Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Surf zone

The surf zone is the dynamic nearshore region of the ocean or large bodies of water where incoming waves break due to shoaling in shallow depths, extending from the outermost breakers to the swash zone on the beachface.^[1] This area is characterized by turbulent, foamy waters, rhythmic crashing sounds, and intense energy dissipation as waves transform into surf.^[1] The width of the surf zone varies with wave height, tidal stage, and beach slope, typically spanning tens to hundreds of meters.^[2] Key physical processes in the surf zone drive coastal evolution and include wave breaking, current formation, and sediment transport. As waves approach the shore, they shoal—increasing in height and steepness—before breaking when water depth is about 1 to 1.5 times the wave height, influenced by the bottom topography.^[3] Breaking wave types include spilling breakers on gentle slopes, where waves foam gradually over a longer distance; plunging breakers on steeper slopes, forming curling tubes; and surging breakers on very steep profiles, with minimal foam.^[1] These breaking waves generate longshore currents, flowing parallel to the shore at speeds of 0.2–4 mph depending on wave angle and height, which transport sediment along the coast via zigzag motion in the swash zone.^[4] Additionally, rip currents—narrow, seaward flows reaching speeds up to 5 mph (8 ft/s)—form near sandbar gaps or structures, carrying water and sediment offshore and posing significant drowning risks, accounting for about 80% of surf rescues in the U.S.^[1]^[4]^[5] The surf zone is vital for coastal morphology, ecology, and human activities, but it also presents hazards. It facilitates sediment redistribution, leading to beach erosion or accretion and the formation of features like sandbars, while vigorous wave action erodes the sea floor between the shoreline and breakers.^[3] Ecologically, surf zones serve as critical habitats, providing forage and refuge for marine species, including fish and phytoplankton, with biomass levels intermediate between estuaries and open ocean, supporting local biodiversity and food webs.^[6]^[7] Recreationally, the zone attracts surfers and beachgoers, with wave characteristics determining surf quality, though hazards like rip currents and undertow cause numerous incidents annually.^[4] These processes underscore the surf zone's role in dynamic coastal systems, influencing shoreline stability amid climate-driven changes like sea-level rise.^[8]

Physical Characteristics

Definition and Boundaries

The surf zone is defined as the nearshore coastal region where incoming waves break due to decreasing water depth, transitioning from oscillatory wave motion to turbulent bores that propagate toward the shore. This zone encompasses the area from the seaward limit of wave breaking to the landward edge where wave runup and backwash interact with the beach face. Typically, it occurs in shallow waters less than 5 to 10 meters deep, where wave breaking dominates the local hydrodynamics and generates significant turbulence, currents, and sediment movement.^[9]^[10]^[11] The inner boundary of the surf zone is marked by the shoreline, specifically the swash zone where waves alternately flood and ebb across the beach, influenced by tidal fluctuations and wave runup. The outer boundary is the breaker line, the seawardmost location where waves first become unstable and break, determined by factors such as incident wave height, wave period, and submarine topography like beach slope or offshore bars. The width of the surf zone varies dynamically, often ranging from 10 to 100 meters under typical conditions, but can expand significantly during storms or high tides due to increased wave energy and setup, or contract on steeper beaches with smaller waves. These boundaries shift with environmental forcings, including storm surges that elevate water levels and alter the effective slope.^[12]^[13]^[11] The term "surf zone" originated in mid-20th century coastal engineering research, emerging from studies on wave-shore interactions during and after World War II, when amphibious operations highlighted the need to understand nearshore dynamics for military and civilian applications. Early formal definitions appeared in reports from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' Beach Erosion Board, established in the 1930s but active through the 1950s in documenting wave breaking and shore processes for erosion control and harbor design. This period marked the formalization of coastal engineering as a discipline, with the first International Conference on Coastal Engineering in 1950 further standardizing terminology.^[14] Mapping the surf zone boundaries relies on a combination of direct and indirect methods to capture their variability in real time. Visual observations from shore-based personnel or aircraft identify the breaker line by noting foam lines and whitecaps, a traditional approach refined in early engineering surveys. In-situ instruments like wave buoys or pressure sensors deployed across the nearshore measure wave height decay to delineate the outer edge where breaking initiates. Remote sensing techniques, such as video imaging systems or lidar from drones, provide high-resolution mapping by tracking surface patterns like foam or wave crests, enabling automated detection of boundaries over large areas without direct water entry.^[12]^[15]^[16]

Wave Dynamics

As waves approach the shore and enter shallower water within the surf zone, they undergo shoaling, a process where wave height increases and speed decreases due to the conservation of energy flux in linear wave theory. This transformation begins when the water depth is approximately half the wavelength, leading to a shoaling coefficient K_s = \sqrt{\frac{c_{g0}}{c_g}}, where c_{g0} is the group velocity in deep water and c_g is the local group velocity.^[17] The result is steeper waves that become more susceptible to breaking as they propagate over the decreasing depth.^[18] Wave breaking in the surf zone occurs primarily due to instability when the wave height exceeds a critical ratio relative to the local water depth, initiating energy dissipation through turbulence. For spilling breakers, common on gentle slopes, breaking initiates when the wave height H_b reaches about 0.78 times the breaker depth d_b, as derived from theoretical limits for solitary waves over a horizontal bottom; steeper slopes lead to plunging or surging breakers with higher breaker indices up to 1.2 or more.^[19] This breaker index H_b / d_b \approx 0.78 provides a standard empirical threshold for predicting breaking location, though it varies with wave steepness and beach slope.^[20] Post-breaking, waves generate foam and turbulent bores that propagate shoreward, fundamentally altering the flow structure.^[21] Energy dissipation in the surf zone is dominated by breaking, which reduces wave height by 50-80% from the outer to inner zone through turbulent mixing and air entrainment, effectively saturating the wave energy flux. Infragravity waves, with periods of 30-300 seconds, emerge from nonlinear interactions of breaking short waves and play a key role in mean water level setup—elevating the shoreline by 10-30% of offshore significant wave height—and in runup, contributing up to 50% of total swash energy on dissipative beaches.^[22] These long-period oscillations persist across the zone, enhancing setup via momentum transfer from breaking waves.^[23] Environmental factors such as wind, tides, and bathymetry significantly influence wave dynamics by modulating steepness, refraction, and breaking patterns in the surf zone. Offshore winds can generate wind-sea components that increase local steepness, while tidal variations alter effective depth, shifting the breaking point seaward during high tide; bathymetric irregularities cause refraction, concentrating or diffusing wave energy alongshore.^[24] Field studies during the DUCK85 experiment at Duck, North Carolina, in 1985 demonstrated these effects, showing how variable bathymetry led to alongshore variations in wave height and refraction angles under moderate storm conditions with significant wave heights of 1-2 meters.^[25]

