Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Triatominae

Triatominae, commonly referred to as kissing bugs or triatomine bugs, constitute a subfamily of hematophagous insects within the family Reduviidae (assassin bugs) of the order Hemiptera, suborder Heteroptera.^[1] This subfamily encompasses approximately 150 species organized into 18 genera and 5 tribes, with the overwhelming majority native to the Americas, ranging from the southern United States through Central and South America to northern Argentina and Chile, while a small number of species occur in regions of Asia, Africa, and northern Australia.^[2] ^[3] These insects are obligate blood-feeders across all life stages, relying on vertebrate hosts for nutrition, and are best known for their role as primary vectors of Trypanosoma cruzi, the protozoan parasite that causes Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis), a neglected tropical disease affecting millions in endemic areas.^[4]^[5] Biologically, triatomines exhibit incomplete metamorphosis, progressing from eggs through five nymphal instars to winged or wingless adults, with a life cycle duration that varies by species and environmental conditions but often spans several months to years.^[6] They are predominantly nocturnal and sylvatic, inhabiting cracks in rock, soil burrows, bird nests, or mammal dens, though peridomestic and domestic species like Triatoma infestans and Rhodnius prolixus have adapted to human structures, increasing disease transmission risks.^[7] During feeding, they use a specialized proboscis to pierce host skin, typically around the face or mucous membranes—earning their "kissing bug" moniker—and ingest large blood meals that can exceed their body weight; crucially, they often defecate shortly after or during feeding near the bite site, allowing T. cruzi-infected feces to contaminate the wound and facilitate parasite entry into the host.^[8]^[9] The medical significance of Triatominae stems from their efficient vectorial capacity for Chagas disease, which manifests in acute and chronic phases and can lead to severe cardiac and gastrointestinal complications; only about 10-20 species are considered competent vectors, but their distribution overlaps with human populations in poverty-stricken rural areas of Latin America, where control efforts focus on insecticide application, housing improvements, and surveillance.^[10] Evolutionary studies highlight their diversification from non-hematophagous Reduviidae ancestors, with genetic analyses revealing cryptic speciation and niche conservatism that influence vector competence and adaptation to anthropogenic environments.^[4] Ongoing research emphasizes integrated vector management to mitigate the global burden of Chagas disease, estimated to affect 6-7 million people worldwide.^[11]

Taxonomy and classification

Higher classification

Triatominae belongs to the order Hemiptera, suborder Heteroptera, family Reduviidae, where it constitutes a specialized subfamily characterized by its obligate hematophagous feeding habit, distinct from the predominantly predatory nature of other Reduviidae members.^[2] This placement reflects its derivation from predatory ancestors within Reduviidae, with the shift to blood-feeding representing a key ecological adaptation that likely facilitated the subfamily's radiation.^[12] The evolutionary origins of Triatominae are traced to hematophagous modifications emerging from predatory Reduviidae lineages during the Cretaceous period, approximately 100 million years ago. Fossil evidence supporting this timeline includes the primitive species Paleotriatoma metaxytaxa, preserved in mid-Cretaceous amber from northern Myanmar, dated to around 99 million years old, which exhibits early triatomine-like features such as a hematophagous proboscis morphology.^[13] This discovery indicates that the subfamily's hematophagous niche was established well before the diversification of modern lineages, aligning with broader phylogenetic patterns in Reduviidae that began significant radiation in the Late Cretaceous.^[14] Triatominae is currently recognized as a monophyletic subfamily, with robust molecular support from multilocus phylogenetic analyses that confirm its distinct divergence from other Reduviidae subfamilies. These studies, incorporating nuclear and mitochondrial markers, demonstrate consistent clustering of triatomine genera separate from predatory groups, reinforcing the subfamily's taxonomic integrity despite historical debates on its boundaries.^[15] Recent revisions to Reduviidae classification maintain Triatominae as one of 19 subfamilies, underscoring its well-defined phylogenetic position.^[16]

Tribes and genera

The subfamily Triatominae is classified into five tribes: Alberproseniini, Bolboderini, Cavernicolini, Rhodniini, and Triatomini, which collectively comprise 19 genera.^[17] This subdivision reflects morphological, ecological, and phylogenetic distinctions among the hematophagous bugs, with Triatomini being the most diverse tribe in terms of genera and species richness.^[18] The tribe Alberproseniini includes the genera Alberprosenia and Hermes, which are characterized by aberrant morphological features such as reduced wings and are primarily distributed in Andean regions of South America.^[19] Bolboderini is represented by genera like Bolboderes and Thasiophilus, featuring robust bodies adapted to ground-dwelling habits in southern South American habitats.^[20] Cavernicolini consists of the monotypic genus Cavernicola, specialized for cave environments in Venezuela.^[18] In Rhodniini, key genera include Rhodnius (associated with palm trees and including major Chagas disease vectors across tropical America), Psammolestes (arboreal species in Amazonian regions), and Linshcosteus (adapted to bird nests in humid forests).^[21] The largest tribe, Triatomini, encompasses genera such as Triatoma (the most speciose genus with around 77 species, exhibiting diverse vectorial capacities and wide geographic range), Panstrongylus (sylvatic specialists with elongated bodies and association with burrowing mammals), Dipetalogaster (peridomestic dwellers in arid zones), Eratyrus (arboreal forms in the Amazon), Mepraia (rock-colonizing species in Chile and Argentina), Meccus (synanthropic in Mexico), Microtriatoma (small-bodied cave inhabitants), Paratriatoma (North American endemics), Belminus (ectoparasitic on arboreal vertebrates), Hospesneotomae (including species from the former Triatoma protracta complex, adapted to southwestern North American habitats), and Torrealbaia; additional genera in this tribe include Torrealbaia.^[20] These genera in Triatomini often show high phenotypic plasticity, complicating identification.^[2] Recent taxonomic revisions, particularly those from 2025, have integrated molecular data—such as DNA barcoding and phylogenetic analyses—to clarify ambiguities, including the reassignment of certain genera within Triatomini (e.g., creation of Hospesneotomae) and confirmation of cryptic species complexes.^[2]^[17] These updates emphasize the role of integrative taxonomy in refining the systematic organization of Triatominae.^[22]

