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Tactical communications

Tactical communications refer to the specialized military systems, protocols, and technologies designed to enable the secure, rapid, and reliable exchange of information—including voice, data, and video—among units at various echelons during operations, supporting command and control, situational awareness, and coordination in dynamic battlefield environments.^[1] These systems operate primarily at the lowest tactical levels, where they facilitate network-centric operations by providing high-capacity information grids tailored to military demands for mobility, security, and resilience.^[2] The development of tactical communications has evolved over centuries, from ancient non-electronic methods like messengers and signal fires to early wireless radios in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and onward to advanced digital and satellite-integrated networks essential for modern warfare.^[3]^[4] At its core, tactical communications relies on key components such as radio platforms—including the Single Channel Ground and Airborne Radio System (SINCGARS), which operates on 2,320 frequencies between 30–88 MHz with frequency-hopping modes to counter jamming—and antennas optimized for high-frequency (HF), very high-frequency (VHF), and ultra-high-frequency (UHF) bands.^[1] Supporting elements include retransmission setups for range extension, encryption via communication security (COMSEC) devices like VINSON, and software-defined radios that enable waveform adaptability for voice, data, and video transmission.^[1] These components are essential for overcoming operational challenges, such as complex terrain, electronic warfare, and limited bandwidth, ensuring interoperability across joint forces and resilience in austere settings from squad to corps levels.^[2]^[1] In contemporary military doctrine, tactical communications have advanced toward greater integration and automation, with the U.S. Department of Defense's Command, Control, and Communications (C3) Modernization Strategy (September 2020) emphasizing the rapid fielding of updated waveforms like SINCGARS v3.1 and Link-16, alongside cryptographic upgrades through the Modernization Program (Mod 1 and 2).^[5] As of 2025, efforts continue under the U.S. Army's Unified Network Plan, transitioning to the Integrated Tactical Network (ITN) for a resilient, single tactical network, while global advancements incorporate 5G for high-bandwidth mobility, AI for automation, and mmWave technologies for drone and vehicle communications, alongside systems like the TerraNEX TICS for enhanced vehicle integration.^[6]^[7]^[8]^[5]^[9] This ongoing transformation supports unified land operations and joint missions, prioritizing secure, high-performance systems adaptable to evolving threats.^[1]

Fundamentals

Definition and Scope

Tactical communications refer to the short-range, mobile, and resilient systems designed for real-time exchange of voice, data, video, and imagery in combat zones to support command and control (C2) and mission command across military echelons.^[5] These systems enable seamless, secure, and dynamic information support for operations in dynamic environments, such as those faced by the Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF) or U.S. Army units, by facilitating the collection, processing, and dissemination of critical battlefield information.^[10]^[11] The scope of tactical communications is confined to operational and tactical levels, focusing on battlefield applications from squad to brigade, in contrast to strategic communications, which rely on long-range, fixed infrastructure for theater-wide or global connectivity, such as interfaces with the Defense Information Systems Network (DISN).^[5]^[10] It excludes broader logistical support networks and emphasizes intra-unit coordination during maneuvers, like line-of-sight (LOS) or beyond-line-of-sight (BLOS) links for maneuver control, rather than global satellite relays for higher headquarters.^[11] This distinction ensures tactical systems prioritize expeditionary, on-the-move capabilities in contested areas, supporting warfighting functions through networks like the tactical internet or MAGTF digital backbones.^[10] Central to tactical communications are the principles of timeliness, reliability, security, and minimal detectability, which underpin their effectiveness in high-threat scenarios. Timeliness demands rapid information transfer to sustain operational tempo and informed decision-making, as in real-time intelligence reporting via command nets.^[10]^[11] Reliability is achieved through redundant, interoperable systems with low failure rates to maintain consistent connectivity, such as multichannel radios for node-to-node links.^[5] Security involves cryptographic protections, emission controls, and transmission security (TRANSEC) to safeguard against interception or jamming, while minimal detectability uses spectrum management to reduce enemy targeting risks.^[10] These principles collectively ensure resilient C2, distinguishing tactical scenarios—like VHF tactical nets for squad coordination—from non-tactical ones, such as fixed strategic broadcasts.^[11]

Importance in Military Operations

Tactical communications play a pivotal role in military operations by providing the foundational infrastructure for situational awareness, enabling commanders to maintain a clear understanding of the battlefield through real-time data sharing across units. This capability allows for the rapid dissemination of commands, ensuring that orders are executed promptly and cohesively, which is essential for synchronized maneuvers in dynamic environments. By transforming vast amounts of sensor and intelligence data into actionable insights, tactical communications mitigate the fog of war, reducing operational uncertainty and enhancing decision-making speed.^[5] Furthermore, effective systems contribute to lower casualties by facilitating precise coordination, as evidenced in simulations where communication latencies exceeding one minute significantly increased losses during engagements.^[12] In joint operations, tactical communications are indispensable for integrating forces from multiple services, such as coordinating air-ground support to deliver timely close air support or artillery strikes. For instance, during tactical assaults, satellite communications and global positioning systems enable precise geolocation and fire support synchronization, allowing ground units to maneuver effectively while avoiding friendly fire incidents.^[13] Studies of degraded communication scenarios highlight their impact on mission outcomes; in agent-based simulations of Army Future Combat Systems operations, partial network disruptions extended battle durations and elevated casualty rates, underscoring how breakdowns can tip the balance toward failure even against inferior adversaries.^[12] Historical analyses of command and control failures further reveal that communication lapses often account for a substantial portion of operational setbacks, with tactical-level disruptions amplifying strategic risks.^[14] Key performance indicators for tactical communications emphasize reliability and speed to support mission-critical functions. Latency must typically be under 11 seconds for voice commands to ensure responsive command dissemination without disorientation in high-tempo operations.^[12] Throughput requirements focus on sustaining data rates in the kilobits-per-second range to transmit battlefield updates, imagery, and targeting information effectively.^[15] Availability targets exceed 99% uptime, even in contested environments with electronic warfare threats, to maintain continuous connectivity and prevent isolation of forward units.^[16] These metrics collectively determine the system's ability to deliver a decisive information advantage in joint all-domain operations.^[13]