Geological and Sedimentary Processes

Sediment Transport

In the surf zone, sediment transport is primarily driven by wave-generated currents, including longshore currents resulting from oblique wave approach and cross-shore flows from undertow and swash processes. Longshore currents, induced by the component of wave energy parallel to the shore, mobilize and transport sand along the coast at rates that can reach up to 1 million cubic meters per year on active beaches with high wave energy, such as those in the Gulf of Guinea.^[26] The rate of longshore sediment transport is often quantified using the empirical formula Q = K (H_b^2 \sin 2\alpha), where Q is the transport rate, K is an empirical coefficient typically around 0.39 for immersed weight transport, H_b is the breaker height, and \alpha is the angle of wave approach at breaking; this relation, derived from energy flux considerations, highlights the quadratic dependence on wave height and the angular effect of wave direction.^[27] Cross-shore transport, meanwhile, involves onshore movement during the swash phase of waves and offshore return via undertow beneath breaking waves, with wave breaking generating the turbulent currents essential for initiating these flows.^[28] Sediment transport in the surf zone occurs as either bedload or suspended load, depending on grain characteristics and hydrodynamic forces. Bedload transport, dominant for coarser sands (typically 0.5-2 mm diameter quartz grains), involves particles rolling, sliding, or saltating along the seabed under the influence of bed shear stress exceeding the critical Shields parameter, often modeled as q_b \propto ([\tau](/page/Tau) - \tau_{crit})^{1.5} where \tau is the shear stress and \tau_{crit} is the threshold value.^[29] In contrast, suspended load prevails for finer sediments (0.1-0.5 mm), where wave-induced turbulence lifts particles into the water column, allowing advection by currents; studies on sandbar crests show suspended load contributing up to 50% or more of net transport in offshore-directed flows, particularly during wave trough phases, while bedload drives onshore movement on crests.^[30] Key influencing factors include sediment grain size, wave asymmetry from nonlinear wave transformation, and storm events. Quartz sands in surf zones commonly range from 0.1 to 2 mm, with finer grains more easily suspended due to lower settling velocities, enhancing overall transport potential.^[31] Wave asymmetry, characterized by steeper wave fronts, generates onshore-directed accelerations that promote bedload transport, while storm waves increase shear stresses and turbulence, accelerating sediment mobilization by factors of up to 10 times compared to fair-weather conditions through heightened wave heights and durations, as observed in certain nearshore environments.^[32] Human structures like groins exemplify these processes by trapping updrift sediment via interruption of longshore currents, often leading to erosion on the downdrift side at rates exceeding natural variability.^[33] Measurement techniques for surf zone sediment transport include the use of fluorescent tracers to track particle paths and rates, as demonstrated in field experiments revealing short-term dispersal patterns, and acoustic Doppler current profilers (ADCPs) to quantify velocity profiles and suspended concentrations simultaneously.^[34]^[35] Data from 1970s-2000s studies, such as the Nearshore Sediment Transport Study (NSTS) experiment in 1979, indicate that net transport directions are closely tied to prevailing wave climates, with oblique winter storms dominating downdrift movement on many U.S. coasts.^[36]

Beach Morphology

Beach morphology in the surf zone is shaped by the interaction of waves, currents, and sediments, resulting in distinct profile components that balance erosive and depositional forces. The typical beach profile features a steep foreshore with berms—flat or gently sloping platforms formed by wave swash—and gentler dissipative slopes seaward where wave energy dissipates. These components reflect an equilibrium state where the profile adjusts to maintain a balance between sediment transport and wave forcing. A foundational model for this equilibrium is Dean's power-law profile, expressed as

h(y) = A y^{2/3},

where h is the water depth, y is the distance offshore from the shoreline, and A is a constant determined by sediment characteristics such as grain size and fall velocity.^[37] This model predicts a concave-upward shape that extends across the surf zone, with steeper gradients nearshore transitioning to milder slopes offshore, and it has been widely applied to describe stable profiles under constant wave conditions.^[37] Key morphological features in the surf zone include breaker bars and rip channels, which emerge from wave-sediment interactions. Breaker bars are submerged sand ridges, typically located 100-500 m offshore, formed by wave convergence and breaking that promotes onshore sediment transport on the bar crest and offshore transport in adjacent troughs.^[38] Rip channels, deeper troughs scoured between bars, facilitate seaward sediment removal and are integral to rhythmic patterns like transverse or crescentic bars.^[39] Seasonal variations further influence these features: during winter, high-energy storm waves drive erosion, flattening profiles into dissipative states with offshore bar migration and beach narrowing; in summer, lower-energy waves promote accretion, building reflective profiles with onshore bar movement and wider berms.^[40] Morphological changes occur across diverse timescales, from short-term daily fluctuations due to tidal shifts in the surf zone to long-term decadal processes like dune migration driven by cumulative sediment budgets.^[42] On the U.S. East Coast, hurricanes exemplify rapid reshaping, with events like Hurricane Sandy causing dune breaching and profile reconfiguration in days through intense wave setup and overwash.^[43] These storms can erode tens of meters of beach width, though recovery varies by sediment supply and subsequent wave climate.^[44] Feedback loops between morphology and hydrodynamics sustain these dynamics, as beach features modulate wave processes in turn. For instance, barred beaches create alongshore variations in wave setup—elevated water levels due to breaking waves—that generate pressure gradients driving feeder currents toward rip channels, thereby enhancing rip current strength and further scouring the morphology.^[45] This self-reinforcing interaction promotes the persistence of rhythmic patterns while influencing overall surf zone circulation.^[46]

