to breeding pairs before the season to confer passive immunity to squabs via crop milk. Parasite control targets internal threats like roundworms (Ascaridia columbae), treated with anthelmintics such as piperazine or levamisole added to drinking water every 3-6 months, while external parasites like lice and mites are managed through hygiene and registered insecticides. Biosecurity practices are essential, involving dry, well-ventilated housing, regular litter replacement, isolation of new or ill birds, and rodent-proof feed storage to prevent pathogen introduction and maintain flock health.^[18]^[38]^[39] Slaughter occurs at around 4 weeks of age, when squabs reach market weight and just before fledging, ensuring tender meat quality. In the United States, squab production falls under the Poultry Products Inspection Act, requiring mandatory federal oversight for processing facilities to enforce humane handling. Common methods include mechanical cervical dislocation for small-scale operations or controlled-atmosphere stunning with CO2 gas in larger commercial settings, both endorsed by the American Veterinary Medical Association to induce rapid unconsciousness prior to exsanguination by jugular venesection. In the European Union, Council Regulation (EC) No 1099/2009 mandates pre-slaughter stunning using similar techniques—cervical dislocation for birds under 3 kg or CO2 inhalation—to minimize suffering, followed immediately by bleeding and chilling in iced water at 0-4°C to preserve carcass quality and prevent bacterial growth. Post-slaughter, birds are typically scalded at 55°C for wet plucking if needed, eviscerated, and cooled to comply with food safety standards.^[7]^[40]^[41]

Culinary Uses

Preparation Methods

The preparation of squab begins with butchery immediately following slaughter, typically by severing the jugular vein to ensure rapid bleeding.^[18] Plucking can be done dry for smaller operations or wet by scalding the bird in water at 55°C for 60 seconds to loosen feathers, often using rotary machines for efficiency in commercial settings.^[18] Evisceration involves making an incision at the vent to remove the intestines, gizzard, and lungs, while the liver may be retained for stuffing; the gizzard is specifically extracted due to its toughness.^[18] After evisceration, the bird is washed in clean water and chilled in iced water for at least one hour to remove residual heat and improve shelf life.^[18] Portioning options include leaving the squab whole for roasting, halving it along the backbone, or boning the breasts and legs for quicker cooking; spatchcocking by splitting the back and flattening the bird is common to promote even exposure to heat.^[18]^[42] Marination and seasoning enhance the lean, delicate flavor of squab meat, which benefits from tenderizing due to its tenderness at harvest age. Common practices involve soaking the bird overnight in red wine mixed with herbs such as thyme and bay leaf, along with garlic and onions, to infuse moisture and subtle earthiness.^[43] Alternatively, a mixture of olive oil, fresh parsley, thyme, salt, and pepper is brushed directly onto the skin and cavity before cooking, providing a simple aromatic profile without overpowering the natural taste.^[44] In some preparations, ground spices like cumin, ginger, cinnamon, and curry powder are applied post-cooking to add warmth, though pre-seasoning with salt and pepper remains standard to draw out juices.^[45] Cooking squab emphasizes high-heat methods to develop a crisp skin while preserving the meat's juiciness, as overcooking can result in dryness given the bird's small size and low fat content. Roasting at 450°F after initial searing in butter and oil typically takes 15-20 minutes, with the bird transferred to a roasting pan for even browning.^[46] Grilling or broiling butterflied squabs over medium-high heat for 15-20 minutes, turning occasionally, achieves similar results by promoting caramelization on the skin.^[47] The USDA recommends a minimum internal temperature of 165°F (74°C) in the breast for poultry, including squab, to ensure pathogen elimination and food safety; some recipes suggest 145°F (63°C) for medium-rare doneness under professional conditions, but home cooks should follow the 165°F guideline, allowing the bird to rest for 5-20 minutes post-cooking to equalize temperatures.^[46]^[45]^[48]

