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Data link

A data link is a means of connecting one location to another for the purpose of transmitting and receiving digital information. It encompasses the communications channel, the interface, and the protocols used to form data into frames or packets for reliable transfer between directly connected nodes.^[1] In the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model, the data link layer (layer 2) provides the functional and procedural means to manage this transfer between adjacent network entities, detecting and possibly correcting errors that occur in the physical layer. It facilitates node-to-node delivery of data over a single communication channel, ensuring reliable and efficient communication between devices, such as those on a local area network (LAN). This layer receives data units from the network layer above and transforms them into frames suitable for transmission across the physical medium below, handling tasks like framing, synchronization, and medium access control.^[2]^[3] Key functions of the data link layer include error detection (and correction where implemented) to maintain data integrity, flow control to manage the rate of data transmission and prevent overwhelming the receiver, and addressing to identify specific devices. It supports both connection-oriented and connectionless modes of operation, allowing for the establishment, maintenance, and release of data-link connections when needed. In shared network environments, the layer employs protocols for medium access control to resolve contention among multiple devices attempting to transmit simultaneously, such as through carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD).^[2]^[4] In the IEEE 802 standards family, which implements aspects of the data link for LANs and metropolitan area networks (MANs), the layer is divided into two sublayers: the Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer, which provides multiplexing and flow/error control services to the network layer, and the Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer, which manages access to the physical transmission medium and handles framing specific to the network type.^[5] Prominent protocols operating at this layer include Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) for wired LANs, which uses MAC addresses for device identification and supports frame transmission up to 1500 bytes in standard frames; Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) for wireless networks, incorporating additional security and contention resolution mechanisms; Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) for direct connections like dial-up or serial links; and High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) for synchronous data transfer in wide area networks.^[6]^[7] These protocols ensure interoperability across diverse physical media, from twisted-pair copper to optical fiber and radio waves, forming the foundation for reliable local and point-to-point networking.^[8]

Overview

Definition

In the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, the data link layer is defined as the second layer (Layer 2), which provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between adjacent network nodes in a multipoint or point-to-point data communications network. This layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of data frames between directly connected devices, ensuring that data is reliably exchanged across a single physical link.^[9] Unlike the physical layer (Layer 1), which deals with the raw transmission of individual bits over a physical medium without regard to their meaning or structure, the data link layer organizes these bits into structured frames, adding necessary headers and trailers to enable proper interpretation and delivery.^[2] Key characteristics of the data link layer include providing reliability over potentially unreliable physical media by incorporating mechanisms for error detection and correction on a hop-by-hop basis, rather than end-to-end.^[10] It employs addressing through Media Access Control (MAC) addresses, which are unique hardware identifiers assigned to network interfaces, to specify the source and destination of frames within a local network segment.^[11] This hop-by-hop approach allows the data link layer to manage transmission errors and retransmissions locally between directly connected nodes, abstracting the complexities of the physical medium from higher layers.^[12] The basic components of a data link include the sender (transmitting node), the receiver (receiving node), the physical medium (such as cable or wireless channel) connecting them, and the protocol rules governing frame exchange, synchronization, and acknowledgment processes. These elements work together to establish a logical communication channel that supports efficient and ordered data transfer, forming the foundation for higher-layer networking functions.^[2]

Historical Development

The concept of the data link layer emerged in the 1960s through projects like the ARPANET, funded by the U.S. Department of Defense's Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), where data links provided the foundational mechanisms for reliable packet switching across early network nodes. The ARPANET's initial deployment in 1969 connected four host computers, enabling the transmission of data packets over telephone lines between institutions such as UCLA and the Stanford Research Institute, marking the first operational packet-switched network that relied on data link protocols for error-free delivery between adjacent nodes.^[13] In the 1970s, efforts toward standardization accelerated with the development of High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), proposed as a bit-oriented synchronous protocol to unify data transmission procedures across diverse systems.^[14] HDLC, evolving from IBM's Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC) and formalized in ISO standards like ISO 3309 in 1979, became a cornerstone for bit-synchronous communication in both point-to-point and multipoint configurations, influencing subsequent protocols for reliable link-level operations.^[15] The 1980s and 1990s saw significant advancements tailored to local and wide area networks, including the rise of Ethernet standardized as IEEE 802.3 in 1983, which defined carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) for shared-medium LANs operating at 10 Mbps.^[16] Complementing this, the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) emerged in the late 1980s as a successor to the Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP), with RFC 1134 published in 1989 and the full standard in RFC 1661 by 1994, enabling robust serial connections for WANs with features like authentication and multilink support.^[17] From the 2000s onward, data link technologies integrated with wireless and high-speed wired standards, such as IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi), which saw amendments like 802.11g in 2003 for 54 Mbps operation at 2.4 GHz, driving widespread adoption in consumer and enterprise networks.^[18] Concurrently, 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10GBASE) was ratified under IEEE 802.3ae in 2002, extending Ethernet's scalability to fiber-optic backbones at 10 Gbps for data centers and metropolitan networks.^[19] Later developments include 400 Gigabit Ethernet under IEEE 802.3bs in 2017, supporting ultra-high-speed links up to 400 Gbps over fiber for data centers, as well as Wi-Fi 6 (IEEE 802.11ax) ratified in 2020 for improved efficiency in dense environments and Wi-Fi 7 (IEEE 802.11be) published in 2025, enabling multi-gigabit wireless speeds across 2.4, 5, and 6 GHz bands.^[20]^[21]^[22] These evolutions were bolstered by regulatory bodies like the International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) and the IEEE, which developed complementary standards—such as ITU-T's X-series for data networks and IEEE's 802 family—to ensure global interoperability and harmonized link-layer behaviors across telecommunications infrastructures.^[23]