Biological Aspects

Flora and Fauna

The surf zone hosts a variety of intertidal invertebrates adapted to the dynamic swash environment, where waves constantly reshape the sand. Mole crabs (Emerita analoga), also known as sand crabs, burrow rapidly into the sand to evade wave forces, using their paddle-like legs for digging and feathery antennae to filter plankton from the water column as they feed.^[47]^[48] These adaptations, including a streamlined, egg-shaped carapace for low hydrodynamic resistance, enable them to thrive exclusively in the swash zone of exposed sandy beaches.^[49] Surf clams (Spisula solidissima), another key burrowing species, inhabit the surf zone and adjacent nearshore areas, where they filter diatoms and other planktonic nutrients from the water using siphons, supported by strong, thick shells that withstand burial and wave abrasion.^[50]^[51] Shorebirds like sanderlings (Calidris alba) forage actively in the swash zone, chasing receding waves to probe damp sand for invertebrates with their short bills, aided by tridactyl feet for swift maneuverability on loose substrates.^[52]^[53] Flora in the surf zone is predominantly non-vascular and transient due to frequent submersion and abrasion, with limited establishment of vascular plants. Seaweeds, particularly fragments of kelp (Macrocystis spp.) detached from offshore forests, wash into the zone, providing temporary cover and organic input on the sand surface.^[54]^[55] Microalgae, including diatoms, form biofilms on sediment surfaces that secrete extracellular polymeric substances to bind sand particles, enhancing stability against wave-induced erosion.^[56]^[57] At the landward edge of the swash zone and into adjacent upper beach and dune areas, salt-tolerant dune grasses such as Ammophila arenaria (European beachgrass) begin to colonize, with rhizomes extending from dunes to trap windblown sand and tolerate occasional wave inundation.^[58]^[59] Species distribution in the surf zone exhibits clear zonation tied to tidal levels and exposure duration, creating vertical gradients of biodiversity. In contrast, crabs like mole crabs and hermit crabs (Pagurus spp.) dominate lower zones closer to the active surf, where stronger wave action selects for burrowing and shell-armored forms.^[60] Temperate regions, including the California coast, serve as biodiversity hotspots for surf zone invertebrates, supporting over 50 species such as polychaetes, amphipods, and bivalves in sandy habitats influenced by upwelling-driven productivity.^[61] Population dynamics of surf zone fauna feature high turnover driven by predation from birds and fish, as well as physical disturbances from storms that displace or bury individuals, necessitating constant replenishment through larval recruitment from offshore plankton.^[62] Larvae of species like mole crabs and surf clams settle en masse during onshore transport events, with densities often peaking following upwelling relaxation. Surveys in the 1990s along the California coast documented elevated invertebrate densities post-upwelling, as relaxing fronts delivered high concentrations of late-stage larvae to nearshore areas, boosting local populations by up to several orders of magnitude in favorable conditions.^[63]^[64]

Ecological Importance

The surf zone plays a pivotal role in coastal nutrient dynamics, where wave action mixes nutrients from deeper waters with ample sunlight to drive high primary production. Upwelling events deliver nitrates to the nearshore area, stimulating phytoplankton blooms that are subsequently transported into the breakers and retained within the surf zone. Measurements indicate primary production rates of approximately 480 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ in some systems, positioning the surf zone as an intermediate productivity zone between nutrient-rich estuaries and the open ocean. This enhanced nutrient availability supports robust primary production, often exceeding 1 g C m⁻² d⁻¹ during peak conditions.^[7]^[65]^[66] As the foundation of nearshore food webs, the surf zone sustains trophic levels from phytoplankton and bacteria to invertebrates like crabs, and higher predators including fish and seabirds. Planktonic primary producers form the base, fueling grazers and detritivores that, in turn, support predatory fish and avian species foraging in the turbulent waters. The area functions as a critical nursery habitat for juvenile fish, such as surfperch (e.g., Amphistichus spp.), where shallow depths and high turbulence offer protection from predators while promoting rapid growth. Additionally, organic matter from this productivity contributes to carbon sequestration, with burial in sandy sediments helping to store carbon long-term, though rates vary with local sediment dynamics. Recent studies (as of 2024) highlight surf zones' role in storing nearly 90 million metric tons of carbon globally through surrounding ecosystems.^[67]^[68]^[69]^[70] Surf zones harbor significant biodiversity, serving as migration corridors for shorebirds along routes like the Pacific Flyway, where coastal beaches provide essential foraging grounds during seasonal movements. Global surveys reveal high species richness, with 84 fish taxa documented in tropical surf zones.^[71] Overall assemblages including hundreds of invertebrate and microbial taxa in healthy systems. These ecosystems demonstrate resilience to natural disturbances like storms but remain vulnerable to anthropogenic pollution, which can reduce biodiversity and alter community structure.^[72] In terms of conservation, surf zones act as indicators of broader ocean health, with declines in fish populations often linked to overfishing pressures on nearshore stocks. Post-2010 studies have highlighted microplastic accumulation in surf zones, where wave action concentrates particles and disrupts trophic interactions and nutrient cycling by affecting plankton and benthic organisms. Marine protected areas (MPAs) provide conservation benefits, enhancing fish biomass and ecosystem resilience in surf zones as of 2025. These threats underscore the need for targeted protection to maintain the surf zone's ecological functions.^[73]^[74]^[75]

Hazards and Safety

Rip Currents

Rip currents are powerful, narrow channels of fast-moving water directed offshore within the surf zone, posing significant risks to swimmers and surfers. These currents form when waves break unevenly across a beach, causing a localized buildup of water that seeks to return seaward through the path of least resistance. Typically occurring on beaches with sandbars or channels, rip currents can extend from the shoreline to beyond the breaking waves, with flow speeds ranging from 0.5 to 2 meters per second. The formation of rip currents is driven by wave setup, where breaking waves generate a pressure gradient that converges water toward deeper channels or gaps in nearshore sandbars. This convergence results in channelized offshore flows, often modeled using the continuity equation for mass flux, Q = \int u \, dz, where Q represents the total offshore transport, u is the horizontal velocity, and the integral is taken over the water depth z. Bathymetric rip currents are closely tied to the underlying beach morphology, such as channels between sandbars, while mega-rips operate on a larger, storm-induced scale, spanning hundreds of meters and persisting during high-energy wave conditions. Detection of rip currents relies on both visual cues and instrumental methods to identify hazardous areas. Swimmers and lifeguards can spot them through signs such as discolored patches of deeper water, calmer surfaces amid breaking waves, or lines of foam and debris streaming seaward. Advanced techniques include deploying dyes for visual tracking or using radar systems to measure surface velocities; these methods reveal that rip currents are common on many surf beaches globally, varying with coastal morphology. Beach bars can influence channel formation by creating gaps that channel flows, as observed in field studies. Rip currents account for approximately 80% of all surf rescues in the United States and are responsible for more than 100 drownings annually there, according to estimates as of 2024. As of November 2025, preliminary reports indicate at least 88 surf-zone fatalities in the US, many attributed to rip currents. The primary danger arises from their deceptive appearance and strength, which can rapidly pull even strong swimmers offshore, leading to exhaustion or panic. To escape, individuals should swim parallel to the shore rather than directly against the current, allowing them to break free from the narrow feeder channel and return via the safer longshore flow. Post-2000 research, utilizing GPS-equipped drifters and video observations, has quantified rip current widths at 10-50 meters and durations extending up to several hours, providing better predictive models for beach safety. Emerging studies link climate change to intensified storms, which may increase rip current frequency and intensity on exposed coasts by altering wave patterns and nearshore bathymetry.