Recipes and Dishes

In European culinary traditions, squab features prominently in classic dishes that emphasize its tender texture and mild flavor. One iconic French preparation is pigeon aux petits pois, where young pigeons are roasted or braised with fresh peas, pearl onions, bacon lardons, and lettuce to create a harmonious springtime dish.^[49] This recipe, attributed to renowned chef Michel Roux, involves seasoning the squab with salt and pepper, browning it in butter, and simmering it with blanched peas and vegetables in a covered pot for about 20 minutes to retain moisture.^[49] Similarly, English cuisine from the 18th century includes pigeon pie, a savory pastry filled with whole pigeons, layered with bacon, herbs, and sometimes hard-boiled yolks for richness.^[50] Hannah Glasse's 1747 cookbook The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy describes preparing the pie by lining a dish with puff pastry, adding seasoned pigeons with butter and mace, covering with more paste, and baking until golden.^[50] Asian variations highlight squab's versatility in bold glazes and stuffings. In Chinese cooking, roasted squab with honey glaze is a Cantonese favorite, where the bird is marinated in soy sauce, five-spice powder, ginger, and honey, then roasted until the skin crisps and caramelizes.^[51] This method, as detailed in a Los Angeles Times recipe, seasons the squab with Sichuan pepper-salt before glazing with warmed honey in a saucepan, yielding a glossy, sweet-savory finish after 30 minutes of roasting at 450°F.^[51] Middle Eastern traditions feature stuffed squab, such as the Egyptian hamam mahshi, where the cavity is filled with a mixture of rice, ground liver, onions, pine nuts, and cinnamon before roasting or baking.^[52] According to International Cuisine, the squabs are rubbed with lemon juice and salt, stuffed loosely to allow rice expansion, then baked in a covered dish with butter and broth for 45 minutes, resulting in aromatic, nutty grains complementing the meat.^[52] Modern fusions adapt squab for contemporary palates, often incorporating grilling techniques in American recipes. Grilled squab, for instance, involves butterflying the birds, seasoning with salt and pepper, and cooking skin-side down over medium-high heat for 5-7 minutes before flipping, as outlined by America's Test Kitchen.^[53] This simple method yields juicy results with crispy skin, sometimes enhanced with marinades like olive oil and herbs.

Wild and Feral Aspects

Relevant Species

The primary wild and feral species harvested as squab equivalents are the rock dove (Columba livia), band-tailed pigeon (Patagioenas fasciata), Eurasian collared-dove (Streptopelia decaocto), and mourning dove (Zenaida macroura), whose juveniles provide tender meat akin to that of domestic squab but from non-farmed populations.^[54]^[55]^[56]^[57]^[58] While domestic squab derives from bred pigeons, these wild counterparts are sourced from natural or invasive flocks, with harvesting focused on young birds for optimal tenderness.^[58] Juveniles of these species exhibit similar biological traits to domestic squab, including soft, undeveloped musculature from a diet of crop milk and minimal activity, yielding meat that is dark and richly flavored yet leaner due to smaller body sizes typically ranging from 100-400 grams at harvest age.^[59] Juveniles of pigeon species like the band-tailed and rock dove are larger, while those of doves such as the Eurasian collared-dove and mourning dove are smaller and more compact, contrasting with the larger 500-gram-plus domestic varieties. Mourning dove squabs weigh about 50-80 grams at fledging (around 12-15 days).^[56]^[60] Availability is inherently seasonal, tied to breeding cycles, with peak juvenile production in spring and summer for most regions.^[61] Habitat differences influence accessibility: feral rock doves thrive in urban and suburban environments worldwide, nesting on buildings and bridges in dense populations that support year-round but opportunistic harvests.^[62] In contrast, band-tailed pigeons form rural wild flocks in Pacific Coast and southwestern forests, often in mixed conifer habitats, while Eurasian collared-doves occupy open suburban and agricultural areas across North America as an introduced species, and mourning doves are widespread in open habitats including fields and suburbs.^[63]^[64] Migration patterns, particularly for band-tailed pigeons and mourning doves, concentrate flocks seasonally in breeding grounds from spring to fall, enhancing harvest potential during southward movements in late summer and fall but limiting access in winter.^[55]^[65]^[66]