Species diversity

The subfamily Triatominae currently comprises 158 described species, including 155 extant and three extinct forms, organized into 19 genera across five tribes.^[17] This tally reflects ongoing taxonomic revisions, with molecular surveys suggesting the potential for additional cryptic species yet to be formally recognized.^[23] Species distribution is uneven among the tribes, with Triatomini accounting for approximately 71% of the total diversity, encompassing 113 extant species across eleven genera.^[24] Within Triatomini, the genus Triatoma is particularly speciose, hosting around 77 species.^[25] In contrast, Rhodniini represents about 15% of the subfamily's diversity, with 24 species divided between the genera Rhodnius (21 species) and Psammolestes (3 species).^[26] Patterns of endemism are pronounced, particularly in South America, where the majority of Triatominae species occur and exhibit high regional specificity.^[27] This continent harbors the greatest species richness, with numerous taxa restricted to specific biomes such as the Andean slopes, Amazonian forests, and Chaco region, underscoring the role of biogeographic barriers in driving diversification.^[28] Since 2000, more than 20 new species have been described, a trend accelerated by integrative taxonomy that integrates morphological, molecular (e.g., DNA barcoding), and ecological data to resolve cryptic diversity.^[29] Examples include Triatoma rosai from Argentina, identified through combined morphometric and genetic analyses, and the 2025 establishment of Hospesneotomae.^[30]^[17] This approach has been instrumental in uncovering species in understudied areas, contributing to a more accurate assessment of Triatominae biodiversity.

Morphology and physiology

External morphology

Triatominae bugs exhibit an elongated, ovoid body form, typically measuring 5 to 35 mm in length, with most species around 20 mm.^[31] The body is dorsoventrally flattened, facilitating movement in confined spaces, and features connate hemelytra that are often reduced or absent in many species, rendering adults brachypterous or apterous.^[31] This wing reduction is adaptive for sylvatic and domestic habitats where flight is less critical.^[32] The head is conical and anteriorly directed, with a prominent, curved proboscis (rostrum) that is three-segmented and folded ventrally when at rest, adapted for piercing host skin.^[33] Adults possess large, bulbous compound eyes positioned laterally for wide visual fields, along with two smaller ocelli located dorsally behind the compound eyes.^[33] Coloration in Triatominae is predominantly mottled brown or gray, providing effective camouflage against natural substrates like bark or soil in their habitats.^[34] Sexual dimorphism is evident, with females generally larger and less winged than males, which are smaller and exhibit greater wing development in some species.^[35] Genus-specific traits include the connexivum of Triatoma species, which often displays distinctive yellow or red stripes alternating with darker bands along the abdominal margins.^[33]

Internal physiology

The digestive system of Triatominae is highly specialized for hematophagy, featuring a foregut, midgut, and hindgut, with the midgut serving as the primary site for blood storage and digestion. The midgut divides into an anterior portion for initial blood storage and a posterior portion where proteolytic digestion predominates, facilitated by enzymes such as cathepsins and aminopeptidases that break down hemoglobin into amino acids over an extended period, often lasting 14 days in engorged females of species like Triatoma infestans.^[36] This slow digestion accommodates trypanosomatid parasites such as Trypanosoma cruzi, which multiply in the midgut without significant degradation, supported by the insect's perimicrovillar membranes that create a protective niche for parasite development.^[10] The salivary glands complement this system by secreting bioactive proteins, including nitrophorins—lipocalin-based heme proteins (e.g., NP1–NP4 in Rhodnius prolixus)—that bind and transport nitric oxide to induce vasodilation and inhibit platelet aggregation, thereby facilitating uninterrupted blood flow during feeding.^[37]^[38] Triatomine's circulatory system is an open type typical of insects, with hemolymph bathing organs directly in the hemocoel cavity rather than a closed vascular network. A simple dorsal vessel acts as the heart, pumping hemolymph anteriorly through rhythmic contractions, while body movements and accessory pumps aid return flow; post-feeding, circulation accelerates via enhanced vessel pulsations and gut peristalsis to support rapid diuresis after ingesting blood meals equivalent to up to 10 times the insect's body weight.^[39]^[40] The excretory system relies on Malpighian tubules, which extend into the hemocoel and actively secrete uric acid—the primary nitrogenous waste from blood protein catabolism—into the hindgut for elimination, enabling efficient osmoregulation and waste removal during the intense postprandial diuresis that expels excess fluid within hours of feeding.^[41] The sensory and nervous systems of Triatominae are streamlined for host-seeking and locomotion in low-light environments. Antennae bear numerous chemoreceptors, including olfactory sensilla that detect host-derived volatiles like ammonia, CO₂, and short-chain fatty acids, guiding orientation toward vertebrate hosts.^[42] The central nervous system consists of a brain fused with the subesophageal ganglion, a prothoracic ganglion, and a posterior fused ganglion (combining meso- and metathoracic elements), forming a compact ventral nerve cord that coordinates mobility and sensory integration with minimal neural mass for agile movement.^[43]^[44]

Life history

Developmental stages

Triatominae undergo hemimetabolous (incomplete) metamorphosis, progressing through egg, five nymphal instars, and adult stages without a pupal phase.^[45] This life cycle reflects their classification as exopterygote insects, where wing pads develop externally during nymphal molts.^[46] The egg stage begins with females laying oval to barrel-shaped eggs, typically measuring 1-2 mm in length, in clusters on suitable substrates.^[47] These eggs feature a chorion with a distinct operculum at one end, which serves as the exit point for the emerging nymph.^[48] Incubation duration varies with environmental conditions, generally lasting 20-30 days at temperatures of 25-30°C and high humidity (around 80-90%), during which the eggs transition from whitish to pinkish or brownish coloration as hatching approaches.^[49] Hatching yields a wingless first-instar nymph, approximately 2 mm long, ready to seek a blood meal.^[45] Nymphal development consists of five instars, all of which are obligatorily hematophagous, requiring vertebrate blood meals to fuel growth and molting.^[50] Each successive instar increases in size and develops more pronounced wing pads, with the first instar being small and translucent, progressing to larger, more robust forms by the fifth instar, which closely resemble adults but lack fully functional wings.^[51] The total nymphal period typically spans 3-12 months from first instar to adult emergence, influenced by temperature, feeding frequency, and humidity; optimal conditions (e.g., 25-28°C with regular blood meals) accelerate development to around 6-9 months, while cooler temperatures or infrequent feeding can extend it up to 24 months.^[52] Molting occurs after each blood meal, with inter-molt intervals shortening in later instars under favorable conditions.^[6] Adult emergence follows the final nymphal molt, resulting in winged, sexually mature insects capable of flight and reproduction.^[45] Adults exhibit sexual dimorphism, with females generally larger than males, and both continue to require blood meals for egg production and survival.^[51] Lifespan in the adult stage ranges from 6 to 24 months in laboratory settings, depending on species, nutrition, and environmental factors, though field conditions often shorten this due to predation and resource scarcity.^[49]