Other Hazards

In addition to rip currents, the surf zone presents several other hazards that can endanger swimmers and surfers. Undertow refers to the seaward return flow of water beneath breaking waves, compensating for the onshore mass transport caused by wave setup at the shoreline.^[76] This current is typically less visible than rip currents due to its uniform distribution along the shore and occurs near the seabed in shallow waters.^[77] Speeds are generally below 1 m/s, often ranging from 0.03 to 0.4 m/s depending on wave conditions, making it a subtle but persistent risk that can pull individuals offshore unexpectedly.^[77] Longshore currents, driven by oblique wave approach, transport water and sediment parallel to the shore and can laterally displace swimmers at speeds of 0.2 to 1 m/s, increasing fatigue and disorientation in moderate surf.^[4] Structural hazards in the surf zone exacerbate drowning risks through physical interactions with waves and coastal features. Breaking waves generate significant impact forces, up to 10 kN/m² on the human body, which can cause concussions, spinal injuries, or submersion leading to drowning, particularly in shorebreak conditions where waves collapse directly on the beach.^[78] Marine debris, such as submerged rocks or floating objects, combined with man-made structures like jetties and piers, creates localized turbulence and unpredictable water motion that traps or injures swimmers.^[79] In temperate zones, cold water shock upon immersion—triggered by water temperatures below 15°C—induces involuntary gasping, hyperventilation, and rapid loss of muscle control, often progressing to hypothermia within 15-30 minutes and impairing swimming ability.^[80] Environmental factors further compound these risks during dynamic conditions. Storm surges, generated by low-pressure systems and strong onshore winds, can elevate water levels by 1-3 m above normal tides, expanding the surf zone width and intensifying wave energy against the shore.^[81] Marine life hazards include stings from bioluminescent organisms like jellyfish; for instance, the box jellyfish (Chironex fleckeri) in Australian coastal waters delivers venomous nematocysts that cause severe pain, cardiac effects, and potentially fatal envenomation in the surf zone.^[82] According to lifeguard reports, breaking waves and related non-rip incidents account for approximately 20% of surf zone rescues and drownings, highlighting their role in non-current-related fatalities.^[83] Basic mitigation strategies focus on awareness and signaling to reduce exposure. International beach flag warning systems, adopted widely since the 1990s, use color-coded flags to indicate hazard levels: yellow for moderate risks requiring caution, and red for high risks advising against entry.^[84]^[85] These systems, combined with patrolled areas, help prevent incidents by guiding user behavior in variable conditions.

Human Interactions

Recreational Activities

Surfing, a primary recreational activity in the surf zone, originated in ancient Polynesian culture over 2,000 years ago as a spiritual and social practice that allowed participants to connect with the ocean.^[86] Early Polynesians in regions like Hawaii, Tahiti, and Samoa rode waves on wooden boards crafted from local trees, using the activity for training warriors and as a display of skill among chiefs.^[87] The modern form of surfing emerged in the mid-20th century with the introduction of lightweight materials; polyurethane foam cores combined with fiberglass lamination became standard in the 1950s, enabling shorter, more maneuverable boards that revolutionized accessibility and performance.^[88] In the surf zone, where waves typically break in water depths of 1-3 meters, surfers select waves based on size, shape, and crowd levels to optimize rides, often prioritizing peeling waves that allow for extended maneuvers.^[89] Key techniques include the cutback, a sharp turn using the board's rails to redirect toward the wave's breaking section and maintain speed within the power pocket.^[90] Global hotspots like Hawaii's North Shore, particularly spots such as Pipeline and Waimea Bay, draw advanced surfers for winter swells that can reach 10-20 feet (3-6 meters), with extreme events producing waves up to 15 meters.^[91] Other activities in the surf zone include bodyboarding, where participants prone-ride smaller, breaking waves using a short foam board for agility in shallow waters, and skimboarding, which involves dropping a thin wooden or composite board onto thin waves or shorebreak to glide across the sand and foam.^[92] Swimming and beachcombing also occur in calmer surf zone edges, allowing participants to wade through breakers while collecting shells or observing marine debris.^[93] Equipment evolution has enhanced safety and performance; swim fins, introduced in the early 20th century, aid surfers and bodyboarders in escaping rip currents by providing propulsion in turbulent waters, while leg ropes or leashes, patented in the 1970s using urethane cords, tether boards to the rider's ankle to prevent loss during wipeouts and reduce collision risks.^[94]^[95] Safety measures integrate lifeguards, who patrol surf zones; for example, New York City standards require one elevated lifeguard chair per 50 yards (~46 meters) of beachfront to monitor conditions and enforce swim zones, while general guidelines emphasize site-specific assessments.^[96]^[97] Cultural events, such as the World Surf League's Vans Triple Crown of Surfing, attract thousands of spectators annually to North Shore competitions, celebrating skill while promoting hazard awareness like rip current evasion.^[98] The global surf industry, encompassing equipment, apparel, and tourism, was valued at over $83 billion in 2025, driven by recreational participation exceeding 35 million surfers worldwide.^[99] However, injury rates average 2.5 significant incidents per 1,000 surfers annually, with collisions—often with one's own board accounting for 38.6% of cases—posing the primary risk in crowded surf zones.^[100]^[101]