Harvesting and Regulations

Harvesting wild squab equivalents, typically juveniles of species like the mourning dove (Zenaida macroura) or feral rock pigeons (Columba livia), involves targeted methods to capture young fledged birds during their early dispersal stages. Common techniques include pass shooting during flight, where hunters position themselves along migration paths or feeding areas to target flocks with shotguns, often using decoys to attract birds to perches or open ground. Trapping with decoys or baited enclosures is employed for feral pigeons, allowing capture without firearms, while netting under cover like bridges or barns facilitates nighttime collection of roosting birds. Falconry, using trained raptors such as peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) to pursue doves, is another selective method permitted in many regions for experienced practitioners. These approaches are most effective in fall, when juveniles are abundant and migrating, aligning with natural breeding cycles that produce young birds from late spring to early summer.^[67]^[68] In the United States, wild squab equivalents from native doves fall under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA) of 1918, which protects most species as non-game birds and imposes strict federal regulations on hunting to ensure sustainability. Mourning doves, the most commonly harvested, require state-issued licenses and adhere to seasonal frameworks, typically opening in September and running through January, with daily bag limits of 10–15 birds depending on the region to prevent overexploitation. Feral rock pigeons, however, are exempt from MBTA protections as introduced species, allowing unregulated trapping or shooting on private property. Eurasian collared-doves are similarly unregulated in many states, with no bag limits or closed seasons. In the European Union, the Birds Directive (2009/147/EC) governs dove and pigeon hunting, permitting it for 82 listed species like the woodpigeon (Columba palumbus) but prohibiting it for vulnerable ones such as the European turtle dove (Streptopelia turtur) in certain areas unless derogations are granted. Licenses are mandatory across member states, with quotas and closed seasons enforced to align with population monitoring; for instance, France and Italy recently allowed limited turtle dove harvests in 2025 following population assessments, but only under strict provincial permits.^[69]^[70]^[71]^[72] Sustainability concerns drive these regulations, with quotas designed to mitigate overhunting risks amid fluctuating populations. In the US, the US Fish and Wildlife Service sets harvest guidelines based on annual surveys, estimating a stable national mourning dove population of 337 million as of 2024 but noting localized variations; for example, California's mourning dove numbers show a recent 10-year trend of approximately -1.3% per year (2015-2024), though with uncertainty indicating potential stability, due to habitat loss and drought.^[65] EU frameworks similarly emphasize monitoring, with the International Union for Conservation of Nature classifying species like the turtle dove as vulnerable and imposing harvest caps—such as 132,000 birds across Spain, France, and Italy in 2025—to support recovery efforts. These measures balance recreational harvesting with conservation, prioritizing non-lethal deterrents for feral populations where possible.^[73]

Cultural and Economic Role

Cultural Significance

Squab holds notable religious significance in both Jewish and Islamic traditions, where its preparation adheres to strict dietary laws ensuring ethical slaughter and purity. In Judaism, pigeons, including young ones harvested as squab, are considered kosher birds based on biblical criteria, with preparation involving shechita—a swift cut to the throat by a trained shochet to minimize suffering—followed by salting to remove blood.^[74]^[75] This method aligns with ancient practices, as doves were the only birds permissible for Temple sacrifices in the Tanakh, underscoring their ritual purity.^[76] In Islam, pigeons are halal when slaughtered via dhabiha, a process that severs major blood vessels while invoking Allah's name, rendering the meat permissible for consumption.^[77] Squab features in various Muslim culinary traditions, such as Egyptian hamam mahshi—stuffed pigeons served at family gatherings and festive occasions, including Eid al-Adha celebrations where poultry complements the ritual sacrifice of larger animals.^[52]^[78] Beyond religious observance, squab carries symbolic weight in cultural rituals, particularly those evoking harmony and prosperity. Pigeons, as enduring emblems of peace derived from their biblical role as messengers and their white variants released at ceremonies, influence squab's inclusion in celebratory meals.^[79] In Chinese wedding banquets, squab or pigeon is traditionally served to the newlyweds, its tender meat symbolizing a peaceful union and smooth marital life, often presented whole alongside other auspicious dishes like abalone for abundance.^[80]^[81] This practice reflects broader East Asian customs where fowl represents fidelity and tranquility, with two birds typically offered to convey duality and balance in the couple's future.^[82] In contemporary society, squab's status as a delicacy has evolved amid growing ethical scrutiny over animal welfare, sparking debates that challenge its cultural prominence. Animal rights advocates highlight intensive confinement in squab farming, where breeders produce up to 12 offspring annually in crowded, unsanitary conditions, and young birds are slaughtered at 28 days without stunning in regions like California, leading to unnecessary suffering.^[83] In response, modern consumers increasingly turn to vegetarian alternatives that replicate squab's rich, gamey flavor and texture, such as seitan seasoned with herbs or grilled portobello mushrooms, fostering a shift toward plant-based options in traditional dishes.^[84]