Reproduction and mating

Triatomine bugs exhibit sexual reproduction, with adults becoming active following the imaginal molt. Males locate potential mates primarily through sex pheromones secreted by the female metasternal glands, which induce males to leave shelters, orient toward the source, and aggregate around copulating pairs, facilitating polyandric mating in several species.^[53]^[54] Visual cues then enable males to identify and court females, often involving a brief "dance" behavior, after which additional glandular secretions from the female stimulate copulation.^[53]^[55] During copulation, which lasts 5–60 minutes depending on the species, males transfer a spermatophore—a gelatinous structure containing spermatozoa—into the female's vagina via standard genital insertion, rather than traumatic methods observed in related heteropterans.^[55] This process characterizes mating as a form of scramble competition, where males compete to inseminate receptive females.^[56] Female fecundity is influenced by mating status and nutritional input, with a blood meal essential to initiate egg production. Mated females typically lay 200–500 eggs over their lifetime, deposited in batches after each feeding, though numbers vary by species; for instance, Triatoma pallidipennis averages about 499 eggs per female.^[57] Virgin females can produce eggs through autogeny but in reduced quantities and with delayed onset—laying approximately 10 eggs by 28 days post-blood meal compared to 29 for mated females—resulting in lower overall reproductive output.^[58]^[59] The spermatophore provides nutrients that enhance female longevity and oviposition rates, with mated individuals showing up to 275% higher egg production in some studies.^[60] Reproduction is highly sensitive to environmental conditions, particularly temperature, with optimal performance at 25–28°C, where development and egg-laying rates peak.^[61] Suboptimal low temperatures, such as below 22°C, reduce male reproductive efficiency and overall fecundity by slowing physiological processes.^[62] Under stress from crowding or poor nutrition, nymphs may enter an adaptive diapause, delaying molting and thus postponing the onset of reproductive adulthood to enhance survival prospects.^[63]

Ecology and distribution

Habitats and niches

Triatominae species occupy diverse habitats across sylvatic, peridomestic, and domestic environments, reflecting their adaptability as blood-feeding insects. In sylvatic settings, they colonize natural refuges such as palm crowns, burrows, rock piles, hollow trees, bird nests, and rodent burrows, where proximity to vertebrate hosts supports their hematophagous lifestyle.^[64]^[65]^[66] Peridomestic habitats, including chicken coops, rock piles, and animal sheds, serve as transitional zones that bridge wild and human-modified areas, often harboring higher densities due to abundant hosts like poultry and livestock.^[67]^[68] Domestic environments, such as cracks in mud walls and thatch roofs of poorly constructed homes, provide stable, protected spaces that mimic natural crevices and facilitate persistent infestations.^[69]^[70]^[71] Ecological niches within these habitats show partitioning among tribes, with Rhodniini species predominantly arboreal and associated with palm trees and tree canopies, enabling exploitation of canopy-dwelling vertebrates.^[72]^[26]^[73] At the microhabitat level, Triatominae favor dark, humid crevices that maintain relative humidity levels of 60-80%, conditions that buffer against desiccation and align with their physiological tolerances derived from laboratory and field observations.^[74]^[75]^[76] Evolutionarily, these insects transitioned from predatory ancestors in the Reduviidae family—descended from phytophagous hemipterans—to obligate hematophages, adapting morphological and behavioral traits for blood-feeding while retaining some ancestral predatory elements.^[12]^[77] Triatominae participate in predator-prey dynamics primarily as prey for vertebrates, including birds, mammals, and reptiles that consume them in shared refuges, influencing population regulation and dispersal risks.^[78]^[79] Competition occurs with other arthropods, such as conspecifics or sympatric insects, in resource-limited microhabitats, where interspecific displacements can alter niche occupancy and vector potential.^[80]^[81]

Geographic distribution

Triatominae species are predominantly native to the Neotropical region, spanning from the southern United States southward through Mexico, Central America, and into South America as far as Patagonia. The subfamily encompasses approximately 159 validated extant species, with the highest diversity concentrated in South America, where the majority of species occur, reflecting the region's extensive ecological variability. In contrast, species richness decreases northward; for instance, only 11 species are documented in the United States, primarily in the southwestern states, while Mexico hosts 35 autochthonous species.^[82]^[83]^[84] Biogeographic patterns reveal centers of endemism and diversity in the Andean and Amazonian regions, where topographic complexity and climatic gradients foster speciation. The Amazon basin, in particular, serves as a hotspot for genera like Rhodnius, supporting the largest number of species within certain lineages due to its humid tropical environments. Distribution limits are strongly influenced by climate, confining most species to tropical and subtropical zones, though some extend into temperate areas at higher elevations in the Andes; as of 2025, climate change is contributing to potential range expansions northward and in elevation, increasing vector risks in new areas.^[85]^[86]^[28]^[87] Beyond their native Neotropical range, Triatominae exhibit limited introduced populations, most notably Rhodnius prolixus, which originated in northern South America (Colombia and Venezuela) but was inadvertently introduced to Central America around 1915, likely through human-mediated transport, leading to its establishment in countries like El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua before successful elimination efforts in the 2000s and 2010s. While a small number of species (around 16) are natively present in the Old World, including Africa and Asia—such as Linshcosteus species in India—recent interceptions and reports suggest occasional introductions of Neotropical species via international trade, though established populations outside the Americas remain rare.^[88]^[82]^[89]