Functions

Framing and Synchronization

In the data link layer, framing involves encapsulating packets from the network layer into structured frames suitable for transmission over a physical medium. This process adds a header containing addressing and control information, the payload consisting of the original network layer data, and a trailer typically including a checksum for integrity verification. The header enables the receiver to identify the destination and manage frame handling, while the trailer supports basic error checking, as detailed further in the error detection section. This encapsulation ensures reliable delivery across the link by delineating the boundaries of each unit of data.^[24] A generic data link frame structure typically includes start and end flags to mark the frame boundaries, a length field to indicate the payload size, and sequence numbers to maintain order in multi-frame transmissions. For instance, the start flag is often a specific bit pattern like 01111110 in bit-oriented protocols, followed by the header, payload, and end flag, with the trailer appended last. This format allows for variable-length payloads, accommodating up to the maximum transmission unit (MTU) limits defined by the underlying technology, such as 1500 bytes in standard Ethernet frames per IEEE 802.3 specifications. Sequence numbers help in reassembling frames correctly, especially in scenarios involving retransmissions.^[25]^[26] Synchronization techniques are essential to distinguish control information from payload data and maintain timing during transmission. In synchronous protocols like High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC), bit stuffing is employed: after every five consecutive 1s in the data, a 0 is inserted by the sender to prevent accidental flag emulation, and the receiver removes it upon detection. This method, standardized in ISO/IEC 13239, ensures transparent data transmission without misinterpreting payload bits as delimiters. For asynchronous links, character stuffing (or byte stuffing) is used, where an escape character precedes any data byte matching the flag or escape pattern, as seen in protocols operating over octet-oriented channels. These approaches address key challenges, such as reliably separating data from control signals in noisy environments and handling variable payloads without exceeding link MTU constraints, thereby preventing frame fragmentation or loss.^[27]^[24]

Error Detection and Control

Transmission errors at the data link layer primarily originate from noise, interference, or signal distortion occurring on the physical medium, which can alter bits during propagation and lead to corrupted frames.^[28] These impairments introduce random bit flips or burst errors, necessitating robust mechanisms to ensure data integrity without relying on higher-layer interventions. Error detection techniques append redundant bits to the data for verification. The simplest method employs parity bits, where an additional bit is added to achieve even or odd parity across the data block; this detects odd numbers of bit errors, such as single-bit flips, but fails for even-numbered errors.^[29] For enhanced reliability, Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) uses polynomial division over the data treated as a large binary number. A common implementation is CRC-32, defined by the polynomial x^{32} + x^{26} + x^{23} + x^{22} + x^{16} + x^{12} + x^{11} + x^{10} + x^{8} + x^{7} + x^{5} + x^{4} + x^{2} + x + 1, which generates a 32-bit checksum appended to the frame (typically in the trailer for post-framing integrity checks).^[30] This approach detects all burst errors up to 32 bits in length and multiple independent errors with high probability.^[30] Upon detecting an error, control strategies trigger recovery. Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ) protocols rely on acknowledgments (ACKs) from the receiver to confirm successful reception, prompting retransmission of erroneous frames. In Stop-and-Wait ARQ, the sender transmits one frame and awaits an ACK before sending the next, minimizing complexity but reducing efficiency due to idle waiting periods.^[31] Go-Back-N ARQ improves throughput by allowing the sender to transmit up to N unacknowledged frames in a window; if an error occurs, all frames from the errored one onward are retransmitted, requiring the receiver to discard out-of-order arrivals.^[31] These methods ensure reliable delivery at the cost of potential delays. For scenarios where retransmissions are undesirable, such as real-time links, Forward Error Correction (FEC) enables direct correction without feedback. Hamming codes exemplify this by organizing parity bits to identify and fix single-bit errors through syndrome calculation. In the (7,4) Hamming code, 4 data bits are augmented with 3 parity bits across 7 positions (parity at powers of 2: 1, 2, 4), where each parity bit checks a unique subset of positions via a parity-check matrix; the syndrome reveals the error position for correction.^[32] Key trade-offs in these mechanisms balance detection accuracy against overhead. Parity bits introduce minimal (1-bit) redundancy but offer limited protection, while CRC provides superior burst error detection up to the polynomial degree at the expense of 32 bits per frame, impacting bandwidth efficiency in high-error environments.^[30] ARQ and FEC further trade latency and complexity for reliability, with ARQ suiting variable channels and FEC favoring low-latency applications.^[31]