Market and Trade

The global squab market is dominated by production in Asia, particularly China, which accounts for over 80% of worldwide output, producing approximately 680 million squabs annually or around 300,000-350,000 tons of meat based on an average carcass weight of 450-500 grams per bird as of 2023.^[19] This scale reflects intensive breeding systems with over 111 million pairs of pigeons, contributing to a global estimate of approximately 400,000 tons as of the early 2020s, though data for other regions remains limited. France stands out as a key European producer, emphasizing high-quality, traditional rearing methods that yield about 10.5 kg of meat per breeding pair annually, supporting a niche but influential segment of the industry.^[85] Pricing for squab varies by market and quality, with retail costs typically ranging from $17 to $30 per bird in the United States as of 2025, influenced by factors such as organic certification, which commands premiums due to stricter feed and welfare standards, and import tariffs that add 5-10% to costs for non-domestic supplies.^[86]^[87] Wholesale prices can dip closer to $10-15 per bird for bulk imports, but fluctuations occur due to seasonal demand and certification requirements, making organically raised squab up to 20-30% more expensive.^[88] Trade in squab involves significant exports from Europe, including France, to the United States and the Middle East, where cultural demand sustains imports valued in the millions annually as part of broader poultry novelty meat flows.^[89] The U.S. permits squab imports from eligible EU countries under USDA oversight, facilitating steady supply despite regulatory hurdles.^[90] Supply chains face disruptions from avian influenza outbreaks, which have impacted global poultry trade by necessitating culls and quarantines, though pigeons exhibit low susceptibility to strains like H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b, limiting direct effects on squab production compared to chickens or turkeys.^[91]^[92]