Behavior

Feeding mechanisms

Triatomines primarily locate hosts through chemosensory and thermal cues, including carbon dioxide (CO2), heat, and vertebrate odors, detected via specialized sensilla on their antennae.^[90]^[91]^[92] These insects exhibit nocturnal activity patterns, with host-seeking behavior peaking during the dark phase when they orient toward CO2 plumes and heat sources to increase locomotor activity and probing.^[93]^[90] While they preferentially feed on mammals and birds, Triatominae are opportunistic and may target other vertebrates depending on availability in their habitat.^[94] During feeding, Triatominae insert their elongated proboscis into the host's skin, typically at soft tissue sites, to access capillaries and engorge on blood, a process lasting 10 to 30 minutes depending on the bug's instar and host.^[95]^[96] Their saliva, which contains anticoagulants to inhibit blood clotting and facilitate uninterrupted flow, is secreted during this hematophagic act (detailed in internal physiology). Defecation frequently occurs during or immediately after engorgement, particularly in adult females (up to 93% frequency), though it is rarer in nymphs (around 3%) and absent in males.^[97] Nymphs of Triatominae typically require a blood meal before each molt, with feeding intervals ranging from 1 to 4 weeks under laboratory conditions, influenced by temperature and instar stage.^[98] Adults feed less frequently, often once a month in natural settings, as they do not require meals for reproduction.^[95] These insects demonstrate high starvation tolerance, with nymphs surviving up to 4 months without food and adults enduring 1 to 2 years, enabling persistence in low-host-density environments.^[99]^[100]^[101]

Locomotion and dispersal

Triatomines primarily employ walking and crawling for short-distance locomotion, which serves as the dominant mode of dispersal within and between nearby habitats. These insects exhibit negative geotaxis, tending to move upward toward potential harborage sites, as observed in Triatoma infestans where individuals concentrate in the upper portions of experimental arenas.^[102] Chemotaxis further guides their movement, with attraction to host-related cues such as carbon dioxide, ammonia from urine, heat, and water vapor, facilitating navigation to blood sources or refuges.^[103] In species like T. infestans, walking predominates in arid environments like the Argentine Chaco, where females actively disperse over distances up to several hundred meters, often at rates of about 19.7% emigration per 10 days following host deprivation.^[103]^[104] Flight capability varies across Triatominae species, with macropterous forms enabling active aerial dispersal, particularly at night. For instance, Rhodnius prolixus possesses fully developed wings and engages in nocturnal flights to locate hosts or new habitats, often triggered by environmental cues like high temperatures or starvation.^[105] In contrast, brachypterous morphs, common in domestic-adapted species such as T. infestans and Triatoma guasayana, have reduced wings that limit sustained flight, though short bursts may occur.^[32] Wing dimorphism, including polymorphism in species like Mepraia spinolai, influences dispersal potential, with macropterous individuals showing enhanced mobility.^[106] Wind-assisted dispersal can extend flight ranges in sylvatic populations, contributing to broader colonization during seasonal peaks in summer.^[107] Invasion dynamics of Triatominae into human dwellings involve both active and passive mechanisms, exacerbating Chagas disease transmission risks. Active invasion occurs via walking or short flights from sylvatic or peridomestic areas, as seen in T. infestans recolonizing insecticide-treated homes from nearby chicken coops or wild habitats.^[108] Passive transport, often human-mediated, plays a significant role, with bugs carried in luggage, furniture, or building materials; for example, workers' belongings have introduced T. infestans into previously cleared communities in the dry Chaco region.^[108]^[109] These combined strategies enable rapid reinfestation, underscoring the need for integrated control targeting multiple dispersal pathways.^[69]

Medical significance

Role as Chagas disease vectors

Triatominae species are the principal vectors of Trypanosoma cruzi, the protozoan parasite responsible for Chagas disease, with more than 50 species reported to be naturally infected and capable of transmitting the pathogen to vertebrate hosts.^[110] The vector competence of these insects involves the parasite's development within the triatomine's digestive tract, where T. cruzi epimastigotes multiply in the midgut and transform into infective metacyclic trypomastigotes in the hindgut.^[111] Transmission to mammals occurs primarily via fecal contamination of the bite site during or shortly after blood feeding, as the motile metacyclic trypomastigotes are released in the feces and can penetrate the skin through the wound or nearby mucous membranes.^[112] This mechanism exploits the insect's defecation behavior, which often happens near the feeding site, facilitating efficient pathogen delivery.^[89] The transmission cycles of T. cruzi encompass domestic, peridomestic, and sylvatic components, with Triatominae bridging these ecologies. In domestic and peridomestic settings, vectors feed on humans and synanthropic animals like dogs and cats, sustaining cycles within human dwellings and adjacent structures.^[113] Sylvatic cycles involve wildlife reservoirs, including marsupials such as opossums (Didelphis spp.), which serve as key amplifiers and maintainers of the parasite in natural habitats, occasionally spilling over to peridomestic areas.^[114] These interconnected cycles underscore the role of Triatominae in perpetuating T. cruzi across diverse environments, from rural households to forested ecosystems.^[115] Vector efficiency in transmitting T. cruzi varies significantly among Triatominae species, influenced by physiological, behavioral, and environmental factors. For instance, Triatoma infestans, a dominant vector in South America's Southern Cone, demonstrates high domestic competence due to its adaptation to human habitats, rapid parasite development, and propensity for early defecation post-feeding.^[116] The gut microbiota of triatomines also modulates vectorial capacity; certain bacterial communities can inhibit or facilitate T. cruzi colonization and metacyclogenesis in the hindgut, thereby affecting transmission success.^[117] Such interspecies and intra-individual variations highlight the complexity of vector-parasite interactions in Chagas disease dynamics.^[118]

Epidemiological patterns

Chagas disease, primarily transmitted by Triatominae vectors, imposes a significant global public health burden, with an estimated 7 million people infected worldwide, predominantly in Latin America. The disease causes approximately 10,000 deaths annually, often due to chronic cardiac and gastrointestinal complications. While vector-borne transmission remains the dominant mode, oral transmission through contaminated food or beverages, such as sugarcane juice or açaí, is rare but increasingly documented in outbreaks, particularly in the Amazon region. Key risk factors for Chagas disease transmission by Triatominae include socioeconomic conditions like poverty and inadequate housing, which facilitate vector infestation in rural and peri-urban areas. Sylvatic spillover from wild reservoirs to human dwellings has intensified due to deforestation and land-use changes, displacing vectors into closer proximity with communities. In the United States, autochthonous cases are emerging, with more than 100 confirmed or suspected locally acquired infections reported across at least eight states since 2000, and the country is now recognized as endemic for the disease.^[11]^[119] Surveillance efforts track epidemiological patterns through vector indices, such as household infestation rates, which often exceed 20% in high-risk endemic areas of Latin America, indicating persistent transmission potential. Climate change is projected to exacerbate these trends by altering temperature and precipitation patterns, enabling Triatominae species like Triatoma infestans and Rhodnius prolixus to expand their ranges northward into previously unsuitable regions.