Historical Development

Pre-Electronic Era

Tactical communications in the pre-electronic era relied on non-electronic methods such as visual, auditory, and physical signaling to coordinate military forces across distances, though these were severely limited by environmental factors and line-of-sight requirements. Visual signals included flags, semaphores, heliographs, smoke, and beacon fires, which conveyed predefined messages through patterns or positions visible from afar. For instance, ancient armies used smoke signals during the day and beacon fires at night to alert distant outposts of enemy movements, as seen in the defensive systems along China's Great Wall where sequential fires transmitted warnings over hundreds of kilometers.^[17] These methods enabled rapid alerts but were prone to misinterpretation due to varying smoke patterns or weather conditions, and their effectiveness typically extended only a few kilometers without relay stations.^[18] Auditory signals, such as drums, horns, and trumpets, provided immediate tactical commands on the battlefield, particularly in dense formations where visual cues might be obscured. In the Roman legions, instruments like the tuba (a straight trumpet), cornu (a curved horn), and buccina were employed to issue orders for advances, retreats, or maneuvers, allowing centurions to direct thousands of soldiers amid the chaos of combat.^[19] Drums and horns similarly served ancient Greek and Persian forces for signaling troop movements, with their sound carrying up to 2-3 kilometers under ideal conditions but fading quickly in wind or battle noise. Physical methods complemented these, including human couriers on horseback who relayed detailed orders and carrier pigeons for longer distances; pigeons, domesticated over 5,000 years ago, were used by ancient Persians, Greeks, and Romans to carry messages from sieges or fronts, achieving reliable returns over 100 kilometers when trained properly.^[20] Key innovations in the 19th century addressed some range issues through mechanical systems like the hydraulic telegraph and semaphore networks. The hydraulic telegraph, invented around 350 BCE by the Greek military writer Aeneas Tacticus, used synchronized water levels in vessels to confirm message receipt over short distances, primarily for verifying alarms between outposts during sieges.^[21] By the 1790s, Claude Chappe's semaphore system in France revolutionized visual signaling with articulated arms on towers that encoded messages visible up to 30 kilometers per station, forming networks that spanned hundreds of kilometers for military coordination during the Napoleonic Wars.^[22] The British adopted a similar shutter-based semaphore in the late 1790s, using pivoting panels to transmit naval and army signals, though both systems were weather-dependent and limited to clear daylight visibility, often under 5 kilometers without relays. These advancements allowed faster transmission than couriers but remained vulnerable to interception by observers or enemy disruption of relay points. Despite these developments, pre-electronic methods fundamentally constrained operations due to their susceptibility to misinterpretation, environmental interference, and enemy exploitation. In the Napoleonic Wars, commanders like Wellington relied heavily on aides-de-camp—mounted officers carrying written dispatches—to convey complex orders across battlefields, as verbal or visual signals proved unreliable over distances exceeding a few kilometers amid smoke and terrain obstacles.^[23] Such reliance on human messengers exposed them to high risks, with many lost to enemy fire, underscoring the era's basic coordination capabilities that prioritized simplicity over detail. This vulnerability highlighted the need for more secure, all-weather alternatives that would emerge with electromagnetic technologies.

Emergence of Wireless Communications

The emergence of wireless communications marked a pivotal shift in tactical operations, extending beyond the visual and auditory constraints of earlier signaling methods like flags and heliographs. Guglielmo Marconi's development of practical wireless telegraphy in the mid-1890s, demonstrated through successful transmissions over distances exceeding one kilometer by 1895, laid the groundwork for military applications.^[24] Early adoption by navies, such as the U.S. Navy's testing of Marconi equipment in 1899, highlighted radio's potential for ship-to-shore coordination, though ground forces initially lagged due to equipment limitations.^[25] By World War I, radio began integrating into land warfare, particularly with mobile units. The British Army equipped specialized "Wireless Communications Tanks" in 1918, enabling two-way Morse code transmission from armored vehicles during the Battle of Amiens, which facilitated coordinated advances over short ranges of a few kilometers despite the sets' bulkiness.^[26] These early sets operated primarily on high-frequency (HF) bands (3-30 MHz), allowing skywave propagation for longer distances but suffering from atmospheric interference and the need for large antennas. Initial challenges included the equipment's weight—about 35 pounds (16 kg) for the transmitter and receiver—and vulnerability to jamming from spark-gap transmitters, which produced broadband noise; these issues restricted widespread use to aircraft and command posts until refinements improved portability.^[27] World War II accelerated innovations in portable radio systems, enhancing tactical responsiveness. The U.S. Army's SCR-300, introduced in 1943 and nicknamed the "Walkie-Talkie," was a backpack-mounted very high-frequency (VHF) FM transceiver operating in the 40-48 MHz band, providing reliable line-of-sight communications up to 5 kilometers in varied terrain.^[28] This device overcame prior bulkiness by weighing about 15 kilograms and using a whip antenna, allowing infantry squads to maintain contact during assaults. HF remained vital for extended-range links, such as division-level coordination, while VHF's narrower beam and reduced interference supported mobile units like tanks and forward observers.^[29] In the Pacific theater, these radios enabled real-time artillery spotting; for instance, forward observers with SCR-300 sets directed naval gunfire support during island assaults like Bougainville in 1943, adjusting fire within minutes to counter Japanese defenses and saving countless lives.^[30]