Flow and Link Management

Flow control in the data link layer ensures efficient data transmission by regulating the rate at which frames are sent and received, preventing buffer overflows and optimizing link utilization. A key mechanism is the sliding window protocol, which allows a sender to transmit multiple frames without waiting for individual acknowledgments, up to a predefined window size W that represents the number of unacknowledged frames permitted.^[33] In this approach, each frame is assigned a sequence number modulo some value, and the receiver sends cumulative acknowledgments to advance the window, enabling pipelined transmission over unreliable links.^[33] Receivers can advertise available buffer space through window scaling options, dynamically adjusting W to match capacity and avoid congestion.^[34] Link management encompasses the processes of establishing, maintaining, and terminating data link connections to ensure reliable communication. Establishment typically involves a handshake using control packets, such as in the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), where the Link Control Protocol (LCP) negotiates configuration options like maximum receive unit (MRU) and compression via Configure-Request, Configure-Ack, Configure-Nak, and Configure-Reject packets during the Link Establishment phase.^[35] Once established, maintenance is achieved through periodic keepalive packets or echo requests to monitor link quality and detect failures, with LCP providing ongoing configuration integrity checks.^[35] Teardown occurs via Terminate-Request and Terminate-Ack packets, triggered by errors, timeouts (default restart timer of 3 seconds), or administrative actions, closing the link gracefully.^[35] Congestion avoidance at the data link layer mitigates overload by signaling backpressure to upstream devices, particularly in full-duplex environments. In Ethernet, IEEE 802.3x defines pause frames as a flow control mechanism, where a receiving device detects buffer congestion and transmits a MAC control frame with a pause_time parameter (in slot times) to instruct the sender to halt transmission for the specified duration, preventing frame loss without higher-layer intervention.^[36] These frames use a multicast destination address (01-80-C2-00-00-01) and opcode 0x0001, and can be extended or canceled by subsequent pause frames, applying symmetrically in switch-to-switch links or asymmetrically for end stations.^[36] This link-level approach operates at speeds like 10/100/1000 Mb/s but is not intended for end-to-end congestion control. Data link operations distinguish between half-duplex and full-duplex modes, impacting management strategies. In half-duplex shared media, Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) manages access by having stations listen before transmitting and detect collisions, backing off exponentially if conflicts occur, as specified in IEEE 802.3 for shared collision domains.^[37] Full-duplex mode, enabled by dedicated point-to-point links and switching, eliminates collisions by allowing simultaneous send and receive without CSMA/CD, simplifying management and doubling effective throughput in modern Ethernet implementations.^[37] Key performance metrics for evaluating flow and link management include throughput and goodput, which quantify data transfer efficiency. Throughput measures the total rate of bits transmitted per second across the link, encompassing all data including protocol overhead and retransmissions due to errors.^[38] Goodput, in contrast, represents the rate of useful payload data successfully delivered after deducting overhead (e.g., Ethernet headers) and accounting for losses, always lower than throughput and critical for assessing actual application performance in the presence of data link inefficiencies.^[38]

Types

Point-to-Point Links

A point-to-point link establishes a direct, dedicated communication path between exactly two nodes, utilizing an exclusive transmission medium that precludes interference or contention from additional devices. This configuration ensures that the entire bandwidth is reserved for the communicating pair, whether over wired connections like serial cables or leased lines, or wireless mediums in certain implementations.^[39]^[40] The primary advantages of point-to-point links include simplified protocol design, as there is no need for medium access control mechanisms to manage shared resources; enhanced reliability through consistent, uncontended access to bandwidth; and standard support for full-duplex operation, which permits simultaneous transmission and reception of data in both directions without collision risks. These attributes make point-to-point links particularly suitable for applications requiring predictable performance and security, such as private data transfers between sites.^[41]^[42]^[43] Representative examples include the RS-232 standard, which facilitates short-distance serial communication up to 15 meters at speeds of 20 kbps, commonly used for connecting computers to peripherals. In telephony, T1 lines provide dedicated point-to-point connectivity at 1.544 Mbps in North America, while E1 lines offer 2.048 Mbps in Europe and other regions, both aggregating multiple voice or data channels over copper or fiber.^[44]^[45] Point-to-point links operate in either synchronous or asynchronous modes. Synchronous configurations, such as SONET (Synchronous Optical Networking), employ a shared clock signal to align data transmission, enabling high-speed, precise multiplexing of bit streams over optical fiber for backbone networks. In contrast, asynchronous setups, exemplified by UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver-Transmitter), use start and stop bits to frame data without a common clock, suiting simpler, lower-speed serial interfaces. The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is well-suited for encapsulating data over such links due to its support for various physical media.^[46]^[47]^[48] Common use cases encompass wide area network (WAN) connections, including legacy dial-up modems that establish temporary point-to-point sessions over telephone lines for remote access, and modern fiber optic point-to-point deployments that deliver high-bandwidth, private links between data centers or branch offices.^[49]^[50]

Multipoint Links

Multipoint links refer to data link configurations where three or more nodes share a common transmission medium, necessitating coordinated access mechanisms to prevent simultaneous transmissions that could lead to collisions. Unlike point-to-point links, these setups treat the medium as a broadcast channel accessible by multiple stations, enabling efficient resource sharing but requiring arbitration to maintain orderly communication. Common implementations include bus topologies, where all devices connect to a single backbone cable acting as a shared multipoint medium, and ring topologies, which form a closed loop of serial point-to-point connections that logically create a shared circulating path for data.^[51] Access methods in multipoint links primarily rely on protocols that regulate medium usage to avoid conflicts. Token passing, as exemplified in the IEEE 802.5 Token Ring standard, involves a special control frame (token) that circulates the ring; a station seizes the token to transmit, appending its data frame before releasing a new token only after the frame returns, ensuring deterministic access without collisions. In contrast, Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) variants, such as CSMA/CD used in Ethernet networks, allow stations to sense the medium for idleness before transmitting; if a collision is detected during transmission, stations issue a jam signal and employ a truncated binary exponential backoff algorithm to retry after random delays. Star topologies implemented with hubs (legacy multiport repeaters) also function as multipoint equivalents by centralizing connections to create a shared collision domain, while wireless ad-hoc networks extend this concept to radio-based shared media.^[52]^[53]^[54]^[51] Key challenges in multipoint links include collision detection and the hidden terminal problem, particularly in wireless environments where nodes may not detect each other's transmissions due to signal range limitations, leading to interference at the intended receiver. To mitigate the hidden terminal issue, the IEEE 802.11 standard incorporates the Request-to-Send/Clear-to-Send (RTS/CTS) mechanism, a four-way handshake where the sender broadcasts an RTS frame to reserve the medium, the receiver responds with CTS to acknowledge and silence nearby nodes, and transmission proceeds only upon mutual confirmation, reducing collision probability through virtual carrier sensing. Bandwidth sharing in these links contrasts deterministic approaches like Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA), which allocates fixed time slots to nodes for guaranteed access, with statistical multiplexing, which dynamically assigns resources based on traffic demand to achieve higher efficiency in variable-load scenarios.^[55]^[56]