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Enhancing Growth and Gut Health in Squabs: The Impact of ... - MDPI
In China, pigeon farming represents the fourth largest fraction of the poultry industry after chicken, duck, and goose farming. Pigeon squabs are market ...
[31]
[PDF] 4-H PIGEON PROJECT HEALTH SUPPLEMENT - Extension
A pigeon's normal behavior from courting to squab rearing generally follows specific stages. ... Egg incubation takes 17 days. The second egg laid hatches ...Missing: cycles period
[32]
Review: Factors affecting the growth performance of domestic squab
Squab growth is influenced by genetics, nutrition, disease prevention, environmental conditions, and the gut microbiota, all of which collectively affect squab ...
[33]
Exploration of Proteomics Analysis of Crop Milk in Pigeons ...
Oct 12, 2021 · The maturing rate of pigeon squabs is much faster than broilers, quails, or ostriches, (1) and the impressively rapid growth of squabs is likely ...
[34]
The Composition and Function of Pigeon Milk Microbiota ... - Frontiers
Aug 3, 2020 · When the squabs grow older, pigeon milk is mixed with grains soaked in the crop of the parents and is gradually replaced by grains only ...Missing: timeline | Show results with:timeline
[35]
pigeon loft designs
### Summary of Pigeon Loft Designs for Squab Production
[36]
Biosecurity for your pigeon loft | UMN Extension
Treat birds within a club or combine as a single loft · Consider all lofts other than your own as disease sources · Biosecurity on transporters.Practicing Biosecurity · Biosecurity And Racing · Consider All Lofts Other...<|control11|><|separator|>
[37]
[PDF] Management of Racing Pigeons - Harrison's Bird Foods
Vaccines are available for annual protection against paramyxovirus and poxvirus in racing pigeons. By law, in Europe, pigeon fanciers must vaccinate their ...
[38]
RAISING PIGEONS IN SMALL AND BACKYARD FLOCKS
Squab are harvested just prior to leaving the nest, typically around 26 to 30 days of age. Each squab weighs about 17.6 oz. (500 g). Ten pairs of pigeons can ...Missing: yield | Show results with:yield
[39]
Nutrition in Pigeons and Doves - Merck Veterinary Manual
Frugivorous pigeon squabs (eg, crowned pigeons) rely on crop milk for at least 30 days. Some commercial crop milk replacers are available, as are products that ...
[40]
Pigeon Vaccination - The Australian Pigeon Company
Feb 2, 2020 · When two vaccinations are necessary timing is crucial. The first dose sensitizes the immune system and the second dose starts antibody ...Missing: commercial | Show results with:commercial
[41]
Incidence of gastrointestinal parasites in pigeons with an ...
Chitosan nanoparticles have a potent nematocidal activity and are recommended to control A. columba infestation in pigeons.
[42]
Humane slaughter | American Veterinary Medical Association
The guidelines address humane slaughter of animal species that are included in the Humane Methods of Slaughter Act (HMSA) or the Poultry Products Inspection Act ...Missing: squab EU
[43]
Slaughter & Stunning - European Commission's Food Safety
The EU legislation on the killing of animals aims to minimise the pain and suffering of animals through the use of properly approved stunning methods.Missing: squab | Show results with:squab
[44]
HOW TO COOK SQUAB PIGEON
### Butchery and Preparation Methods for Squab
[45]
Pino Luongo's Squab Salmi Style Recipe - NYT Cooking
20 minSquab is marinated overnight, stuffed with liver/olive mixture, then roasted with wine and broth until done. The recipe uses squab, livers, red wine, and ...
[46]
Dining Tip: Hearty Spiced Roast Squab - Wine Spectator
Oct 10, 2016 · 6. In a small bowl, combine the olive oil, parsley and thyme. Season squabs with salt and pepper, and brush with the oil mixture. 7 ...<|separator|>
[47]
Spiced Squabs with Onion Compote Recipe - Food & Wine
1 hr 15 min6 tablespoons unsalted butter · 6 medium onions (2 pounds), halved and thinly sliced · Water · 2 tablespoons fresh lemon juice · Salt and freshly ground pepper.
[48]
Simplest Roast Squab Recipe - The Spruce Eats
Rating 3.7 (22) · 45 minDec 23, 2021 · Brown the squab on all sides, then transfer to a roasting pan and roast 15 to 20 minutes. Use an instant-read thermometer to check the internal ...
[49]
Spit-Roasted Squab Recipe | PBS Food
Aug 17, 2015 · Roast or grill birds for 15–20 minutes, turning slowly and basting occasionally with remaining oil. While birds are roasting, cook giblets in ...Missing: methods internal
[50]
Michel Roux's pigeon roti et petits pois a la Française - The Field
May 21, 2020 · 4 pigeon (450g each) · 4 carrots, peeled and julienned · 12 cocktail onions, peeled and kept whole · 200g ventreche or pancetta · 600g shelled peas ...
[51]
The Art of Cookery, 1747 - Foods of England
Seafon your pigeons with fait and pepper, a blade or two of mace, an onion, a bundle of fweet herbs, a good piece of butter juft rolled in a very little flour: ...<|separator|>