Post-WWII Advancements

Following World War II, tactical communications underwent significant technological shifts driven by the Cold War's demands for more reliable, portable, and jam-resistant systems. Early post-war innovations focused on satellite communications to extend beyond line-of-sight limitations. Project Diana in 1946, a U.S. Army experiment at Fort Monmouth, successfully reflected radio waves off the moon to prove satellite communication viability. This was followed by the 1958 launch of SCORE, the first U.S. military communications satellite capable of broadcasting voice and facsimile, and the 1960 Project Courier, which advanced real-time teletype and data transmission between stations.^[31] The advent of transistorization in the 1950s and 1960s revolutionized radio design by replacing bulky vacuum tubes with compact, energy-efficient transistors, enabling lighter manpack radios suitable for mobile infantry and vehicular use. A key example was the AN/PRC-25, a transistorized VHF FM radio introduced in the early 1960s, which weighed about 25 pounds including battery and offered reliable voice communications up to 5 miles (8 km) in line-of-sight conditions, varying by terrain and antenna, to enhance platoon- and company-level coordination.^[32]^[33] The U.S. Army rapidly fielded these radios to support operations in Vietnam. Parallel advancements addressed electronic warfare threats through the introduction and refinement of frequency hopping techniques, originally conceptualized during World War II but implemented post-war to counter jamming. Actress and inventor Hedy Lamarr, along with composer George Antheil, patented a frequency-hopping spread spectrum method in 1942, using synchronized piano rolls to rapidly switch radio frequencies and evade interference in torpedo guidance.^[34] During the Cold War from the 1950s to 1960s, the U.S. military adapted this for tactical radios, with early applications in secure voice links during the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis, where the Navy deployed hopping systems to protect ship-to-shore communications against Soviet interception.^[35] By the late 1960s, these techniques were integrated into prototype VHF sets, laying groundwork for anti-jam capabilities that boosted operational resilience in contested environments.^[36] In parallel with hardware innovations, specific systems emerged to support dynamic battlefield needs. During the Vietnam War, single-channel VHF radios like the AN/PRC-25 proved essential for helicopter coordination, enabling real-time voice links between gunships, troop transports, and ground forces over ranges up to 5 miles (8 km), which facilitated airmobile assaults such as those in the Ia Drang Valley in 1965. These radios, often mounted in UH-1 Huey helicopters, supported close air support by allowing forward observers to direct fire on enemy positions via dedicated FM channels, despite challenges like jungle attenuation. Later, in the 1980s, the U.S. Army's Mobile Subscriber Equipment (MSE) represented a major leap, providing a cellular-like tactical network for division-level operations with automatic switching for up to 7,000 subscribers, integrating mobile radio relays and wirelines to handle voice traffic across corps areas.^[37] Doctrinal evolutions emphasized integrating voice with emerging data capabilities to support combined arms maneuvers. The shift began in the 1970s-1980s, as systems like MSE enabled simultaneous voice telephony and low-rate data transmission for teletype and facsimile, allowing commanders to overlay situational reports on voice nets for faster decision-making.^[38] This integration was tested in exercises like REFORGER in Europe, where it facilitated multinational coordination under NATO doctrines. The 1991 Gulf War further validated encrypted VHF systems, such as the Single Channel Ground and Airborne Radio System (SINCGARS), which used frequency hopping and digital encryption to secure voice commands during Operation Desert Storm, enabling coalition forces to maintain uninterrupted links amid Iraqi jamming attempts over 100,000 square miles of theater.^[39] SINCGARS' deployment of over 44,000 radios demonstrated the doctrinal pivot toward resilient, encrypted networks for rapid maneuver warfare.^[40]

Core Technologies

Radio Systems

Radio systems form the backbone of tactical communications, providing reliable voice and limited data transmission in dynamic military environments where line-of-sight or beyond-line-of-sight connectivity is essential. These systems primarily operate in the high frequency (HF) and very high/ultra-high frequency (VHF/UHF) bands, leveraging distinct propagation characteristics to meet varying range requirements. HF radios, operating in the 3-30 MHz range, utilize skywave propagation—reflecting signals off the ionosphere—to achieve beyond-line-of-sight distances exceeding 100 km, making them suitable for long-range tactical links in areas without repeaters or relays.^[41] In contrast, VHF/UHF radios cover 30-3000 MHz and rely on line-of-sight propagation, typically limited to 50 km or less depending on terrain and antenna elevation, but offering higher bandwidth for clearer voice communications over shorter distances.^[42] Key features of these radio systems include power outputs ranging from 1-50 W to balance portability and range, with lower settings for manpack configurations to conserve battery life and higher outputs for vehicle-mounted setups to extend reach. Modulation schemes are predominantly amplitude modulation (AM) or frequency modulation (FM) for voice signals, ensuring robust performance in noisy environments, while antenna designs such as flexible whip antennas enhance portability for dismounted troops. A prominent example is the U.S. Army's Single Channel Ground and Airborne Radio System (SINCGARS), introduced in the 1980s and fielded starting in the late 1980s, which operates in the VHF band (30-88 MHz) with frequency-hopping capabilities to resist jamming and electronic interference.^[43]^[44]^[31] As of 2025, SINCGARS is undergoing replacement by the Combat Net Radio (CNR) system, which began initial unit fielding in early 2025 to provide enhanced capabilities for future operations.^[45] In applications, squad-level manpack radios like the SINCGARS AN/PRC-119 provide short-range communications of 5-10 km in urban terrain, where buildings and obstacles degrade signals, enabling infantry coordination during patrols or assaults. These systems integrate seamlessly with vehicles through configurations such as the AN/VRC-92, which combines multiple radios and amplifiers for enhanced power (up to 50 W) and retransmission, supporting platoon-to-company level nets over 40 km in open areas. Overall, radio systems prioritize ruggedness and simplicity, with whip antennas allowing quick deployment by individual soldiers while maintaining interoperability across echelons.^[43]