Coastal Management

Coastal management in surf zones focuses on mitigating erosion, preserving ecological integrity, and adapting to climate change through engineered and nature-based interventions. Beach nourishment, a primary erosion control strategy, involves adding sand to replenish eroded shorelines, with the United States placing approximately 25-30 million cubic yards (19-23 million cubic meters) of sand annually on its beaches based on early 2020s data.^[102] This practice helps maintain beach width and protect infrastructure, though it requires ongoing replenishment due to natural sediment loss. Structures like groins and breakwaters are also employed to alter longshore sediment transport; groins, built perpendicular to the shore, trap sand on the updrift side to prevent erosion, while breakwaters create sheltered areas that promote deposition but can starve downdrift beaches of sediment. Designs for these structures often incorporate data from the Littoral Environment Observation (LEO) program, a low-cost visual monitoring system established in the 1960s that collects daily observations of waves, currents, and beach changes to inform coastal engineering decisions.^[103]^[104]^[33]^[105] Ecological protection efforts emphasize restricting harmful activities and restoring natural buffers near surf zones. Marine protected areas (MPAs) increasingly ban bottom trawling in coastal waters to safeguard benthic habitats and reduce sediment disturbance that affects surf zone dynamics, as seen in recent European initiatives like Greece's 2024 prohibition in national marine parks and calls for EU-wide bans in MPAs and inshore zones. Restoration of dune vegetation, using native plants like beach grasses, enhances surge buffering by stabilizing sand and dissipating wave energy, thereby reducing flood risks to adjacent ecosystems and communities. These measures address vulnerabilities from sea-level rise, projected at 0.3 to 1 meter globally by 2100 under various emissions scenarios, which could erode 24 to 75 percent of California's beaches and up to half of the world's sandy shores without intervention.^[106]^[107]^[108]^[109]^[110]^[111]^[112] Climate adaptation strategies integrate hybrid approaches, such as living shorelines that combine oyster reefs or vegetation with structural elements to reduce wave heights by up to 80 percent, as demonstrated in 2010s pilot projects along U.S. coasts.^[113] These nature-based solutions offer cost-effective alternatives to hard infrastructure, enhancing resilience while supporting biodiversity. Policy frameworks like the European Union's Marine Strategy Framework Directive (2008) mandate comprehensive monitoring of coastal waters, including surf zones, to achieve good environmental status and guide adaptive management across member states.^[114]^[115] Challenges in surf zone management include balancing recreational access with conservation goals, particularly amid debates over artificial reefs, which can cost between $46,000 and $2 million per installation depending on scale and materials, yet provide habitat enhancement and erosion control at potentially lower long-term expense than traditional defenses. Recent advancements in the 2020s, such as AI-driven forecasting models for storm surges and coastal erosion, enable more precise predictions and resource allocation, as piloted in systems like Surfline Coastal Intelligence for real-time monitoring. As of 2025, post-2024 hurricane recovery efforts have emphasized hybrid nature-based solutions, such as expanded living shoreline projects by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, to bolster surf zone resilience.^[116]^[117]^[118]^[119]^[120]