[52]
Honey-lacquered squab with gingered nappa cabbage and fennel ...
1 hr 30 minMar 15, 2006 · Chinese 5-spice. 1. One hour before cooking, season the squab on both sides with the Sichuan pepper-salt. 2. Put the honey in a heavy-bottomed ...
[53]
Egyptian Hamam Mahshi (Stuffed Squab) - International Cuisine
Rating 3.7 (21) · 1 hr 50 minMay 21, 2015 · Ingredients · Squabs with giblets -- 4 1-pound · Lemon juice only -- 1 · Salt and pepper -- to season · Butter or oil -- 3 Tablespoons · Onions ...
[54]
Gas-Grilled Squab - America's Test Kitchen
Preheat grill, brush squabs with oil, salt, pepper. Grill breast-down 5-7 minutes, then turn and cook 4 minutes to medium-rare. Serve immediately.
[55]
9 Vegetarian & Vegan Protein Substitutes - EatingWell
Nov 30, 2016 · Cauliflower is a mild vegetable and has a reputation for being able to stealthily replace certain foods, such as potatoes and even pizza crust.1. Eggplant · 2. Mushrooms · 5. Lentils
[56]
SSWEC117/UW117: Pigeons - University of Florida
The pigeons or rock doves (Columba livia) found in North America are the feral offspring of pigeons brought to this continent by European immigrants.<|separator|>
[57]
[PDF] Band-tailed Pigeon - U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Estimates for 2019 of total harvest, active hunters, and total hunter days afield were 600 (50–1,100) pigeons, 600 hunters, and 2,100 (600–3,600) days afield, ...
[58]
Eurasian Collared-Dove Identification - All About Birds
Eurasian Collared-Doves have plump bodies, small heads, and long tails. They're larger than Mourning Doves but slimmer and longer-tailed than a Rock Pigeon.
[59]
Rock Pigeon Identification, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Length: 11.8-14.2 in (30-36 cm) · Weight: 9.3-13.4 oz (265-380 g) · Wingspan: 19.7-26.4 in (50-67 cm).
[60]
Band-tailed Pigeon Identification - All About Birds
Weight: 12.1-12.8 oz (342-364 g) ... They are soft blue-gray above and purplish-gray below, with a white crescent on the back of the neck. The upper half of the ...
[61]
[PDF] Band-tailed Pigeon - U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Nesting band- tailed pigeons are sparsely distributed, but congregate to feed, drink, and consume supplemental minerals and during migration.
[62]
Pigeons - Mass Audubon
Wild pigeons nest on cliff ledges or in caves, so feral pigeons seek their urban equivalents: building ledges, rafters, and niches beneath bridges and ...Pigeons · Pigeon Behavior · Pigeon Life Cycle<|separator|>
[63]
Band-tailed Pigeon - All About Birds
A backwoods relative of the ubiquitous Rock Pigeon, the Band-tailed Pigeon is common in forests of the Pacific Coast and the Southwest.
[64]
Band-tailed Pigeon - California Department of Fish and Wildlife
The band-tailed pigeon is primarily a migratory species but there are resident groups that likely occur throughout their range. Migratory individuals breed and ...Conservation · Monitoring
[65]
Tips to Help You Bag More Doves | Virginia DWR
Sep 2, 2021 · Don't stop your swing. This is one of the most common mistakes in shooting doves. Pull up on the bird, keep your cheek down tight to the stock ...Missing: squab | Show results with:squab
[66]
Dove Hunting Tips: How to Find, Attract, & Shoot Doves | Academy
Shoot In Front of the Dove: Doves travel fast so you'll want to shoot roughly 6 feet in front of them and track ahead of them with your shotgun. Tip 11. Shoot ...
[67]
Information for Dove Hunters | U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
Dec 1, 2021 · Mourning doves and other migratory birds are a national resource protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act. The mourning dove is the ...
[68]
50 CFR Part 20 -- Migratory Bird Hunting - eCFR
This section provides for the annual hunting of certain doves and pigeons in the 48 contiguous United States. The mourning dove hunting regulations are arranged ...
[69]
Sustainable hunting under the Birds Directive - EU Environment
The Birds Directive recognises the legitimacy of hunting wild birds as a form of sustainable use. It therefore allows the hunting of 84 huntable species listed ...Guidance · Clear interpretation of the... · Task Forces
[70]
[PDF] MOURNING DOVE POPULATION STATUS, 2024
Aug 31, 2024 · The BBS suggested that relative abundance decreased in the WMU over the last 58 years but increased during the most recent 10 years (Table 1). ...Missing: overhunting | Show results with:overhunting
[71]
L.A. mystery: The mourning doves stopped singing. What happened ...
Oct 28, 2021 · The report said the state had experienced a nearly 4% drop in its mourning dove population each year over the preceding 10 years.Missing: overhunting | Show results with:overhunting
[72]
Turtle doves to be shot for sport again across Europe as EU lifts ...
Apr 2, 2025 · The EU will allow hunters to shoot 132,000 birds across Spain, France and Italy after the threatened bird enjoyed a population boom in western ...
[73]