Satellite and Data Link Systems

Satellite systems are essential for extending tactical communications beyond line-of-sight (BLOS) limitations, providing global coverage and high-reliability data transmission for military operations in remote or contested environments. These systems leverage geosynchronous constellations to relay voice, video, and data, enabling seamless connectivity for dispersed forces without reliance on terrestrial infrastructure.^[46]^[5] A key example is the Mobile User Objective System (MUOS), a U.S. Department of Defense narrowband satellite network operational since the 2010s, which delivers IP-based services including voice, video, and mission data over the ultra-high frequency (UHF) band via a wideband code division multiple access (WCDMA) waveform.^[46]^[47] The MUOS constellation comprises five geosynchronous satellites supported by four global ground stations, offering ten times the capacity of legacy UHF Follow-On (UFO) systems and accommodating over 67,000 user terminals for mobile users.^[46]^[47] This setup ensures crystal-clear communications in diverse terrains, from urban areas to the Arctic Circle, prioritizing critical calls during high-demand scenarios.^[47] Satellite systems provide advantages such as ubiquitous global reach and resilience against ground-based disruptions, allowing tactical units to maintain command and control across theaters.^[46] However, they face vulnerabilities including susceptibility to anti-satellite (ASAT) weapons that can physically destroy or disable orbiting assets, as well as jamming attacks that interfere with signal transmission.^[48] Data link systems facilitate networked BLOS transmission by interconnecting platforms like aircraft, ships, and ground vehicles for real-time information sharing. Link 16, a NATO-standardized tactical data link developed in the 1970s under STANAG 5516, employs time division multiple access (TDMA) protocol in the L-band to enable secure, jam-resistant exchange of tactical data at aggregate network rates up to 1 Mbps.^[49]^[50]^[51] It supports standardized message formats for targeting data, including GPS coordinates, sensor feeds, and identification information, promoting interoperability among allied forces.^[49]^[50] In operational contexts, satellite and data link systems enable BLOS relay for special operations forces, allowing transmission of mission-critical video and data over bandwidths up to 384 kbps in configured scenarios, such as live feeds from remote assets.^[46] These technologies complement line-of-sight radio systems by providing extended range and networked relay, ensuring persistent connectivity for coordinated strikes and reconnaissance.^[5]

Digital Transformation

Software-Defined Radios

Software-defined radios (SDRs) represent a paradigm shift in tactical communications by implementing key radio functions, such as modulation and demodulation, through software rather than dedicated hardware components, enabling multi-band operation and adaptability across diverse frequencies and protocols.^[52] This approach allows a single SDR platform to support multiple waveforms by reconfiguring software, thereby reducing the need for multiple specialized hardware devices.^[53] A prominent example is the U.S. Department of Defense's Joint Tactical Radio System (JTRS) program, initiated in 1997 and spanning into the 2010s, which developed a family of SDRs capable of supporting over 10 waveforms for interoperability among legacy and emerging systems, despite facing significant cost overruns, restructurings, and partial cancellations that led to successor programs like the Handheld, Manpack, and Small Form Fit (HMS) radios.^[54]^[55] The primary advantages of SDRs in tactical environments include enhanced interoperability through over-the-air or firmware waveform updates, which facilitate seamless communication across allied forces and evolving threats without hardware modifications. For instance, the Harris (now L3Harris) AN/PRC-158 multi-channel manpack radio, introduced in the 2010s, exemplifies this by providing dual-channel support for waveforms like Soldier Radio Waveform (SRW) and SINCGARS while enabling mobile ad-hoc networking (MANET) for self-healing, ad-hoc networks in dynamic battlefield scenarios.^[56] This flexibility not only streamlines logistics but also allows rapid adaptation to new operational requirements, such as integrating beyond-line-of-sight satellite communications.^[57] At the core of SDR implementation lies digital signal processing (DSP) technology, where analog signals are converted to digital form early in the receive chain and processed using programmable DSP cores or general-purpose processors to handle tasks like filtering and error correction.^[58] However, achieving real-time adaptation poses significant challenges, particularly in maintaining sufficient computational power for wideband, high-bit-rate waveforms under power-constrained tactical conditions, often requiring optimized algorithms and hardware accelerators to avoid latency in signal processing.^[59] These hurdles have driven advancements in efficient DSP architectures to ensure reliable performance in resource-limited environments.^[60]

Network-Centric Integration

Network-centric integration in tactical communications represents a paradigm shift toward interconnected systems that enable information dominance on the battlefield. The foundational framework for this integration is C4ISR, which encompasses command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance to facilitate seamless data sharing across military operations.^[61] Developed by the U.S. Department of Defense in the mid-1990s, the C4ISR Architecture Framework provides standardized methodologies for designing interoperable architectures that support joint and coalition forces.^[62] Complementing this is the net-centric warfare doctrine, pioneered by the DoD in the 1990s, which emphasizes leveraging networked information technology to achieve superior situational awareness and decision-making speed.^[63] Key technologies underpinning network-centric integration include IP-based tactical networks, such as the Warfighter Information Network-Tactical (WIN-T), introduced in the early 2000s to deliver brigade-level Ethernet connectivity without relying on fixed infrastructure. WIN-T operates as an "everything over IP" system, enabling secure voice, video, and data transmission for mobile forces.^[64] Additionally, mesh topologies enhance network resilience by allowing nodes—such as radios and sensors—to dynamically reroute communications around disruptions, ensuring continuity in contested environments.^[65] Software-defined radios act as enablers, providing flexible waveforms that integrate into these broader mesh and IP structures. The primary benefits of network-centric integration lie in fostering shared battlespace awareness, where real-time data fusion reduces uncertainty and accelerates command responses. For instance, integrated networks allow drone-generated intelligence feeds to be disseminated instantly to ground troops, enabling coordinated maneuvers without delays from hierarchical reporting.^[66] This shared operational picture not only amplifies force effectiveness but also minimizes collateral risks through precise, synchronized actions.^[67]