Historical context

Discovery and early studies

Prior to scientific documentation, indigenous communities in South America had long recognized blood-sucking insects now known as triatomines, with accounts dating back to the late 16th century when Spanish priest Reginaldo de Lizárraga described such bugs in Peru that attacked people nocturnally. In Brazil, these insects are commonly referred to as "barbeiro" (barber) due to their tendency to bite the face during sleep.^[120] The first formal scientific description of a triatomine species occurred in 1773, when Carl De Geer named Triatoma rubrofasciata (originally as Cimex rubro-fasciatus), marking the beginning of taxonomic interest in these hematophagous bugs within the Reduviidae family.^[20] In the 1830s, Triatoma infestans, a key domiciliated species and major vector of Chagas disease, was described by J. C. Klug in 1834, highlighting the bugs' association with human habitats in South America.^[20] During the 1860s, Swedish entomologist Carl Stål contributed significantly to the classification of Reduviidae, recognizing patterns in triatomine morphology and behaviors that laid the groundwork for formalizing the subfamily Triatominae, distinguishing them from other predatory assassin bugs.^[121] In 1909, Brazilian physician Carlos Chagas, while investigating malaria among railway workers in Lassance, Minas Gerais, Brazil, discovered the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi in the blood of a young girl named Berenice and identified triatomine bugs (specifically Panstrongylus megistus) as the transmission vector after finding trypanosomes in their intestinal contents and experimentally confirming fecal transmission in animals.^[122] Chagas' comprehensive description of the disease, named American trypanosomiasis in honor of Oswaldo Cruz, encompassed the parasite, vector, and clinical manifestations, but faced initial skepticism from the international scientific community in the early 1910s regarding the parasite's pathogenicity and the completeness of the transmission cycle.^[122] This doubt was overcome through confirmatory studies by Chagas and collaborators, including demonstrations of natural infections in humans and animals across multiple regions of Brazil by 1912, solidifying the vector role of triatomines.^[122]

Major research advancements

During the mid-20th century, the World Health Organization (WHO) initiated large-scale campaigns to map and control Triatominae vectors of Chagas disease, employing insecticides like DDT starting in the 1950s to target domestic populations and generate foundational distribution data across Latin America.^[123] These efforts, exemplified by Brazil's 1950 national campaign, focused on Triatoma infestans and other key species, revealing widespread infestation patterns and informing early epidemiological strategies.^[124] Concurrently, genetic research emerged in the 1980s with the application of isozyme electrophoresis to delineate species complexes, such as within Triatoma dimidiata and Rhodnius prolixus, enabling the identification of cryptic diversity and population structures that complicated vector control.^[4] Advancing into the 1990s and 2000s, molecular phylogenetic studies revolutionized Triatominae systematics through multilocus analyses, with a 2014 comprehensive phylogeny of the Triatomini tribe using nuclear and mitochondrial markers to resolve intergeneric relationships and confirm the monophyly of major lineages like Triatoma and Rhodnius.^[15] Parallel investigations identified widespread insecticide resistance, particularly to pyrethroids like deltamethrin in T. infestans populations from the Gran Chaco region, where resistance was first documented in the late 1990s and linked to control campaign failures, prompting shifts toward alternative chemistries.^[125] In the 2020s, citizen science initiatives have enhanced surveillance via mobile apps, such as the 2025 "WhatsBarb" program in Mexico, which crowdsources photo submissions of suspected triatomines to map distributions and raise awareness, detecting vectors in urban-periurban interfaces previously overlooked by traditional methods.^[126] Genomic approaches have illuminated evolutionary dynamics, as seen in a 2025 multilocus study of the Rhodniini tribe that traced diversification events to Miocene-Pliocene transitions, revealing adaptive radiations tied to host associations and geographic barriers.^[23] Additionally, climate modeling projections indicate potential range expansions for some triatomine species under warming scenarios.

Control and management

Insecticide applications

The primary chemical agents employed for Triatominae control are synthetic pyrethroids, such as deltamethrin, which are applied via residual spraying due to their rapid knockdown effect and extended residual activity on treated surfaces.^[127] Historically, organophosphates like malathion and fenitrothion were widely used in vector control campaigns starting in the 1960s, but they have been largely replaced by pyrethroids since the 1980s owing to the latter's superior efficacy, lower toxicity to mammals, and longer persistence in indoor environments.^[128]^[129] The predominant application method is indoor residual spraying (IRS), involving the targeted application of insecticide suspensions to interior walls, ceilings, and other resting sites within dwellings to intercept and kill domiciliated triatomines.^[127] IRS campaigns are generally conducted every 6 to 12 months, with an initial blanket treatment followed by targeted re-spraying in re-infested areas to interrupt transmission cycles.^[128] Initial efficacy of pyrethroid-based IRS is typically high, reducing house infestation rates by 70-90% within the first few months post-application, though performance diminishes as the insecticide degrades and vectors adapt.^[130] A major limitation to IRS effectiveness is the emergence of insecticide resistance, particularly knockdown resistance (kdr) caused by point mutations in the voltage-gated sodium channel gene, the primary target of pyrethroids.^[131] These mutations, such as L1014F and L925I, alter the channel's structure to prevent insecticide binding, leading to survival and reproduction of resistant individuals.^[132] Insecticide resistance in Triatominae was first documented in the 1970s, initially to organochlorines like DDT in species such as Rhodnius prolixus, with pyrethroid resistance and associated kdr mutations emerging in the late 1990s and becoming widespread by the 2020s, especially in Triatoma infestans populations across the southern cone of South America.^[133]^[134] This has reduced IRS mortality rates from near 100% initially to as low as 3-10% after 12 months in resistant areas, necessitating resistance monitoring and alternative formulations.^[135]