Pigeon Meat: 7 Things You Should Know About Squab - A-Z Animals
Oct 23, 2023 · This is because an older pigeon has less fat combined with tougher meat which makes it harder to eat. The adage is if a pigeon can fly, it's too ...
[74]
Kosher Meat – An Overview
Jun 16, 2021 · The first step in kosher meat is the actual species of meat. Chicken, turkey, and geese are all kosher species.
[75]
The Perfect Pet of the Pentateuch: Pigeon - OU Kosher Certification
Jul 2, 2009 · Currently, the majority of the pigeon breeds raised for meat are the biblical pigeon (or some mutation) and are accepted as kosher by the ...Missing: squab | Show results with:squab<|separator|>
[76]
Is Pigeon Halal in Islam? - Quran Mualim 2025
Sep 26, 2023 · Is Pigeon Halal – According to Islamic attitude, there's no prohibition on consuming pigeon meat so long as it is slaughtered in accordance with ...
[77]
Turkish Roast Pigeon with Bulgur
A Turkish recipe for roast pigeon or squab stuffed with bulgur wheat and walnuts. This pigeon recipe can also be done with Cornish game hens.
[78]
Pigeon Symbolism: Unraveling the Meanings and Myths - Birdfact
Nov 16, 2023 · Pigeons are still used ceremoniously as a sign of peace and are often released at events like weddings. These birds were traditionally released ...
[79]
Chinese Wedding Foods
Squab (or Other Fowl): According to Shu Shu Costa, the author of Wild Geese and Tea, pigeon has tender meat that symbolizes peace. Usually two pigeons are ...
[80]
Chinese and Vietnamese Wedding receptions with Authentic Cuisine
Apr 27, 2012 · Squab or any other type of fowl is significant because the tender meat is a symbol of peace. Generally, two pigeons are served to the newlywed ...
[81]
The Role of Food in Chinese Weddings: From Banquets to Symbolism
Squab or Fowl: Symbolising peace, the tender meat of pigeon is offered to the newlyweds to wish them peace as they start their new life together. Quail is also ...
[82]
Squab Production: Another Cruel Delicacy - The Meat and Dairy ...
The typical squab farm can house thousands of pairs of breeder pigeons in confinement. The average pigeon breeding pair raises 12 squab per year. A ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[83]
Investigation Exposes Pigeon-Racing Cruelty - PETA
A PETA undercover investigation into some of the largest pigeon-racing operations in the U.S. exposes massive casualties and abuse of birds.Missing: concerns | Show results with:concerns<|separator|>
[84]
10 Tasty Squab Substitutes for Your Recipes - Texas Real Food
Jun 21, 2024 · For those seeking vegetarian or plant-based alternatives, several products mimic the texture and flavor of game meats. Seitan, also known as ...
[85]
Review Influencing factors and quality traits of pigeon meat
This review explores the recent advancements in under-standing the genetic and non-genetic factors that influence pigeon meat quality.
[86]
How Chinese People Raise and Process 500000 Tons of Pigeon Meat
Jul 24, 2024 · ... Explore the fascinating world of pigeon farming in China, where a ... production that meets both local and international standards.
[87]
Pigeons come home to roost in France - Farmers Weekly
Oct 29, 2012 · Over the past 20 years, average meat production per couple of PS pigeons has increased from 8kg a couple a year to 10.5kg a couple a year. Some ...
[88]
Whole Squab - Gourmet Wholesaler
In stock $30 deliveryWhole Squab ; 1 squab, 16 oz, frozen, $17.45, $17.45. Quantity ; 24 squabs, 16 oz each, frozen, $418.80, $418.80. Quantity.Missing: factors | Show results with:factors
[89]
https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/top-exporters-of-rabbit-squab-and-other-novelty-meats.html
[90]
24 Whole Squabs - 13 to 14 oz. Each - Exotic Meat Market
In stock 4-day delivery24 Frozen Squabs - Head On - Feet On. Our Price: $359.99. Exotic Meat Market offers Squab or young pigeon, bred for food. Our Squabs are. 1 Whole Squab - 11 to ...Missing: factors | Show results with:factors
[91]
Top Exporters Of Rabbit, Squab, And Other Novelty Meats
These butchered meats: rabbit, deer, squab, quail, and pheasant are exported as are common meats like chicken, beef, and pork.
[92]
Eligible Foreign Establishments | Food Safety and Inspection Service
Countries listed in the table below are eligible to export meat, poultry, or egg products to the United States. Select a country from the table below for a ...
[93]
Pigeons exhibit low susceptibility and poor transmission capacity for ...
May 2, 2025 · These findings suggest that pigeons have a low susceptibility to clade 2.3.4.4b H5N1 HPAIV and are less likely to significantly contribute to disease ecology.
[94]
Avian Influenza | Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service
Sep 22, 2025 · Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) strains are deadly to domestic poultry and can wipe out entire flocks within a matter of days. Low ...H5N1 Influenza · Confirmations of Highly... · USDA HPAI in Livestock