Operational Challenges

Security and Electronic Warfare

Tactical communications systems face significant threats from electronic warfare (EW) tactics designed to disrupt, deceive, or locate transmissions, compromising operational effectiveness in contested environments. Jamming involves overwhelming target frequencies with noise to deny reliable communication, often targeting GPS-dependent systems for navigation and timing. Spoofing entails transmitting counterfeit signals to mislead receivers, such as falsifying GPS coordinates to induce erroneous positioning or command decisions. Direction finding techniques enable adversaries to geolocate emitters by analyzing signal characteristics, facilitating targeted strikes or further interception. These threats are exacerbated by advanced EW platforms, such as Russia's Krasukha-4 system, deployed in the 2010s to jam airborne radars, drone links, and supporting tactical communications within a 300 km range, as demonstrated in conflicts like the Ukraine war.^[68]^[69]^[70] In recent years, the Russia-Ukraine conflict has highlighted the role of EW, with systems like Krasukha-4 used to target Ukrainian drones and communications, prompting advancements in counter-EW technologies.^[70] To counter these vulnerabilities, tactical communications incorporate robust defensive measures focused on protection and resilience. Encryption using the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES-256) secures voice and data transmissions against interception, providing a 256-bit key length that resists brute-force attacks and is widely adopted in military radios for classified information. Low-probability-of-intercept (LPI) modes employ spread-spectrum techniques and low-power operations to minimize detectable emissions, reducing the likelihood of enemy detection while maintaining connectivity in mobile ad-hoc networks. Anti-jam antennas, such as controlled reception pattern arrays (CRPAs) with nulling capabilities, dynamically steer nulls toward jamming sources—using adaptive beamforming to suppress interference from specific directions—thereby preserving signal integrity for GPS and radio links.^[71]^[72]^[73] Historical case studies illustrate the evolving impact of these threats and responses. During the 1991 Gulf War, Iraqi forces attempted to jam coalition GPS signals using ground-based transmitters, but the efforts proved largely ineffective due to insufficient power and the nascent anti-jam features in early military receivers, allowing GPS to support precise navigation and munitions delivery for over 100,000 troops. In modern operations, spectrum management has become a critical countermeasure, involving real-time allocation and deconfliction of frequencies to evade EW disruptions, as outlined in U.S. Department of Defense doctrine for electromagnetic spectrum operations (EMSO). This includes tools for monitoring contested spectrum and integrating EW planning to ensure tactical communications remain viable amid adversarial jamming, such as in multi-domain battlespaces.^[74]^[75]

Interoperability Issues

Interoperability issues in tactical communications arise primarily from discrepancies in technical standards among allied forces, hindering seamless data exchange and coordination during multinational operations. Frequency mismatches occur when different nations employ incompatible radio bands or hopping patterns, such as U.S. secure FM systems operating at high frequencies that do not align with allied equipment, leading to communication blackouts in joint maneuvers.^[76] Protocol differences exacerbate these problems, particularly between NATO-standard waveforms like STANAG 5516 for Link 16 tactical data links and non-NATO or U.S.-specific variants such as MIL-STD-6016, which result in procedural incompatibilities and delayed information sharing.^[76] Legacy system silos further compound the issue, as older platforms from various eras—such as pre-digital radios—operate in isolated networks without native compatibility, creating fragmented command structures that isolate units from real-time updates.^[77] To address these challenges, standardization efforts have been pivotal, with NATO developing protocols like STANAG 5066 in the 1990s and ratified in the early 2000s to enable reliable data applications over high-frequency (HF) radio channels across allied forces.^[78] This standard defines interface profiles for error-free communication, allowing diverse HF modems to interoperate without custom modifications, and has been adopted in coalition environments to support messaging and file transfer. Gateways for protocol translation serve as another key solution, acting as intermediaries that convert data formats between disparate systems, such as bridging NATO and U.S. tactical data links in mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs).^[79] These gateways employ key management and discovery mechanisms to securely route information, mitigating silos by dynamically translating waveforms and ensuring encrypted interoperability without exposing sensitive networks.^[79] Real-world examples underscore the operational impacts of these issues in coalition operations. Interoperability challenges, including mismatched implementations of tactical data links like Link 16, have delayed coordination in joint air-ground missions, reducing situational awareness and increasing risks in multinational efforts such as close air support, where protocol differences can lead to fragmented data feeds and require ad-hoc solutions for translation, ultimately complicating unity of effort.^[76] Such challenges highlight how unresolved interoperability can undermine mission effectiveness, even as network-centric integration from prior digital advancements provides a foundation for ongoing improvements.^[80]

Future Directions

Emerging Technologies

Emerging technologies in tactical communications are poised to transform military operations over the next decade by enhancing speed, reliability, and resilience in contested environments. Central to this evolution are 5G tactical networks, which leverage ultra-reliable low-latency communications (URLLC) to achieve end-to-end latencies below 1 millisecond, enabling real-time data exchange for mission-critical applications such as command and control.^[81] These networks support high-bandwidth, secure connectivity in expeditionary settings, with the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) emphasizing private 5G deployments at military installations to meet demanding operational needs.^[82] In November 2024, the DoD released its Private 5G Deployment Strategy, focusing on mission-tailored, secure private 5G networks using Open RAN for accelerated deployment on installations.^[82] For instance, URLLC facilitates instantaneous coordination among forces, reducing response times in dynamic battlespaces compared to legacy systems.^[83] Millimeter-wave (mmWave) technology within 5G further amplifies these capabilities by providing high-bandwidth links in the 26.5–40 GHz spectrum, ideal for short-range, high-data-rate transmissions in tactical scenarios. In the 2020s, mmWave has been trialed for coordinating unmanned aircraft systems, including drone swarms, where it enables low-latency remote control and sensor data sharing over limited distances.^[81] This supports swarm operations by allowing rapid aggregation of intelligence from multiple platforms, enhancing situational awareness without compromising mobility. Broadband satellite communications (SATCOM) advancements, such as adaptations of low-Earth orbit (LEO) constellations like Starlink for military use, complement terrestrial networks by delivering resilient, global coverage with latencies under 20 milliseconds.^[84] In the 2020s, these systems have been integrated into tactical setups for beyond-line-of-sight connectivity, supporting real-time video and data feeds in remote or denied areas. Edge computing emerges as a key enabler, processing data locally at the tactical edge to minimize delays and bandwidth demands on central networks, particularly in disconnected, intermittent, or limited (D-DIL) environments. The DoD's strategy prioritizes deploying edge resources for analytics and AI-driven decisions, integrating with 5G and SATCOM to sustain operations under adversarial threats.^[85] This distributed approach enhances resilience by enabling auto-synchronization of forward-deployed data, crucial for joint all-domain command and control (JADC2). Projections indicate robust growth, with the global tactical communications market expected to reach $32.3 billion by 2034, driven by demand for secure, high-performance systems.^[86] The DoD is investing heavily in resilient 5G through programs like Scalable Interoperable Resilient 5G (SURE 5G), aiming for interoperable networks by 2025 that support allied device integration in multinational operations.^[87]