Integrated vector management

Integrated vector management (IVM) for Triatominae encompasses a multifaceted approach that integrates non-chemical interventions with community participation to achieve sustainable control of these Chagas disease vectors, emphasizing prevention and long-term reduction in infestation risks. Central to IVM are housing improvements, such as plastering cracks in walls and roofs to eliminate harborage sites, which have demonstrated significant efficacy in reducing domestic triatomine infestations by over 80% when combined with other measures in endemic areas like the Bolivian Chaco.^[130] Similarly, the use of insecticide-impregnated bed nets has been shown to slow the spread and reinfestation by species like Triatoma infestans, providing a physical barrier that limits vector-human contact in rural settings.^[136] These structural modifications not only disrupt triatomine breeding cycles but also enhance overall household hygiene, contributing to broader public health benefits in regions with persistent transmission. Surveillance and monitoring form the backbone of effective IVM, enabling early detection and targeted responses to triatomine populations. Tools such as sticky traps, including card-based designs, have proven valuable for household-level detection, outperforming traditional manual searches in sensitivity and cost-effectiveness during post-intervention surveillance in areas like the Argentine Chaco.^[137] Citizen science initiatives further amplify these efforts through community reporting; for instance, mobile apps like TraeTuChipo in Venezuela facilitate real-time submission of triatomine sightings, improving distribution mapping and response times.^[138] More recent platforms, such as WhatsBarb launched in 2025, engage the public in identifying potential vectors, enhancing recognition and reporting accuracy in non-endemic expansion zones.^[139] Ecohealth approaches integrate these surveillance methods with community involvement, fostering local ownership through education and participatory monitoring, as seen in programs that empower rural populations to maintain vector-free environments.^[140] Emerging methods in IVM are expanding the toolkit for Triatominae control, focusing on innovative biological and environmental strategies. Environmental management, including targeted vegetation clearance around peridomestic areas, discourages sylvatic triatomine invasion by altering habitat suitability, as evidenced by reduced exposure risks in managed landscapes.^[141] Additionally, vaccines targeting animal reservoirs like dogs are in the preclinical pipeline, aiming to decrease Trypanosoma cruzi circulation and indirectly limit vector infection rates, representing a complementary upstream intervention.^[142] Recent studies as of 2025 have shown that treatment of dogs with isoxazolines such as fluralaner can achieve 90-100% mortality in pyrethroid-resistant triatomines feeding on them for up to 7 days post-treatment, offering a promising tool to reduce vector populations in peridomestic settings.^[143] These approaches, when integrated, address insecticide resistance challenges by diversifying control tactics.^[144]