Protocols

Data Link Layer Protocols

Data link layer protocols establish reliable communication over physical links by defining frame structures, error handling, and control mechanisms. Synchronous protocols, such as High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC), operate on a bit-oriented basis, using flags for framing to delineate data boundaries in continuous bit streams.^[57] HDLC supports Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ) for error recovery, enabling retransmission of corrupted frames in connection-oriented modes.^[57] A key derivative, Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC), was developed by IBM for its Systems Network Architecture, adapting HDLC principles for proprietary environments while maintaining bit-oriented synchronization.^[58] Asynchronous protocols, in contrast, employ byte-oriented framing to accommodate variable-speed links without strict clocking. The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), standardized by the IETF, uses character stuffing for transparency and includes the Link Control Protocol (LCP) to negotiate parameters like maximum receive unit and authentication methods, such as Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP).^[35] PPP's predecessor, Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP), provided basic IP encapsulation over serial lines but lacked negotiation and error detection features, limiting its robustness.^[59] In protocol stack integration, the Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer, defined in IEEE 802.2, enables multiplexing of multiple network protocols over a single Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer by assigning service access points for demultiplexing incoming frames.^[60] This separation allows upper-layer protocols to interact uniformly with diverse MAC implementations, such as those in local area networks. Standardization efforts are led by bodies like the IETF for wide-area network (WAN) protocols, exemplified by RFC 1661 for PPP, which outlines encapsulation and link establishment procedures.^[35] The ITU-T standardizes protocols like Link Access Procedure, Balanced (LAPB) for X.25 networks, providing balanced mode operations for error-free frame delivery in packet-switched environments.^[61] The evolution of these protocols has shifted from bit-synchronous designs, like early HDLC variants requiring precise clock alignment, to byte-oriented approaches in protocols such as PPP, offering greater flexibility for integration with IP-based networks through simpler asynchronous handling and extensible options.^[25]

Common Implementations

Ethernet, standardized as IEEE 802.3, serves as a foundational wired data link technology for local area networks (LANs). Its frame format begins with an 8-byte preamble consisting of seven alternating 1s and 0s followed by a start frame delimiter (SFD) byte of 10101011, enabling receiver synchronization. This is followed by 6-byte destination and source MAC addresses, a 2-byte length or type field indicating payload size or upper-layer protocol, the variable-length data payload (up to 1500 bytes in standard frames), and a 4-byte frame check sequence (FCS) using CRC-32 for error detection. Speeds have evolved from the original 10 Mbps in 1983 to modern variants reaching 800 Gbps (as of 2025).^[62] Originally employing carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) for half-duplex shared media, Ethernet now predominantly uses full-duplex operation over switched networks, eliminating collisions and enabling simultaneous bidirectional transmission. Wi-Fi, governed by the IEEE 802.11 family of standards, provides wireless data link connectivity in personal and enterprise environments. The medium access control (MAC) layer defines three primary frame types: data frames for payload transmission, control frames such as acknowledgments and request-to-send/clear-to-send for channel coordination, and management frames for association, authentication, and beaconing to maintain network topology. Contention-based access occurs through the distributed coordination function (DCF), which implements carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA), where stations listen before transmitting and use exponential backoff after detected collisions via missing acknowledgments. Quality of service (QoS) enhancements in IEEE 802.11e introduce the hybrid coordination function (HCF) with enhanced distributed channel access (EDCA), prioritizing traffic classes like voice and video through adjustable contention parameters. Bluetooth, originally formalized in IEEE 802.15.1 but now managed by the Bluetooth SIG (Core Specification 6.2 as of November 2025), enables short-range wireless personal area networks (PANs) with low power consumption. It organizes devices into a piconet topology, where one master coordinates up to seven active slaves using time-division duplexing on the 2.4 GHz ISM band. To mitigate interference, Bluetooth employs adaptive frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), pseudorandomly selecting from 79 channels at 1 MHz spacing and hopping up to 1600 times per second (in Classic mode). Link types include asynchronous connection-less (ACL) for Classic mode supporting up to ~2 Mbps effective and synchronous connection-oriented (SCO/eSCO) for voice links at 64 kbps with reserved bandwidth; Low Energy (LE) mode supports data rates up to 2 Mbps.^[63] Fiber Channel, an ANSI-standardized protocol for high-speed storage area networks (SANs), operates at the data link layer to interconnect servers, storage devices, and switches. Earlier generations use 8b/10b encoding to ensure DC balance and clock recovery; later generations employ 64b/66b or PAM4 encoding, transmitting serialized data over fiber optic or copper media at rates from 1 Gbps to 128 Gbps in the latest generations.^[64] The FC-4 layer provides mapping for upper-layer protocols such as SCSI for block storage or IP for networking, encapsulating them into Fibre Channel frames for reliable delivery. Common implementations like Ethernet exhibit low latency, typically under 1 ms in switched Gigabit Ethernet environments, facilitating real-time applications. Scalability is enhanced by IEEE 802.1Q VLAN tagging, which partitions networks into up to 4096 virtual LANs, supporting thousands of nodes while maintaining broadcast domain isolation and traffic prioritization.