Integration with Autonomous Systems

Tactical communications play a pivotal role in enabling command and control links for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), such as the MQ-9 Reaper, which relies on Ku-band satellite communications (SATCOM) for beyond-line-of-sight operations. Introduced in the early 2000s, the MQ-9 Reaper's SATCOM system allows operators to transmit commands and receive sensor data over long distances, supporting intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) missions via beyond-line-of-sight SATCOM links. This integration ensures real-time control in contested environments, where line-of-sight links are impractical.^[88]^[89]^[90] In swarm operations, mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs) facilitate coordination among multiple UAVs and robotic assets by dynamically routing data without fixed infrastructure, enhancing resilience in tactical scenarios. MANETs enable UAV swarms to share situational awareness, adjust formations autonomously, and execute collaborative tasks like search-and-rescue or perimeter defense, as demonstrated in military simulations using mesh radio technologies. These networks support high-mobility environments where traditional fixed relays fail, allowing seamless integration of AI-driven assets into broader tactical frameworks.^[91]^[92]^[93] Key challenges in integrating tactical communications with autonomous systems include managing bandwidth demands for AI-processed data, such as high-definition video feeds requiring up to 100 Mbps for reliable transmission in intelligence operations. Solutions involve edge computing to preprocess data onboard, reducing uplink needs, and adaptive modulation techniques to optimize spectrum use. For secure autonomy, systems incorporate offline operational modes where assets execute pre-loaded missions independently, supplemented by burst transmissions—short, high-rate data packets sent via satellite to minimize detection and jamming risks. These bursts, often under 1 second, maintain connectivity while preserving low electromagnetic signatures in denied environments.^[94]^[95]^[96]^[97] Looking to future operations, U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) concepts emphasize human-machine teaming in mixed squads, where soldiers collaborate with autonomous robots and UAVs for enhanced lethality and survivability, as outlined in 2025 Army integration strategies. These squads integrate tactical networks for shared command and control, allowing humans to oversee AI decisions in dynamic battlespaces. Ethical considerations in autonomous command and control focus on preserving human oversight to align with DoD AI principles, ensuring accountability and mitigating risks of unintended escalation in lethal engagements.^[98]^[99]^[100]^[101]