References

[1]
Wave-Coast Interactions | manoa.hawaii.edu/ExploringOurFluidEarth
The surf zone is the area near the coastline where waves break (Fig. 5.2) ... There are surf breaks all over the Pacific ocean basin. Using your ...Weird Science: Extreme Surf · Activity: Locating Surf Breaks · Voice of the Sea: Lidar
[2]
[PDF] Summary Report Of Man's Impact On The California Coastal Zone
The surf zone is defined as the area between the break point of the waves and the highest run-up of water on the beach. The width of the surf zone varies as ...
[3]
Coastal Zones - Tulane University
Apr 23, 2018 · Rigorous erosion of sea floor takes place in the surf zone, i.e. between shoreline and breakers. Waves break at depths between 1 and 1.5 times ...
[4]
Waves and Nearshore Currents - Wisconsin Sea Grant
The surf zone is the area between the breaking waves and the beach where waves run up and rush back into the lake. Gravity rules that the water that comes ...
[5]
A comparison of biomonitoring methodologies for surf zone fish ...
Jun 14, 2023 · Surf zones provide critical ecosystem services, supporting local marine biodiversity through the provisioning of forage habitat, refuge from ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[6]
[PDF] 1 FACTORS AFFECTING SURF ZONE PHYTOPLANKTON ...
Surf zone biomass and production levels are intermediate between relatively high estuarine values and much lower coastal ocean values. Surf zone production may ...
[7]
Geometry, Kinematics & Energetics of Surf Zone Waves Near the ...
The surf zone is the shallow nearshore region where waves break due to depth-limitations. These breaking waves drive important nearshore processes, ...
[8]
Glossary of Coastal Engineering Terms — CDIP 1.5 documentation
A submerged or emerged embankment of sand, gravel, or other unconsolidated material built on the sea floor in shallow water by waves and currents.
[9]
https://cdip.ucsd.edu/m/documents/glossary.html
[10]
Surf zone bathymetry and circulation predictions via data ...
Mar 3, 2014 · The surf zone is defined as the coastal region where the effects of wave breaking dominate the hydrodynamics. ... Coastal Engineering Conference, ...
[11]
(PDF) Surf Zone Hydrodynamics: Measuring Waves and Currents
Dec 9, 2016 · Measurements of surf zone hydrodynamics are divided into two general categories: (1) non-directional wave measurements; and (2) directional wave ...
[12]
[PDF] basic hydrodynamic processes in the coastal zone
Usually, the coastal zone is subdivided in three zones: • the dune and beach zone dominated by wind and wave forces;. • the surf zone (upper shoreface) ...
[13]
1 National Importance of Coastal Engineering
The second major impetus to the development of coastal engineering was a result of troop landings through the surf zone during the Second World War.
[14]
Remote sensing of surf zone waves using stereo imaging
The measurement of water wave characteristics, such as wavelength and wave height, in the surf zone is important for monitoring, prediction of erosion, ...Missing: boundaries | Show results with:boundaries
[15]
Enhanced Surf Zone and Wave Runup Observations with Hovering ...
We present the use of hovering drone-mounted lidar to measure and calculate surf zone wave properties, wave up and down rushes at the shoreline, and water ...Missing: boundaries | Show results with:boundaries
[16]
[PDF] Shoaling transformation of wave frequency-directional spectra
Field observations of wave transformation across the surf zone show that wave breaking does not affect mean propagation directions significantly, but causes an.
[17]
Shoaling Wave - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Wave shoaling is the change in shape and behaviour as waves propagate into water of decreasing depth. This results in decreases in wave speed and wavelength ...
[18]
[PDF] MAXIMUM BREAKER HEIGHT FOR DESIGN
Hb ~0.78db. (6). Experimental studies by Collins and Wier (1), Galvin (2, 3) ... Thus a given deepwater wave will have a higher Hb/db on a steep beach.
[19]
[PDF] Nearshore Wave Breaking and Decay - DTIC
Jul 11, 1993 · The breaking wave height Hb is contained on both sides of Equation 5, so the equation must be solved iteratively. Figure 1 graphically shows the ...
[20]
[PDF] Surf Zone Hydrodynamics - Department of Theoretical Physics
Jul 31, 2003 · “Wave Heights and Setup in a Surf Zone,” Coastal Engineering, Vol 8, No. 4, pp 303-. 329. Svendsen, Madsen, and Hansen 1978. Svendsen, I. A. ...
[21]
Development and Application of an Infragravity Wave (InWave ...
Jun 27, 2023 · Infragravity (IG) waves are ocean surface oscillations with frequencies between 0.004 and 0.04 Hz and are key components of surf zone and swash ...
[22]
Infragravity waves - Coastal Wiki
Apr 21, 2025 · In the surf zone, where the short waves are breaking, the group structure disappears, and the infragravity waves propagate ashore as free waves.
[23]
Parameterization of nearshore wave breaker index - ScienceDirect
A new formula for wave breaker index used for parametric wave transformation modelling leads to improved wave height prediction especially under wave conditions
[24]
[PDF] DUCK85 Photopole Field Experiment. - DTIC
"During September and October 1985, a major nearshore processes experiment, DUCK85, was conducted at CERC's FRF in Duck, North Carolina. Investigators from ...
[25]
Field Measurements of Longshore Sediment Transport along Denu ...
Aug 10, 2023 · In the Gulf of Guinea, the LST involves about 1 million cubic meters of sand per year: a value which is known to be one of the highest rates in ...
[26]
Littoral drift and shoreline modelling - Coastal Wiki
Apr 24, 2025 · The product 2 \cos \alpha \sin \alpha = \sin 2 \alpha. Eq. (2) is based on the assumption that the longshore sediment transport is proportional ...
[27]
Cross-Shore Sediment Transport in the Coastal Zone: A Review
Mar 26, 2024 · This paper presents a review of cross-shore sediment transport for non-cohesive sediments in the coastal zone.
[28]
Sand transport - Coastal Wiki
Dec 30, 2023 · Bed load type transport dominates in areas where the mean currents are relatively weak in comparison with the wave motion (small ratio of depth- ...
[29]
Relative Contributions of Bed Load and Suspended ... - AGU Journals
Jan 14, 2019 · The net sediment transport rate was partitioned into suspended sediment (SS) and bed load (BL) components to quantify the relative contributions ...
[30]
https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2018JC014564
[31]
The impact of storms and stratification on sediment transport in the ...
Mar 23, 2017 · Sediment transport during storm events results from the combination of high near-bottom sediment concentrations, primarily as a result of wave- ...2 Background · 3 Setup And Methods · 4.1 Density And Current...
[32]
Groynes - Coastal Wiki
Oct 31, 2024 · The main function of a groyne is catching and trapping part of the sediment moving in a longshore direction in the surf zone. Adequate supply of ...
[33]
Short-Term Sediment Transport at a Backbarrier Beach - BioOne
Nov 1, 2011 · Current meters were deployed at both sites. Fluorescent tracer techniques were applied to determine rates and direction of transport.Methods · Fluorescent Tracer Data · Discussion<|control11|><|separator|>
[34]
[PDF] Using the acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) to estimate ...
Introduction. The acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) uses acoustic waves to measure current velocity profiles in rivers, estuaries, and the ocean.
[35]
[PDF] Report on data from the Nearshore Sediment Transport Study ...
The NEARSHORE SEDIMENT TRANSPORT STUDY (NSTS) is a national project, sponsored by the Office of Sea Grant, Washington, D. C., with the objective.
[36]
Shoreface profile - Coastal Wiki
Apr 20, 2025 · Typical values of the outer closure depth are in the range 15 – 40 m. ... The upper shoreface is sometimes also called breaker zone or surf zone ...
[37]
Nearshore sandbars - Coastal Wiki
Nov 14, 2023 · Nearshore sandbars, also called breaker bars, are a common feature of the surf zone of sandy coasts subject to energetic wave action.
[38]
Dynamics of rip currents and implications for beach safety (DRIBS)
Rip channels are a key component of rhythmic nearshore morphology, such as transverse/crescentic bars, and are typical of morphodynamically intermediate-type ...
[39]
Seasonal morphodynamic classification of beaches in Necochea ...
In winter, the beaches became more dissipative, while in summer-autumn they were more reflective. This general behavior agrees with the erosion/accretion cycles ...<|separator|>
[40]