Applications

Terrestrial Networking

In terrestrial networking, the data link layer facilitates reliable communication in ground-based wired and short-range wireless environments, such as local area networks (LANs) in office settings. Ethernet serves as a primary protocol for LAN applications, enabling efficient file sharing among connected devices by providing high-speed, collision-free transmission through full-duplex operations.^[65] Switches perform bridging functions at the data link layer, isolating network segments to reduce broadcast domains and enhance performance by forwarding frames only to intended ports based on MAC addresses.^[66] For wide area network (WAN) extensions in carrier environments, Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) operates over Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) infrastructures, allowing efficient transport of data link frames across long distances. MPLS employs label switching at what is often termed Layer 2.5, where labels are attached to packets at the edge and swapped hop-by-hop to forward traffic without relying on IP routing headers, thus optimizing bandwidth in core networks.^[67] In home networking scenarios, Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) modems utilize Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE) for user authentication, encapsulating PPP frames within Ethernet to establish secure sessions with service providers via RADIUS attributes. Powerline adapters, standardized under IEEE 1901, enable data link communication over existing electrical wiring, transmitting broadband signals through home circuits to connect devices without additional cabling while supporting multimedia and smart energy applications.^[68] Security in terrestrial data links is bolstered by standards like IEEE 802.1X, which implements port-based access control to authenticate devices before granting network access, restricting unauthorized traffic at the physical port level.^[69] Complementing this, MACsec (IEEE 802.1AE) provides hop-by-hop link encryption, securing Ethernet frames with cryptographic integrity and confidentiality to protect against eavesdropping and tampering in fixed infrastructures.^[70] Scalability of data link technologies in terrestrial setups ranges from small workgroups using Gigabit Ethernet switches, which deliver 1 Gbps speeds for basic office connectivity with minimal latency, to large-scale data centers employing InfiniBand for low-latency clustering.^[71] InfiniBand supports high-bandwidth, lossless interconnects in clustered environments, achieving sub-microsecond latencies essential for high-performance computing tasks.^[72]

Aviation and Aerospace

In aviation, data link technologies enable critical communications between aircraft and ground stations, as well as among aircraft, in environments demanding high reliability and minimal voice interference. The Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS), introduced in 1978 by Aeronautical Radio, Incorporated (ARINC), serves as a foundational digital data link for transmitting short text messages using VHF (around 130 MHz), HF (2-30 MHz), and satellite links.^[73]^[74] ACARS supports automated position reporting through integration with Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Contract (ADS-C) and facilitates maintenance data exchange, such as engine performance logs and fault diagnostics, thereby reducing pilot workload and enhancing operational efficiency.^[74] Controller-Pilot Data Link Communications (CPDLC) builds on ACARS infrastructure to provide structured, text-based exchanges between air traffic controllers and pilots, alleviating voice radio congestion in high-density airspace. Operating over IP-based Aeronautical Telecommunication Network (ATN) protocols via VHF data link Mode 2 or satellite, CPDLC adheres to ARINC 622 standards, which define convergence functions for bit-oriented air traffic services on ACARS networks.^[75]^[76] This system enables clearances, requests, and acknowledgments, such as altitude changes or route amendments, with predefined message sets that minimize miscommunication errors.^[77] Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) enhances situational awareness by broadcasting real-time aircraft position, velocity, and identification data derived from GNSS. Utilizing a 1090 MHz extended squitter on Mode S transponders, ADS-B integrates seamlessly with existing secondary surveillance radar systems, allowing continuous transmission without interrogation and supporting collision avoidance through direct aircraft-to-aircraft links.^[78] This 1090ES implementation meets FAA performance requirements under Technical Standard Order TSO-C166b, enabling air traffic management to track aircraft more precisely in non-radar areas.^[78] In aerospace applications, particularly satellite-to-ground links, the Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems (CCSDS) protocols address unique propagation issues like Doppler shifts and long propagation delays. CCSDS 401.0-B recommends radio frequency and modulation systems that accommodate Doppler shifts up to ±4 MHz in Ka-band (26-32 GHz) links, using coherent turnaround frequency ratios and stable oscillators (Allan deviation per specified curves) to maintain signal lock during high-velocity passes.^[79] These protocols, including PCM/PSK/PM modulation with subcarrier options, ensure reliable telemetry and ranging over distances causing delays of seconds to minutes, as seen in deep space missions, by prioritizing phase stability and bandwidth efficiency.^[79] Aviation and aerospace data links face stringent challenges, including achieving 99.999% availability to support safety-critical operations and latencies under 1 second for time-sensitive surveillance updates.^[80] VHF and HF links are susceptible to interference from weather phenomena like ionospheric disturbances and terrain obstructions, which can degrade signal-to-noise ratios and require robust error control mechanisms for continuity.^[74] In space environments, additional hurdles involve compensating for extreme Doppler rates (up to 50 kHz/s in low Earth orbit) and propagation delays exceeding 500 ms one-way, necessitating adaptive modulation and high oscillator stability to prevent data loss.^[79]