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Below is a merged summary of tactical communications in MCWP 3-40.3, consolidating all information from the provided segments into a single, comprehensive response. To maximize detail and clarity, I’ve organized the key information into a table format (CSV-style) for structured data, followed by a narrative summary that integrates additional context and examples. This ensures all details are retained while maintaining readability.
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[PDF] An Analysis of Degraded Communications in the Army's Future Force
This chapter also devotes some time toward the development of measures of effectiveness—the benchmark that determines levels of success or failure of the FCS.
[9]
[PDF] Handbook for Tactical Operations in the Information Environment
Oct 5, 2021 · This handbook focuses on tactical operations in the information environment (OIE) for maneuver commanders and information personnel, aiming to ...
[10]
[PDF] C2 Failures: A Taxonomy and Analysis - DTIC
Jun 19, 2013 · communication failures than a traditional, tightly-knit hierarchy. ... Cases (1): Military Operations (Cont.) Operation Desert Storm ...
[11]
https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/policy/army/fm/6-02/fm6-02_2014.pdf
[12]
Signal tower | military communications | Britannica
They were used to send military communications: beacon (fires or lanterns) during the night or smoke signals in the daytime; other methods such as raising ...
[13]
The Beacons are Lit! - Age of Invention
Nov 10, 2022 · By the height of the Roman Empire, fire signals had thus been adapted to rapidly transmit complex messages over long distances. But in the ...
[14]
[PDF] 'brass instruments' in the Roman army R Cross Macquarie University
The Roman army used the tuba, cornu, bucina, and lituus for communication, strategic and tactical maneuvers, and direct commands.
[15]
Tools of War- Messenger Pigeons - The Army Historical Foundation
Pigeons were first domesticated well over 5,000 years ago, potentially as long as 10,000 years ago, and used for the purpose of communication by the ancient ...Missing: electronic | Show results with:electronic
[16]
Polybius Recorded the Invention of the Hydraulic Telegraph
One of the earliest Greek writers on the art of war, invented the hydraulic telegraph about 350 BCE. It was a semaphore Offsite Link system used during the ...
[17]
Short History of Telegraphy - Part 1 - Sam Hallas
Mechanical Telegraphs. Chappe Telegraph British military telegraph. Just such a system was invented in the 1790s by Frenchman Claude Chappe - a system of ...
[18]
[PDF] Some Thoughts on Communication on the Battlefield from the British ...
Jun 16, 2019 · On the battlefield a commander either gave his orders in person or sent them through his staff officers / aides-de-camp. The official allowance ...
[19]
1890s – 1930s: Radio | Imagining the Internet | Elon University
In 1895, in his first successful demonstration, Marconi sent a wireless Morse Code message to a source more than a kilometer away. In 1896, he took out a patent ...
[20]
Wireless in Warfare, 1885-1914 - February 1951 Vol. 77/2/576
Radio first made an entrance into the United States Navy in 1899, when, at the request of the Navy Department, Marconi installed some of his equipment for tests ...
[21]
Wireless Communications Tank - Tank Encyclopedia
Nov 1, 2018 · The Wireless Communications tank was the first armored vehicle ever to carry equipment that granted the ability of two-way audio communication via morse-code.
[22]
[PDF] Army radio communication in the Great War - MHS Blogs
The principal method of communication by the British army, up to late 1917, was by cable for speech and Morse transmission. Initially, a single cable was laid ...
[23]
Fort Knox's testing breakthroughs prove invaluable during wartime
Dec 20, 2018 · Formally known as the SCR-300 radio, walkie talkies were designed in 1940 by Galvin Manufacturing, which eventually became known as Motorola. ...
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[PDF] The Technical Services THE SIGNAL CORPS: THE TEST - GovInfo
This book covers the Signal Corps' activities from 1942 to the first half of 1943, focusing on how the Corps met the test of war.
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Closing In: Marines in the Seizure of Iwo Jima (The Bitter End)
Forward observer teams, for example, used the back-pack SCR-610, while companies and platoons favored the SCR-300 "walkie-talkies," or the even lighter SCR-536 ...
[26]
ECOM support to Vietnam | Article | The United States Army
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[27]
[PDF] History of the Squad Radio - DTIC
This report details the history of the squad radio from its inception as an idea to its culmination as an end item.
[28]
Hedy Lamarr's WWII Invention Helped Shape Modern Tech
Apr 23, 2025 · Her creations included a frequency-hopping radio communications device for Allied torpedoes during the war.
[29]
Random Paths to Frequency Hopping | American Scientist
Actress Hedy Lamarr (bottom) and composer George Antheil (top left) patented a form of frequency hopping for secure communication. Popular articles have spread ...
[30]
How Hollywood Star Hedy Lamarr Invented the Tech Behind Wi-Fi
Mar 5, 2024 · It was during World War II, that she developed “frequency hopping,” an invention that's now recognized as a fundamental technology for secure ...
[31]
[PDF] Mobile Subscriber Equipment: The Materiel Fielding of a ... - DTIC
Mobile Subscnber Equipment (MSE) Is a tactical commumcatwns system which provides mobile field radio, telephone, and record traffic for the U S Army at corps ...
[32]
The Story of MSE: One of the First Cellular Networks
Dec 11, 2014 · The US Army's Mobile Subscriber Equipment (MSE) program was a precursor to today's commercial cellular networks.
[33]
[PDF] The Gulf War (Chapter Four: Command, Control, Communications ...
Aug 15, 1990 · RITA-oriented tactical communications systems functioned. They clearly met critical tactical needs, but British and French forces did not ...
[34]
[PDF] The Army's Wireless Communications Programs - GovInfo
Feb 11, 2009 · Note: SINCGARS = Single-Channel Ground and Airborne Radio System. For several reasons, the Army has increased war-related purchases of SINCGARS.
[35]
None
Summary of each segment:
[36]
[PDF] Policy Options for Electromagnetic Spectrum Management in ... - DTIC
May 21, 2020 · Very High Frequency (VHF) 30-300 MHz has a range of 40-50 km and is achieved by a line of sight wave propagation with larger bandwidth ...
[37]
[PDF] Tactical Radios - DTIC
Scope. This publication discusses current voice and data tactical radio systems in common use between the services. It describes recent updates to the ...
[38]
Waveforms - PM Tactical Radios - PEO C3N
The new SINCGARS waveform will include faster frequency hopping capabilities (FH2 and FH3) for use in mounted vehicle radios and the portable Manpack radio ...Missing: 1980s | Show results with:1980s
[39]
MUOS: Satellite Communications System | Lockheed Martin
MUOS is a network of satellites and ground stations providing secure, beyond-line-of-sight UHF communications for mobile forces, using a WCDMA waveform.
[40]
Mobile User Objective System (MUOS)
MUOS is the U.S. Navy's next-gen satellite system providing cell phone-like voice and data communications for U.S. forces worldwide.
[41]
Satellite-based communications security: A survey of threats ...
Oct 24, 2022 · Like any other wireless communication technology, SATCOMs are in principle vulnerable to spoofing attacks. The issue is even more cogent because ...
[42]
Tactical Data Exchange - Link 16 (STANAG 5516 Ed 4:2008)
Link-16 is a high capacity, secure, jam-resistant, nodeless broadcast-type RF data link that uses a Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) protocol. It provides ...
[43]
[PDF] Understanding Link 16 Guidebook
Link 16 is a Tactical Data Link (TDL) established by the NATO Standardization Agreement. (STANAG 5516). It is designed to facilitate the sharing of real-time ...
[44]
What is Link 16? - everything RF
Apr 24, 2023 · Link 16 is an encrypted, jam-resistant Tactical Data Link (TDL) network used by US and NATO Allies to create situational awareness among dispersed battle ...
[45]
Reticulate Micro Demonstrates First-ever Live Video Streaming over ...
Sep 23, 2024 · Reticulate Micro Demonstrates First-ever Live Video Streaming over MUOS Network for a U.S. Army Special Operations Organization.
[46]
[PDF] A Technical Review of Software Defined Radios - IDA
Software Defined Radio. (SDR) offered the promise of not only interoperating with all existing radios, but also allowing those legacy radios to communicate with ...
[47]
[PDF] The Joint Tactical Radio System - DTIC
In 1997 the Department of Defense (DoD) launched the Joint Tactical Radio System (JTRS; pronounced “jitters”) program to provide the military services with ...
[48]
[PDF] DoD and COMMERCIAL ADVANCED WAVEFORM ...