Time‐Scales of a Dune‐Beach System and Implications for ...
Oct 7, 2021 · In this study, almost 15 years of monthly beach/dune measurements were analyzed for three different profiles at Vougot Beach, France to understand and predict ...
[41]
[PDF] Coastal Change from Hurricane Sandy and the 2012–13 Winter ...
These profiles were used to assess relative changes to dune, beach, and swash zone morphology and to calculate beach volume and volume change. Beach volumes ...
[42]
Do Storms Cause Long‐Term Beach Erosion along the U.S. East ...
In a few hours or days, scores of meters of beach width can be lost due to a severe storm. However, newly available shoreline data from the U.S. East Coast ...
[43]
Rip current circulation and surf zone retention on a double barred ...
Nov 1, 2018 · Rips are described as a feedback to the nearshore morphology and an integral part of beach and nearshore recovery following reset storms. It ...
[44]
Surf zone eddies coupled with rip current morphology - AGU Journals
Jul 1, 2004 · F-ky spectral estimates illustrate a strong relationship between rip channel spacing and SZE cross-shore velocities (ky = ±0.008 m−1) and ...
[45]
[PDF] The Pacific Mole Crab: Fact Sheet - LiMPETS
Sand crabs move up and down the beach with the tides, using the action of the waves to carry them higher or lower in the swash zone, depending on the direction ...
[46]
Burrowing abilities and swash behavior of three crabs, Emerita ...
Rapid burrowing rates have been reported for other hippid crab species and may be an important adaptation to life in the swash zone of exposed sandy beaches.
[47]
Meet the Mole Crab, a Common and Surprising Beach Creature
May 26, 2025 · Mole crabs live exclusively in the intertidal zone, an area often called the “swash.” This is where waves crash on the beach, the place where ...
[48]
Atlantic Surfclam | NOAA Fisheries
Surfclams are planktivorous filter feeders, straining tiny plants out of the water to eat. Larval surfclams eat algal cells. Adults primarily feed on diatoms, ...Missing: adaptations | Show results with:adaptations
[49]
[PDF] Growing Methods - WHOI Sea Grant
Surf clams can be found from the surf zone extending offshore throughout the continental shelf to depths of over 100 meters, though they prefer medium to coarse ...Missing: adaptations | Show results with:adaptations
[50]
[PDF] The effects of human approach on sanderling foraging behavior
Sanderlings are foragers who feed on aquatic invertebrates in the damp sand of the intertidal zone. They are typically seen running back and forth with the ...
[51]
[PDF] Wind-Up Toy of the Swash Zone — the Sprightly Sanderling
Amazing. Sanderlings have tridactyl feet to aid maneuverability in the swash zone. But perhaps the most incredible fact about these speedy little residents of ...Missing: adaptations | Show results with:adaptations
[52]
Kelp forests are connected to local beach ecosystems, study shows
Sep 15, 2025 · The kelp forest is ephemeral, yet foundational. Fronds of this fast-growing giant seaweed come and go with the seasons, storms and waves, ...Missing: zone flora
[53]
Kelp deposition changes mineralization pathways and microbial ...
Aug 26, 2020 · We investigated the impact of kelp deposition on the geochemistry and microbial community composition of beach sands on the island of ...
[54]
[PDF] The-role-of-benthic-microalgae-in-neritic-ecosystems.pdf
Stabilization of the sediment surface by microalgal growth and extrapolymeric substance production is an important feature of the ecology of benthic microalgae.<|separator|>
[55]
[PDF] The Role of Benthic Microalgae In Stabilizing Sediment
Microbial biofilms in intertidal systems: an overview. Continental. Shelf Research ... (EPS) in surface sediments of a diatom-dominated intertidal mudflat.Missing: surf | Show results with:surf
[56]
Shore protection vegetation - Coastal Wiki
Jun 19, 2025 · Ammophila arenaria and Ammophila breviligulata are European and American beach grasses that have been introduced in many regions worldwide.
[57]
Ammophila arenaria (marram grass) | CABI Compendium
Apr 29, 2015 · Young plants become established along the upper beach, often in the lee of driftwood or other beach species. ... arenaria in a mobile dune area ...
[58]
Rocky shore habitat - Coastal Wiki
Dec 25, 2024 · At the lower edge of the splash zone, rough snails (periwinkles) graze on various types of algae. These snails are well adapted to life out of ...
[59]
Splash and High Zones - MiraCosta College
The little periwinkle snail prefers to crawl up above the highest water level to the area that gets just the smallest splash from the highest high tide waves.
[60]
[PDF] Atlantic Ocean Rocky Shore Zones Guide - Seacoast Science Center
Other types of periwinkles include the rough periwinkle. (splash zone) and the smooth periwinkle (lower intertidal zone). ... These crabs are a widespread ...
[61]
[PDF] Baseline Characterization of Sandy Beach Ecosystems in ...
Sandy beaches and adjacent surf zones are also important foraging areas for shorebirds and fishes that feed on intertidal invertebrates. However, despite their ...
[62]
Surf zones regulate larval supply and zooplankton subsidies to ...
Surf zone hydrodynamics vary along shorelines potentially affecting the delivery of larvae and zooplankton subsidies to intertidal communities, and, hence, ...
[63]
MPA Literature Summaries - California Department of Fish and Wildlife
In the 1990s, concurrent monitoring of biological and physical conditions revealed that these flows transport late-stage invertebrate larvae from a retention ...
[64]
Demonstration of the onshore transport of larval invertebrates by the ...
These data demonstrate that a relaxing upwelling front can transport high concentrations of larvae shoreward over the inner shelf. This may be an impor- tant ...
[65]
Factors affecting surf zone phytoplankton production in ...
Sep 5, 2017 · Primary production (PP), measured by in situ 14-C incubations, was a function of chlorophyll a, tide height at the start of incubations, and ...
[66]
IX. Factors controlling the seasonal cycle of nitrate in the surf at ...
Nitrate depletion in the upper water layers beyond the breaker zone at Copalis Beach, Washington, takes place in April of each year due to spring ...
[67]
Food web structure of sandy beaches: Temporal and spatial ...
Mar 1, 2011 · Food web structure of sandy beaches: Temporal and spatial variation using stable isotope analysis ... surf zone (phytoplankton, bacteria and ...
[68]
Spatial and seasonal patterns of the surf-zone ichthyofauna on a ...
The shallow depths and high turbulence of surf-zones provide favorable conditions with high growth potential and low mortality risk for juvenile fishes ( ...
[69]
Surf Zone Fishes - California Department of Fish and Wildlife
Surfperch are viviparous(livebearers). This means that fertilization is internal and embryos are nurtured and developed inside of the female. They usually ...
[70]
Spatio-temporal dynamics of surf zone tropical fish assemblages
The high fish species richness observed in the inner surf zone of Serrambi Beach supports previous studies that recorded approximately 95 species in the surf ...
[71]
Pacific Flyway Shorebirds – Pacific Americas Shorebird ...
Partners working together throughout the Pacific Americas Flyway to sustain shorebird populations for present and future generations.
[72]
Evaluating the influence of marine protected areas on surf zone fish
These traits include a viviparous reproductive mode, whereby surfperch produce small numbers of relatively large, well‐developed juveniles (Baltz, 1984; ...
[73]
(PDF) Wave-Induced Distribution of Microplastic in the Surf Zone
Aug 6, 2025 · In this study, the wave-induced distribution of 13 microplastic (MP) samples of different size, shape, and density was investigated in a ...Missing: disrupting cycles
[74]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/346520409_Wave-Induced_Distribution_of_Microplastic_in_the_Surf_Zone
[75]
Undertow - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Because flow occurs uniformly alongshore the current speeds are relatively low, usually on the order of a 3–10 cm s−1 under moderate wave conditions to perhaps ...
[76]
[PDF] CHAPTER 186 - Coastal Engineering Proceedings
It is of very short duration (0.01 s to 0.03 s), and can easily reach values of several hundred kN/m2, depending upon the height of the breaking wave and the ...Missing: drowning risk
[77]
Rip Currents 101 - Dr. Beach
Rips often occur at groins, jetties and piers; stay at least 100 feet away from these structures in the water to avoid these deadly currents and other hazards.