References

[1]
[PDF] Arthropoda - Triatominae Jeannel, 1919 (Subfamily): Kissing Bugs
Introduction. Triatomines are insects belonging to the order Hemiptera, suborder Heteroptera, family Reduviidae, and subfamily Tri- atominae.
[2]
Trends in taxonomy of Triatomini (Hemiptera, Reduviidae ...
Jun 26, 2021 · Triatomines are part of the Hemiptera order, Heteroptera suborder, Reduviidae family and Triatominae subfamily [2]. There are 156 species in ...
[3]
Distribution patterns of Triatominae (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) in the ...
Feb 11, 2022 · Triatominae, commonly known as kissing bugs, are a group of approximately 150 species of hematophagous reduviids, some of which are vectors ...
[4]
Genetics and evolution of triatomines: from phylogeny to vector control
Triatomines are hemipteran bugs acting as vectors of the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. This parasite causes Chagas disease, one of the major parasitic ...
[5]
Life Cycle, Feeding, and Defecation Patterns of Panstrongylus ...
Apr 29, 2016 · Most triatomines are obligate blood feeders in all stages and therefore susceptible to infection by T. cruzi through their life cycle, which ...Missing: habits | Show results with:habits
[6]
Life Cycle, Feeding, and Defecation Patterns of Triatoma carrioni ...
Feb 15, 2019 · This study describes the life cycle, feeding, and defecation patterns of T. carrioni under controlled laboratory conditions using mice as hosts.Missing: habits | Show results with:habits
[7]
Eastern Bloodsucking Conenose, Triatoma sanguisuga (LeConte ...
This parasite has a complex life cycle, relying on both invertebrate vectors (such as the eastern bloodsucking conenose) and mammalian hosts (such as humans, ...
[8]
Comparative Feeding and Defecation Behaviors of Trypanosoma ...
... Triatominae) III: Patterns of feeding, defecation and resistance to starvation. ... feeding by kissing-bugs (Hemiptera: Reduviidae: Triatominae) Mem. Inst ...Missing: habits | Show results with:habits
[9]
The Parasite Load of Trypanosoma cruzi Modulates Feeding ... - MDPI
May 10, 2022 · Lazzari, C.R. The behaviour of kissing bugs. In Triatominae-The Biology of Chagas Disease Vectors; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany ...Missing: habits | Show results with:habits
[10]
Triatomines: Trypanosomatids, Bacteria, and Viruses Potential ...
Nov 16, 2018 · Triatominae bugs are the vectors of Chagas disease, a major concern to public health especially in Latin America.
[11]
Chagas Disease, an Endemic Disease in the United States - CDC
Aug 13, 2025 · Triatomine species from the southwestern United States have been shown to have a longer postfeeding defecation behavior than more efficient ...Missing: taxonomy | Show results with:taxonomy
[12]
Evolution of hematophagous habit in Triatominae (Heteroptera
Feb 19, 2015 · Phylogeny suggests that triatomines evolved from predator reduvids which in turn descended from phytophagous hemipterans.
[13]
A primitive triatomine bug, Paleotriatoma metaxytaxa gen. et sp. nov ...
The present study describes a primitive kissing bug (Hemiptera: Reduviidae: Triatominae) in mid-Cretaceous amber from northern Myanmar. The fossil, which is ...
[14]
Evolutionary History of Assassin Bugs (Insecta: Hemiptera ...
Triatominae are paraphyletic with respect to the reduviine genus Opisthacidius in the maximum likelihood analyses; this result is in contrast to prior ...
[15]
Molecular phylogeny of Triatomini (Hemiptera: Reduviidae
Mar 31, 2014 · The Triatominae subfamily includes 15 genera, seven of which comprise the Triatomini tribe, the most diverse, and two of which are assigned to ...
[16]
A revised classification of the assassin bugs (Hemiptera: Heteroptera
Jul 17, 2024 · Our new classification for Reduviidae reduces the number of subfamilies to 19 and recognizes 40 tribes. We describe three new subfamilies to ...
[17]
Trends in Taxonomy of Chagas Disease Vectors (Hemiptera ...
Dec 15, 2021 · Most descriptions of triatomine species are based on classical taxonomy. Facing evolutionary (cryptic speciation and phenotypic plasticity) and ...
[18]
Trends in evolution of the Triatomini tribe (Hemiptera, Triatominae)
Nov 2, 2022 · Currently, the subfamily Triatominae is divided into 18 genera and five tribes (Alberproseniini, Bolboderini, Cavernicolini, Rhodniini and ...
[19]
Triatominae - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
These five species, the main vectors of Chagas disease, represent 3 genera in 2 tribes, while the Triatominae are admittedly composed of 17 genera and 5 tribes.
[20]
Genetics and evolution of triatomines: from phylogeny to vector control
Sep 7, 2011 · The current classification of the Triatominae into five tribes and 15 genera is largely based on morphological characters, including ...
[21]
Phylogenomics for Chagas Disease Vectors of the Rhodnius Genus ...
We provide in this study a very large DNA dataset on Rhodnius species including 36 samples representing 16 valid species of the three Rhodnius groups.
[22]
Triatomines outside the Americas: a comprehensive dataset for the ...
Aug 26, 2025 · ... Triatominae (Hemiptera: Reduviidae). Also known as “kissing bugs”, the subfamily includes 159 species in 18 genera and five tribes. Although ...
[23]
Multilocus analysis uncovers the evolution of the Rhodniini tribe ...
Jul 1, 2025 · ... species than the currently described morphospecies in the Rhodniini tribe. Only four out of the 17 species analyzed were consistently ...
[24]
Triatoma - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The Triatomini includes 109 taxa (including the two fossil species), of which 84 belong to the genus Triatoma (one fossil) and 15 to the genus Panstrongylus ( ...
[25]
Trends in Rhodniini Evolution: Crosses & Reproductive Isolation
Jul 2, 2021 · The tribe Rhodniini is a monophyletic group composed of 24 species grouped into two genera: Rhodnius and Psammolestes.Missing: count | Show results with:count
[26]
Distribution patterns of Triatominae (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) in the ...
Feb 11, 2022 · Triatominae, commonly known as kissing bugs, are a group of approximately 150 species of hematophagous reduviids, some of which are vectors ...Missing: taxonomy | Show results with:taxonomy
[27]
Timing and directionality of Triatominae (Hemiptera, Reduviidae ...
Jul 15, 2025 · Triatominae , commonly known as kissing bugs, are hematophagous insects of significant epidemiological concern due to their role as vectors ...
[28]
Do the new triatomine species pose new challenges or strategies for ...
Forty-two years later, 46 new species and one subspecies have been described or revalidated. Here we summarise the new species and contextualise them regarding ...
[29]
Triatoma rosai sp. nov. (Hemiptera, Triatominae): A New Species of ...
Nov 26, 2020 · In this paper, a new species of the genus Triatoma is described based on specimens collected in the Department San Miguel, Province of Corrientes, Argentina.
[30]
Triatominae - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Triatominae are classified into 5 tribes and 15 genera and include 147 ... The subfamily Triatominae is divided into five tribes (Alberproseniini, Bolboderini, ...
[31]
Phenotypic variability in traits related to flight dispersal in the wing ...
Jan 9, 2023 · Wing size differed significantly across triatomine populations. The CVA showed that wing shape of the brachypterous population is well ...
[32]
Triatoma infestans | INFORMATION - Animal Diversity Web
A three-segmented proboscis arises from the front of the head. Other mouthparts include a reduced labrum and a small posterior pre-oral cavity, or hypopharynx.
[33]
Under pressure: phenotypic divergence and convergence ...
Apr 8, 2021 · Hence, the color of palm-dwelling bugs from each area (Fig. 3) closely matches their palm-microhabitat background, suggesting camouflage against ...
[34]
Morphology and morphometry of the scutellum of six species in the ...
May 12, 2014 · We found sexual dimorphism in all the species under study. In general for Triatominae, females are bigger than males (Lent and Wygodzinsky 1979 ...Meccus Pallidipennis · Meccus Picturatus · Discussion
[35]
(PDF) Blood digestion in triatomines - a review - ResearchGate
Aug 9, 2025 · Digestion takes place slowly over a long time, lasting 14 days in fully engorged females of Triatoma infestans [3], and more than 35 days in ...
[36]