The JTRS program consists of a family of software-defined radios and waveforms designed to be easily interoperable. All JTRS radio hardware is SCA-compatible,.
[49]
AN/PRC-158 Multi-channel Manpack | L3Harris® Fast. Forward.
Get simultaneous voice, video and high-speed data; SRW, ANW2®C, UHF SATCOM, SINCGARS; ad-hoc, self-healing & adaptive networking.
[50]
Software-Defined Radios: Critical for the Military's Future Secure ...
Software-defined radios built with open architectures that allow for rapid adaptation to enemy capabilities and efficient introduction of emerging technologies.
[51]
[PDF] RF and Digital Signal Processing for Software-Defined Radio
This endows the radio with real-time reconfiguration and reprogramming capacity, which allows it to roam over various networks in different geographical ...
[52]
[PDF] Software Defined Radio: Challenges and Opportunities
A fundamental challenge with SDR is how to achieve sufficient computational capacity, in particular for processing wide-band high bit rate waveforms, within ...
[53]
Challenges and Solutions in Implementing Software-Defined Radios ...
Jun 22, 2023 · Signal processing in SDR-based radar systems presents specific challenges that need to be addressed to ensure optimal radar performance. One ...
[54]
SECTION 3 OVERVIEW OF THE FRAMEWORK - C4ISR Integrated ...
The proposed C4ISR Architecture Framework is consistent with the objectives, concepts, and methodologies contained in the TAFIM and provides the necessary ...
[55]
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[56]
[PDF] Network Centric Warfare - dodccrp.org
They do not necessarily represent the views of the Department of Defense, or any other U.S.. Government agency. Cleared for public release; distribution ...
[57]
Army Warfighter Network-Tactical (WIN-T) Theory of Operation
WIN-T is a common user system that provides an Everything over IP (EoIP) capability to the Army warfighter ranging from Company level units to Theater level ...
[58]
Building a Resilient Network to Defeat Advanced Adversaries
Feb 2, 2022 · A mesh network interconnects all tactical radios in range together. Modern tactical radio networks can also effectively link to satellite ...
[59]
[PDF] The Implementation of Network-Centric Warfare - DTIC
Jan 5, 2005 · This increased speed and synchronization directly impacts operations across the battlespace, from support areas through combat zones. In sum, ...
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Network-Centric Warfare: The Future Of Modern Conflict
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Spoofing and jamming: tackling threats to GPS-guided systems
Oct 26, 2016 · Spoofing and jamming: tackling threats to GPS-guided systems. GPS-guided weapons such as cruise missiles and the British Army's Guided ...
[62]
How to deal with GPS jamming and spoofing - CRFS
Direction finding. Direction ... Jamming and spoofing can therefore cause significant disruption and represent a public safety threat.
[63]
The Fall and Rise of Russian Electronic Warfare - IEEE Spectrum
Exploiting Russia's territorial control in the Donbas, EW brigades are using the Krasukha-4 to jam the radars on such Ukrainian drones as the Bayraktar TB2, and ...
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Tactical and Joint Communications | Terminals and Encryptors
Tactical and Joint Communications. In complex tactical and joint operations, secure, reliable and robust communication is essential for mission success.
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The Impact of LPI/LPD Waveforms and Anti-Jam Capabilities on ...
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Anti-jam technology: Demystifying the CRPA - GPS World
Apr 12, 2017 · A CRPA is attractive, because it doesn't require you to make any changes to the GPS receiver itself: It simply replaces the existing antenna.Missing: tactical encryption AES- 256 LPI modes
[67]
GPS and the World's First "Space War" | Scientific American
Feb 8, 2016 · Satellite-based navigation proved its mettle during the 1991 Persian Gulf War, leading to what some say is an overdependence on “jammable” GPS technology.
[68]
The problem with GPS in the modern military - Army Technology
Jun 11, 2018 · The GPS system was used in combat for the first time during Operation Desert Storm; the earliest indications of its susceptibility to jamming ...
[69]
Interoperability: A Continuing Challenge in Coalition Air Operations
RAND undertook research to help the Air Force identify potential interoperability problems that may arise in coalition air operations.
[70]
Overcoming Joint Interoperability Challenges - NDU Press
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stanag 5066 (ver. 1.2), nato standardization agreement - EverySpec
The aim of this agreement is to define the functions and interfaces required for networked, error-free communication over maritime HF radio channels.
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[73]
Enhancing interoperability: the foundation for effective NATO ...
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[74]
Opportunities and Risks of 5G Military Use in Europe
### Summary of 5G URLLC Latency and mmWave for Military Applications
[75]
[PDF] DoD Private 5G Deployment Strategy
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[76]
5G & Edge Computing: The Future of the DoD and JADC2 - ALSSA
Jul 1, 2023 · The Department of Defense (DoD) describes the importance of integrating 5G and edge computing into military operations, primarily for its higher performance.
[77]
Starlink's rise in the defense market forces industry to adapt
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[78]
[PDF] DOD Outside the Continental United States Cloud Strategy
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[79]
Tactical Communication Market Share | Industry Statistics - 2034
The global tactical communication market is projected to reach US$ 32.3 billion by 2034, with North America at 24.6% share, and land-based systems at 36%.
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MQ-9 Reaper > Air Force > Fact Sheet Display - AF.mil
The MQ-9 Reaper is employed primarily as an intelligence-collection asset and secondarily against dynamic execution targets.,
[82]
MQ-9A Reaper - NAVAIR
Ku-Band beyond line-of-sight(BLOS)/SATCOM data link control; Over 90% system operational availability; C-130 transportable (or self-deploys).
[83]
[PDF] MQ-9 Reaper Armed Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS)
- The GCS commands the MQ‑9 RPA for launch, recovery, and mission control of sensors and weapons. RPA launch and recovery operations use C‑band line‑of‑sight ...Missing: SATCOM tactical<|control11|><|separator|>
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UAV swarms: research, challenges, and future directions
Jan 28, 2025 · This paper provides a comprehensive exploration of UAV swarm infrastructure, recent research advancements, and diverse applications.
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UGV And UAV Communication Systems | Silvus MANET Radios
Silvus has developed a versatile datalink that delivers unprecedented throughput, range and robustness to UGV and UAV communication scenarios.
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(PDF) Review of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Swarm Communication ...
Oct 16, 2025 · The communication architecture defines how information is exchanged between UAVs or between UAVs and the central control center. Routing ...
[87]
[PDF] Usage of 5G in UAV Missions for ISR - DTIC
Per 3GPP, the requirement for user plane latency is 4 ms for eMBB, discussed later in this chapter. The user experienced data rate requirement is 100 Mbps for ...
[88]
Defense Tactical Video Data Link Market Size, Share & 2030 Growth ...
Sep 22, 2025 · High-rate links over 100 Mbps, however, are rising at 11.40% CAGR as forces integrate 360-degree cameras, multi-spectral sensors, and AI ...
[89]
RockSTAR Burst | Zero RF Footprint For Tactical Communications
RockSTAR Burst is a ruggedized, satellite-enabled 'pager' that has zero RF footprint and secure communications. Lightweight, waterproof and reliable.
[90]
Deep Signal Capture - Spectrum Dominance & the US Army Field ...
Using data-burst transmissions. Burst transmissions involve compressing the data and broadcasting at a high data signaling rate over a short time period in an ...
[91]
[PDF] Volume I, Insights on Human-Machine Integration for the U.S. Army
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[92]
Future of human-machine integration must bring right mix of robotic ...
As ground robotics and autonomy are expected to play a critical role in future warfare, four Army leaders will jump start AUSA ...
[93]
[PDF] Implementing Responsible Artificial Intelligence in the Department of ...
May 27, 2021 · The DoD AI Ethical Principles are: 1. Responsible: DoD personnel will exercise appropriate levels of judgment and care, while remaining ...
[94]
[PDF] DoD Directive 3000.09, "Autonomy in Weapon Systems
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