[78]
The Crippling Effects Of Cold Water Immersion - BoatUS
Cold water immersion causes cold shock, leading to increased heart rate and breath, then swim failure due to cooling, and eventually hypothermia.Missing: surf zone
[79]
Storm Surge Overview - National Weather Service
Storm surge is an abnormal rise of water above tides, often the greatest threat from hurricanes, caused by winds pushing water toward the shore.
[80]
Marine Stingers - Surf Life Saving Queensland
Marine stingers include box jellyfish and irukandji, which are dangerous. Risk is higher from November to May. Swim at patrolled beaches during this time.
[81]
Rip Currents - United States Lifesaving Association
Rip currents account for over 80% of rescues performed by surf beach lifeguards. ... A narrow gap of darker, seemingly calmer water between areas of breaking ...
[82]
USLA Approved Beach Warning Flags
Yellow – Medium hazard. · Red – High hazard. · Double red – Water is closed to public use. · Purple – Marine pests, such as jellyfish, stingrays, or other marine ...Missing: risk 1990s
[83]
Beach Warning Flag Program | Florida Department of Environmental ...
Jul 17, 2025 · Florida's beach warning flag program uses flags in four colors accompanied by interpretive signs along the beach to explain the meaning of each color.Missing: moderate 1990s
[84]
History & Culture | Aloha Surf Guide
Polynesians originally used surfing over 2,000 years ago as a means to get to shore. When Polynesians settled in Hawaii in the fourth century A.D. they began to ...<|separator|>
[85]
SURFING IN POLYNESIA PAST TO PRESENT - OCEAN POSSE
In Tahiti and Samoa, surfing was a popular activity that was often used as part of warriors' training. Said warriors would often be seen by early Europeans ...
[86]
History of the surfboard | Club of the Waves
Apr 11, 2006 · The development of polyurethane foam in surfboards came about in around the 1950s. Surfboards were still between 9 and 11 foot long in the '50s.Fiberglass Surfboards · Surfing In Australia · The Shortboard, Twin Fins...
[87]
https://oceanposse.com/surfing-in-polynesia-past-to-present/
[88]
How to do Cutbacks Surfing - Barefoot Surf Tutorials
The cutback is a manoeuvre surfers use to change direction with a turn using their rails to return toward the breaking part of the wave (curl).
[89]
Weird Science: Extreme Surf - University of Hawaii at Manoa
Long period swells (12–20 seconds) can bring waves that average 1.5–4.5 m in height, with extraordinary extreme wave heights of up to 15 m. This stretch of ...
[90]
Beach Sports - Visit Florida
Beach Sports · Kayaking · Kiteboarding · Swimming · SCUBA · Surfing & Skimboarding · Windsurfing · Stand-up Paddleboarding · Snorkeling.
[91]
California Central Coast - Visitors Guide - Things to Do
Water Activities - Swimming, Surfing, Kitesurfing, Skimboarding, Bodyboarding, Body Surfing, Kayaking, Jet Ski/Wave Runner Riding, Boating, Fishing, Boat ...
[92]
The history of the surf leash - Surfer Today
One of the first known versions of the surfboard leash emerged in the mid-1930s when American surfboard designer Tom Blake connected a 10-foot cotton rope from ...
[93]
The Revolution of Surfing Gear: A look at improvements over the years
Oct 27, 2023 · The leash, for instance, invented in the '70s, stopped runaway surfboards, preventing injuries and making surfing safer. Similarly, fins evolved ...
[94]
[PDF] ARTICLE 167 - NYC.gov
There should be one elevated lifeguard chair for each 50 yards of beach front, or at locations provided in the approved safety plan. Elevated lifeguard chairs ...
[95]
[PDF] GUIDELINES FOR ESTABLISHING OPEN-WATER ...
Some of the main problem areas that have been identified as affecting the provision of safety services at open-water beaches include liability and risk.
[96]
The best surf competitions in the world - Red Bull
Dec 19, 2022 · Summary · 1. Tudor Nazaré Tow Surfing Challenge · 2. Quicksilver Jaws Big Wave Challenge · 3. Vans Triple Crown of Surfing · 4. Rip Curl WSL Finals.
[97]
Surfing Tourism Market Growth Opportunities & Forecast to 2035
Aug 26, 2025 · The global surfing tourism market is projected to grow from USD 83.3 billion in 2025 to USD 265.6 billion by 2035, at a CAGR of 12.3%.
[98]
Epidemiology of Acute Injuries in Surfing: Type, Location ... - NIH
Skin (46.0%; HCF 50.1%, survey 43.8%) and being struck by own surfboard (38.6%; HCF 73.4%, survey 36.7%) were the most common injury type and mechanism. Head, ...
[99]
[PDF] Injury Prevention in The Sport of Surfing: An Update
Results. The injury rate in surfing has been found to be 1.8 significant injuries per. 1,000 hours and 3.5 per 1,000 days for recreational surfers and 4.0 per ...
[100]
A century of U.S. beach nourishment - ADS
Growth in sand volume placed has been exponential over the last century, with the total annual volume of sand placed on U.S. beaches increasing to 37 million cy ...<|separator|>
[101]
Groins and Jetties (U.S. National Park Service)
Apr 5, 2019 · Groins are shore perpendicular structures, used to maintain updrift beaches or to restrict longshore sediment transport.
[102]
LEO - littoral environment observations - Knowledge Core
LEO provides low-cost coastal data for the planning, design, operation, and maintenance of coastal works. LEO consists of systematic collection of wind, wave, ...
[103]
Greece becomes first European country to ban bottom trawling in ...
Apr 16, 2024 · Greece has become the first country in Europe to announce a ban on bottom trawling in all of its national marine parks and protected areas.Missing: zones | Show results with:zones
[104]
Bottom trawling ban in UK and EU marine protected areas
Mar 24, 2025 · Maïssa Rababy, Only One, and Hugo Tagholm, Oceana UK, explore why a ban in UK and EU marine protected areas is more urgent than ever before.
[105]
Dune Restoration | New Hampshire Sea Grant
Dunes improve "coastal resilience," acting as a barrier to storm surge and flooding, protecting adjacent property and infrastructure. Dunes serve as significant ...
[106]
Dune reconstruction and revegetation as a potential measure to ...
Apr 15, 2020 · Coastal dunes and their associated vegetation communities act as a barrier to storm surges and wind waves, reducing flooding and coastal erosion ...
[107]
New Research Reveals Alarming Future for California's Coastline
New research estimates that between 24 to 75 percent of California's beaches could become completely eroded by the end of the century with no interventions.
[108]
Climate Change: Global Sea Level
If we are able to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions, U.S. sea level in 2100 is projected to be around 0.6 meters (2 feet) higher on average than it ...
[109]
Half of world's sandy beaches could disappear due to sea level rise ...
Mar 3, 2020 · More than 60% of sandy beaches in Gambia and Guinea-Bissau may be lost to erosion by rising seas, while Australia is expected to lose nearly ...Missing: projections percentage
[110]
[PDF] Hybrid coral reef restoration can be a cost- effective nature
Coral reefs substantially reduce coastal flooding by dissipating up to 97% of incident wave energy (6) and thus provide coastal pro- tection, including erosion ...
[111]
Coral reefs for coastal protection: A new methodological approach ...
Mar 15, 2018 · This paper presents a systematic approach to assess the protective role of coral reefs and to examine solutions based on the reef's influence on wave ...
[112]
Implementation of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive
It identifies gaps in data and areas monitored and draws recommendations to improve the monitoring of European seas. Comprehensive and coherent monitoring data ...
[113]
Creating Underwater Value: The Economic Value of Artificial Reefs ...
Creating an artificial reef can be costly. The cost to prepare a ship for reefing can range from 46 , 000 t o 2 million, depending on the size of the vessel ( ...
[114]
[PDF] Coastal Protection
Coral reef and mangrove restoration projects in the Caribbean are ten to one hundred times cheaper than artificial coastal defenses. • On average mangrove ...
[115]
Surfline Coastal Intelligence - AI-Powered Coastal Monitoring ...
Surfline Coastal Intelligence delivers live and historical video, continuous coastal monitoring, and predictive modeling in a single, turnkey system.Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[116]
Advancing artificial intelligence in ocean and maritime engineering
This review article presents an analysis of Artificial intelligence (AI) applications in ocean and maritime engineering, examining the evolution, current ...