Wireless and Mobile Systems

In wireless and mobile systems, data links operate over dynamic channels prone to fading, interference, and mobility-induced disruptions, necessitating robust framing, error correction, and handover mechanisms to maintain reliable connectivity. In cellular networks such as LTE and 5G NR, the air interface relies on the Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP) and Radio Link Control (RLC) layers at the data link sublayer for these functions. The PDCP layer in LTE handles header compression using Robust Header Compression (ROHC), ciphering, and integrity protection of user plane and control plane data, while passing PDUs to the RLC layer.^[81] The RLC layer supports transfer of upper-layer PDUs, segmentation and reassembly for efficient transmission over variable radio conditions, and error correction via Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ) in acknowledged mode (AM) to retransmit lost segments, ensuring reliable delivery in the presence of packet errors.^[82] In 5G NR, the PDCP layer extends these capabilities with support for dual connectivity and split bearers, associating each PDCP entity with up to two RLC entities for improved robustness during mobility, while the RLC layer maintains similar segmentation, reassembly, and ARQ functions tailored to NR's flexible numerology.^[83]^[84] Handover procedures in these systems enable seamless transitions between base stations as mobile devices move, minimizing data interruption. In 5G NR, Dual Active Protocol Stack (DAPS) handover allows the user equipment (UE) to maintain the source base station connection post-handover command, enabling continued uplink transmission from the source and downlink reception until the target link is established, which reduces interruption time to near zero for supported bearers. This contrasts with traditional break-before-make handovers in LTE, where the UE detaches from the source eNodeB before attaching to the target, relying on PDCP status reporting and RLC re-establishment to recover lost packets. WiMAX, based on the IEEE 802.16 standard, addresses broadband wireless access in mobile environments through Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) in the physical layer to mitigate multipath fading and inter-symbol interference, dividing the channel into subcarriers for robust signal propagation over non-line-of-sight paths.^[85] At the MAC layer, WiMAX employs connection-oriented scheduling to provision Quality of Service (QoS), classifying traffic into service classes such as unsolicited grant service (UGS) for constant bit rate applications and real-time polling service (rtPS) for variable rate streams, with the base station dynamically allocating bandwidth via orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA) maps to meet latency and throughput guarantees.^[85] For low-power Internet of Things (IoT) applications, Zigbee builds on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard to form mesh topologies that extend range and reliability in sensor networks through multi-hop routing, where devices act as routers to relay data while conserving energy. The medium access control uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA-CA) in unslotted mode for low-duty-cycle operations, where nodes perform clear channel assessments and random backoffs before transmitting, minimizing collisions and enabling battery lives of years in dense deployments. Mobility management in these systems incorporates association procedures to handle device transitions. In Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11), initial association establishes a link between a station and access point via authentication and association request/response frames, while reassociation allows a mobile station to transfer its existing association to a new access point without full re-authentication, supporting fast roaming and maintaining context like security keys. In cellular systems, paging mechanisms enhance idle-mode power saving by allowing UEs to enter discontinuous reception (DRX) cycles, monitoring the paging channel only during assigned occasions to detect incoming calls or data, with the network broadcasting paging messages across tracking areas to locate idle UEs without continuous attachment. Interference handling in mobile wireless data links employs frequency reuse patterns and advanced beamforming to optimize spectrum efficiency. In 5G mmWave bands, massive MIMO beamforming directs narrow beams toward users using precoding matrices, suppressing inter-user and inter-cell interference while enabling dense frequency reuse factors close to 1 in urban deployments. This directional transmission, combined with coordinated multipoint (CoMP) techniques, mitigates path loss and blockage in high-mobility scenarios, achieving up to 10-20 dB interference reduction compared to omnidirectional antennas.

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Mar 21, 2025 · It describes the reference models for the IEEE 802 standards and explains the relationship of these standards to the higher layer protocols; it ...
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IEEE 802.3-2022 - IEEE SA
Jul 29, 2022 · This amendment to IEEE Std 802.3 defines the Time Synchronization Service Interface (TSSI) to indicate when the Start Frame Delimiter (SFD) ...
[6]
[PDF] ECE 333: Introduction to Communication Networks Fall 2002 ...
Examples of Data Link Protocols. • HDLC (and related protocols). • IEEE 802.2. • PPP. 10. HDLC (High level Data Link Control). IBM developed a DLL protocol ...
[7]
IEEE Std 802-2001
Feb 7, 2002 · The IEEE 802 Standards encompass the functionality of the lowest two layers of the. OSI/RM (i.e., Physical layer and Data Link layer) and the ...
[8]
OSI Model Reference Chart - Cisco Learning Network
The data link layer provides error-free transfer of data frames from one node to another over the physical layer, allowing layers above it to assume virtually ...
[9]
[IT430] Class 4: OSI Protocol Stack, PCAP Analysis I
Link: The link layer is responsible for transmission of data frames between two nodes connected by a physical medium. That said, this layer provides node-to ...
[10]
OSI Model Examples - Cisco Learning Network
Mar 5, 2020 · Layer 2, Data Link layer. Structures the data into a format appropriate for the transmission medium. Adds physical addresses such as media ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[11]
[PDF] ISO/IEC 7498-1 - Ecma International
Jun 15, 1996 · 7.5. Network Layer. 7.6. Data Link Layer. 7.7. Physical Layer...... ISO ... A sublayer is defined as a grouping of functions in a layer which may ...
[12]
A Brief History of the Internet - Internet Society
Thus, by the end of 1969, four host computers were connected together into the initial ARPANET, and the budding Internet was off the ground. Even at this early ...
[13]
High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) - UAL
Sep 12, 2016 · The current standard for HDLC is ISO 13239. HDLC was developed from the Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC) standard proposed in the 1970s.Missing: development 1973
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[PDF] HDLC Protocol Overview - GL Communications Inc.
• HDLC is an ISO Standard developed from the Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC) standard proposed by IBM. • Operates at the data link layer. • Used on both ...Missing: 1973 | Show results with:1973<|separator|>
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Ethernet is Still Going Strong After 50 Years - IEEE Spectrum
To provide computer companies with a framework for the technology, in June 1983 Ethernet was adopted as a standard by the IEEE 802 Local Area Network Standards ...
[16]
PPP Overview, History and Benefits - The TCP/IP Guide!
The history of PPP goes back to the late 1980s, when SLIP was the de facto standard for serial IP implementations.
[17]
25 Years of Wi-Fi - Broadcom Inc.
Jun 20, 2024 · In 1999, Wi-Fi was only capable of supporting up to 11 megabits per second based on the IEEE 802.11b standard. Now in its seventh generation, Wi ...
[18]
Ethernet Through the Years: Celebrating the Technology's 50th Year ...
1983. The first draft of the IEEE 802.3 Standard, what would be 10Base5, is published. Also known as Thicknet, this is the first commercially available variant ...
[19]
Part 1: ICT Standards Development Organizations and Their Work
ITU-T Study Group 15 is responsible for the development of standards on optical transport network, access network, home network and power utility network ...
[20]
RFC 1662: PPP in HDLC-like Framing
This specification provides for framing over both bit-oriented and octet-oriented synchronous links, and asynchronous links with 8 bits of data and no parity.
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2.3 Framing - Computer Networks: A Systems Approach
Bit stuffing in the HDLC protocol works as follows. On the sending side, any time five consecutive 1s have been transmitted from the body of the message (i.e., ...
[22]
[PDF] Ethernet MTU and TCP MSS Adjustment Concept for PPPoE ... - Cisco
The maximum MTU of an interface will depend on the hardware platform, but the IEEE 802.3 standards require a minimum MTU of 1500 bytes. PPPoE needs ...
[23]
What is HDLC and what is its role in networking? - TechTarget
Jun 4, 2021 · HDLC (High-level Data Link Control) is a group of protocols or rules for transmitting data between network points (sometimes called nodes).Missing: 1973 | Show results with:1973
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Transmission Error - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Transmission errors in data communication systems can arise from electrostatic interference, attenuation, distortion, transmission loss, and impulses from ...Missing: authoritative | Show results with:authoritative
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The application of parity checks to an arithmetic control
Nov 17, 1970 · Most of today's equipment uses parity bits for detection of data transfer errors between units and within units.Missing: original concept
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[PDF] 32-Bit Cyclic Redundancy Codes for Internet Applications
The IEEE 802.3 standard adopts the CRC polynomial: x32+x26+x23+x22+x16+x12+x11+x10+x8+x7+x5+x4+x2+x+1 (this is irreducible, but not primitive).
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Automatic Repeat Request - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Since there is no waiting time, the Go-Back- N ARQ protocol is more efficient than the stop-and-wait ARQ. The window advances as an ACK for each earlier packet ...
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[PDF] The Bell System Technical Journal - Zoo | Yale University
April, 1950. The Bell System Technical Journal. Vol. xx~. Copyright, 1950,American Telephone and Telegraph Company. Error Detecting and Error Correcting Codes.Missing: forward data link layer
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RFC 3366 - Advice to link designers on link Automatic Repeat ...
This document provides advice to the designers of digital communication equipment and link-layer protocols employing link-layer Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ) ...Missing: paper | Show results with:paper
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On acknowledgement schemes of sliding window flow control
Insufficient relevant content. The provided URL (https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/46512) points to a page titled "On acknowledgement schemes of sliding window flow control," but no full text or detailed content is accessible without a subscription or login. No specific information about sliding window flow control, window size, or acknowledgments can be extracted.
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RFC 1661: The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
Summary of each segment:
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[PDF] IEEE 802.3x and Asymmetrical Flow Control
The purpose of 802.3x Flow Control is to allow switches to be built that have limited memory, yet don't have to resort to dropping frames as a congestion ...Missing: avoidance | Show results with:avoidance
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802.3-2022 - IEEE Standard for Ethernet
Jul 29, 2022 · The Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) MAC protocol specifies shared medium (half duplex) operation, as well as ...
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Bandwidth, Throughput, and Goodput > Latency, delay ... - Cisco Press
Aug 5, 2024 · Goodput will always be less than throughput because every data packet contains fields of overhead. For example, Ethernet has a 20-byte header ...
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What is Point-to-Point | Glossary | PS Lightwave
Point-to-point data transmissions occur between a single transmitter and a single receiver, and can be wired or wireless.<|control11|><|separator|>
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What is a Point to Point Network? - APC Solutions
Point-to-point networks are used to connect two locations together via a private, dedicated line. This allows companies to transfer data between multiple ...
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What is point-to-point networking? All you need to know - Meter
Oct 2, 2024 · Point-to-point networking is what gives businesses a fast, secure, and private link between two locations. It can be done whether you're ...
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Point-to-Point (P2P) Connectivity: What You Need to Know
Point-to-point (P2P) connections securely connect two locations using a Layer 2 data connection, building a closed network, not using the public internet.
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What is full-duplex? - TechTarget
Oct 21, 2021 · Full-duplex data transmission means that data can be transmitted in both directions on a signal carrier at the same time.
[40]
What's the maximum serial cable length? - Opengear Customer Portal
Jul 17, 2017 · The RS-232 standard specifies this as 15 metres (50 feet). However this is a conservative figure accounting for high serial speeds over high capacitance ...
[41]
https://www.meter.com/resources/what-is-point-to-point
[42]
A Brief Overview of SONET Technology - Cisco
Jun 14, 2005 · SONET defines optical signals and a synchronous frame structure for multiplexed digital traffic. It is a set of standards that define the rates and formats for ...
[43]
Understanding UART | Rohde & Schwarz
UART stands for universal asynchronous receiver / transmitter and defines a protocol, or set of rules, for exchanging serial data between two devices.What Is Uart? · Timing And Synchronization... · Uart Frame Format
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What is PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) and How Does it Work?
Feb 1, 2022 · However, the most popular use of PPP was during the days of dial-up modems throughout the mid- to late 1990s. Customers would install PPP client ...<|separator|>
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Wide Area Networks - WAN - howtonetwork.com
Dial-up connections can usually offer transmission rates up to 54Kbps and in special conditions even up to 320Kbps if you use data compression. This technology ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[46]
Connecting Your Locations with a Point-to-Point Fiber Optic Network
Apr 4, 2024 · Point-to-point fiber optic network: Discover why it's a logical move to connect different locations for dramatically faster communications.
[47]
Networking Topology
The ring topology is a physical, closed loop consisting of point-to-point links. In the diagram, you can see how each node on the ring acts as a repeater. It ...
[48]
[PDF] Analysis of end-to-end performance of LAN systems - Calhoun
TOKEN RING (IEEE 802.5) SYSTEMS. 1. Overview. A token ring LAN is made up of a set of stations serially connected by a transmission medium. All information is ...
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TechFest - Ethernet Technical Summary - Chapter 3 - Emory CS
With CSMA/CD two or more stations share a common transmission medium. To transmit a frame, a station must wait for an idle period on the medium when no other ...
[50]
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD ...
Oct 16, 2006 · CSMA/CD is the media access control (MAC) protocol specified in IEEE Std 802.3, which is Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection.
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[PDF] Wireless Networks - Rutgers University
Hidden and exposed station problems arise only for CSMA-type protocols. ... Hidden station issues were considered and the MACA RTS/CTS protocol proposed in.<|control11|><|separator|>
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MMDS Background - IEEE 802
Mar 3, 2000 · – Statistical Multiplexing over the air. – ... – FDMA -- Best suited to large pipe fixed bandwidth service. – TDMA -- Best suited to Dynamic ...
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ISO/IEC 13239:2002 - Information technology
ISO/IEC 13239:2002 specifies frame structures, procedures, and the Exchange Identification (XID) frame for data communication using HDLC procedures.
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SDLC, HDLC and LLC, LAPB
Although a subset of HDLC, SDLC was developed by IBM before HDLC, and was the first link layer protocol based on synchronous, bit-oriented operation. IBM ...
[55]
Difference between Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) and Point-to ...
Jul 11, 2025 · SLIP is a Predecessor protocol of PPP. PPP is a Successor protocol of SLIP. Encloses, SLIP encloses the Internet Protocol (IP) packet. PPP ...
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The Structure and Coding of Logical Link Control (LLC) Addresses
The standards for local area networks (LANs) are generally comprised of the physical layer, the medium access control (MAC) sublayer, and the logical link.
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Configuring LAPB and X.25 [Cisco IOS Software Releases 11.0]
Mar 21, 1989 · The X.25 specifications include LAPB as the data link layer protocol and X.25 as the network layer protocol, or packet layer protocol (PLP) as ...
[58]
Configure and Verify Ethernet 10/100/1000Mb Half/Full Duplex Auto ...
This document provides a general description of auto-negotiation and explains the procedure to configure and verify auto-negotiation on Catalyst switches.Missing: file | Show results with:file
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Troubleshoot LAN Switching Environments - Cisco
Dec 2, 2022 · This document describes common LAN switch features and how to troubleshoot any LAN switching problems.
[60]
RFC 5654 - Requirements of an MPLS Transport Profile
Dec 20, 2018 · This document specifies the requirements of an MPLS Transport Profile (MPLS-TP). This document is a product of a joint effort of the International ...
[61]
IEEE 1901-2020 - IEEE SA
IEEE 1901-2020 defines PHY/MAC for broadband powerline communication, used for LANs, Smart Energy, and IoT, and other media, with security and interoperability.Missing: adapters wiring
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IEEE 802.1X-2020
Feb 28, 2020 · Port-based network access control allows a network administrator to restrict the use of IEEE 802(R) LAN service access points (ports) to ...
[63]
IEEE 802.1AE-2018
Dec 26, 2018 · How all or part of a network can be secured transparently to peer protocol entities that use the MAC Service provided by IEEE 802® LANs to ...<|separator|>
[64]
Cisco Business 110 Series Unmanaged Switches Data Sheet
These affordable plug-and-play switches are ideal for small offices, workgroups, departments, and growing offices with limited IT know-how and support.
[65]
InfiniBand - A low-latency, high-bandwidth interconnect
Jun 27, 2023 · As a mature and field-proven technology, InfiniBand is used in thousands of data centers for both HPC and AI clusters that efficiently scale up ...
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[PDF] Current Communication Radio Systems for Data Link
The first version of air–ground communication based on digital messages, called ACARS, was introduced in 1978 by ARINC. It aimed to improve the integrity of ...
[67]
[PDF] 90-117 - Advisory Circular - Federal Aviation Administration
Oct 3, 2017 · Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS). ACARS is a digital data link system for transmission of short messages ...Missing: UHF | Show results with:UHF
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[PDF] Advisory Circular - Federal Aviation Administration
Aug 16, 1999 · (ARINC) Specification 622 defines an ACARS convergence function, which allows bit-oriented applications to be supported by the ACARS network ...
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ARINC 622 - ATS Data Link Applications over ACARS Air-Ground ...
Aug 23, 2017 · This document specifies processes that enhance the functionality of the ACARS system in order to meet the special communications requirements of Air Traffic ...
[70]
[PDF] Roadmap for Data Link - Federal Aviation Administration
Jul 31, 2006 · Data link is expected to improve the use of spectrum and reduce voice channel congestion. Data link allows the controller and pilot to move ...
[71]
[PDF] FAA AC 90-114C (ADS-B Operations) - Advisory Circular
Jan 14, 2025 · The 1090 MHz frequency is associated with current Mode A, C, and S ... Mode S supports an ADS-B service known as 1090ES. D.21 Non ...
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https://www.infinibandta.org/about-infiniband/
[73]
RFC 9450 - Reliable and Available Wireless (RAW) Use Cases
Jan 11, 2024 · ... 99.999%, which is higher than that required for regular commercial data links. ... latency requirements could be the "WXGRAPH" service ...
[74]
Specification # 36.323 - 3GPP
Reference: 36.323. Title: Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA); Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP) specification.
[75]
Specification # 36.322 - 3GPP
Aug 27, 2019 · Reference: 36.322. Title: Evolved Universal Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA); Radio Link Control (RLC) protocol specification.
[76]
Specification # 38.323 - 3GPP
Mar 22, 2017 · 38.323. Title: NR; Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP) specification. Status: Under change control. Type: Technical specification (TS).
[77]
Specification # 38.322 - 3GPP
Mar 22, 2017 · 38.322. Title: NR; Radio Link Control (RLC) protocol specification. Status: Under change control. Type: Technical specification (TS). Initial ...Missing: handover | Show results with:handover
[78]
IEEE 802.16-2017 - IEEE SA
Mar 2, 2018 · This standard specifies the air interface, including the medium access control layer (MAC) and physical layer (PHY), of combined fixed and mobile point-to- ...