RNA Interference of the Salivary Gland Nitrophorin 2 in the ... - NIH
Four of them, named NP1–NP4, store and transport nitric oxide (NO), which when released in tissues induces vasodilatation and reduced platelet aggregation ( ...
[37]
Functional aspects of salivary nitric oxide synthase of Rhodnius ...
Nov 22, 2017 · In the R. prolixus salivary glands (SG), nitric oxide is reversibly bound to lipocalins called nitrophorins (NPs), which correspond to an ...
[38]
Mechanisms controlling haemolymph circulation under resting ...
Triatominae circulatory system is quite simple, including the dorsal vessel which pumps haemolymph in an anterograde direction. The return is caused by ...
[39]
Triatomines (Hemiptera, Reduviidae) blood intake - ScienceDirect.com
Sex differences are also seen in meal sizes. Adult females consume between 2 (T. brasiliensis) and 3 (R. prolixus) times their body weight, whereas males ...
[40]
Malpighian tubules of Rhodnius prolixus: More than post-prandial ...
Mar 30, 2023 · This paper will review the involvement of Malpighian tubules in immunity and detoxification, identifying new aspects for Malpighian tubule physiology of R. ...
[41]
The molecular sensory machinery of a Chagas disease vector - Nature
Jan 6, 2017 · The triatomine bug Rhodnius prolixus is a main vector of Chagas disease, which affects several million people, mostly in Latin-America.
[42]
Nervous system of Triatoma infestans - PubMed
The central nervous system comprises three nervous masses: the brain+suboesophageal ganglion, the prothoracic ganglion, and the posterior fused ganglion (meso+Missing: Triatomine mobility
[43]
An inside look at the sensory biology of triatomines - ResearchGate
The ganglia composing the ventral nerve cord exhibit a high degree of fusion, conforming a mass of suboesophageal or gnathal ganglia, a prothoracic ganglion ...
[44]
Laboratory maintenance and care of Rhodnius prolixus (Hemiptera
Sep 19, 2024 · Triatomines have piercing mouthparts that consist of a 3-segmented proboscis held proximal to the head and thorax that extends during feeding.
[45]
Triatoma - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Triatominae are exopterigote insects. There is no pupal stage and metamorphosis is described as incomplete (hemimetabolous insects). The five successive ...
[46]
Triatoma sanguisuga | INFORMATION - Animal Diversity Web
The eggs of Triatoma sanguisuga are deposited once the female has been fertilized and has received a blood meal. During embryonic development, a higher ...
[47]
Triatominae: does the shape change of non-viable eggs ...
Oct 10, 2018 · Triatomine eggs are oval, elliptical, cylindrical or spherical, slightly asymmetrical forms, and present a smooth convex or ornamented operculum ...Missing: barrel- | Show results with:barrel-
[48]
Triatoma - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
... eggs with a minimum of 312 and a maximum of 1,166. From a total of 5,925 eggs, the incubation period was 21–26 days at 25°C at a relative humidity of 88–93%.
[49]
Microbiomes of North American Triatominae - PubMed Central - NIH
Triatominae are hemimetabolous insects with five nymphal instars. Both adults and nymphs feed on vertebrate blood. There are over 140 extant Triatominae ...
[50]
Kissing Bugs. The Vectors of Chagas - ScienceDirect.com
These bugs in the order Hemiptera differ from most other blood-feeding vectors by developing from egg to adult via nymphs that appear similar to adults but lack ...
[51]
Morphology, Life Cycle, Environmental Factors and Fitness - Frontiers
Feb 22, 2021 · There is always a decrease in development time with an increase of a constant temperature: the developmental cycle (egg to adult) lasted 602 ...
[52]
The Sexual Behaviour of Chagas′ Disease Vectors: Chemical ...
Apr 5, 2012 · Triatomine males locate partners through sex pheromones emitted by the metasternal glands (MGs) of females. These activate males, inducing them to leave their ...
[53]
Attraction of Rhodnius prolixus males to a synthetic female ...
Jul 16, 2018 · prolixus metasternal gland secretions induce males to: leave shelters, take off, orientate during walking, aggregate around mating pairs, and ...
[54]
Anatomy of the Spermatophore in Triatomines (Hemiptera ... - NIH
The copulation behavior of triatomines has been described similarly in all studies conducted on them. However, the time taken for copulation varies between the ...
[55]
Genital morphology and copulatory behavior in triatomine bugs ...
Our aim is to review the existing knowledge of the genital morphology and sexual behavior and provide some functional analysis of these traits in triatomines. A ...Missing: paper | Show results with:paper
[56]
Biology of Triatoma pallidipennis stal 1945 (Hemiptera - PubMed
The average number of eggs laid per female in a 9-month period was 498.6. The survival rates of adults were 357+/-217.9 and 262.53+/-167.7 for males and females ...
[57]
Reproductive Biology of Triatoma brasiliensis (Hemiptera ...
These insects are sexually active after the imaginal molt. Some aspects have been studied in Triatoma brasiliensis during the imaginal molt, such as autogeny in ...Missing: reproduction mating
[58]
Effects of mating on female reproductive physiology in the insect ...
Sep 20, 2023 · The blood meal is required for triatomine females to initiate egg production. Virgin and mated females are capable of making and laying eggs ...
[59]
Influence of mating and feeding on reproduction pattern of ...
The presence of male corroborated to increase female lifespan in 600%. The oviposition rate in mated female increased 275%.
[60]
The Influence of Environmental Cues on the Development ... - Frontiers
Feb 20, 2020 · During a bloodmeal, the infected triatomine insect sucks a significant amount of blood from the mammalian host, forcing the elimination of ...
[61]
Changes in male Triatoma infestans reproductive efficiency caused ...
In Triatoma infestans, reproductive capacity seems to be one of the processes most sensitive to low temperatures. Because suboptimal temperatures are very ...Missing: diapause | Show results with:diapause
[62]
Adaptive Developmental Delay in Chagas Disease Vectors
In various triatomine species vectors of Chagas disease (Triatominae, Reduviidae), a delay in the molt of a small proportion of individuals has been observed, ...
[63]
Zoonotic Cycle of American Trypanosomiasis in an Endemic Region ...
Examples include palm crowns, bird nests, opossum lodges, rock-piles, hollow trees, rodent nests, and bat caves. In most cases, triatomine species are ...
[64]
The Ecotopes and Evolution of Triatomine Bugs (Triatominae) and ...
megistus, can be found in palm crowns, all species are predominantly associated with terrestrial burrows, tree root cavities and/or arboreal tree holes. A ...
[65]
Trapping Triatominae in Silvatic Habitats - SciELO
Traps were suspended in hollows located in trunks and limbs of hardwood trees, or were placed in the crown of palm trees, among rocks or inside crevices. One to ...Missing: examples Rhodniini
[66]
CHICKEN COOPS, Triatoma dimidiata INFESTATION AND ITS ... - NIH
Piles of rocks and wood were quite common, but only one was found to be infested with triatomines. While the debate concerning whether house infestation by ...
[67]
House-Level Risk Factors for Triatoma dimidiata Infestation in ...
The peridomestic areas are characterized by chicken coops, cow sheds, and caneys. ... chicken sheds, caneys, mixed roofs, and rock piles.,–. The ...
[68]
Key Source Habitats and Potential Dispersal of Triatoma infestans ...
Oct 9, 2014 · To measure female fecundity, we counted the total number of chorionated eggs in the females' reproductive tract rather than recording the ...
[69]
How Chagas Disease Spreads - CDC
Feb 26, 2024 · Triatomine bugs, also known as kissing bugs, become infected by biting and sucking blood from animals or people carrying the T. cruzi parasite.Missing: Triatominae diapause
[70]
Factors Affecting Infestation by Triatoma infestans in a Rural Area of ...
Suitable bug habitat has often been associated with structural characteristics of houses and peridomestic structures: poor building conditions, wall cracks, mud ...<|separator|>
[71]
Panstrongylus - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
So, species of the genus Rhodnius are primarily associated with palms, the genus Panstrongylus has predominantly evolved in burrows and tree cavities, and the ...<|separator|>
[72]
The ecotopes and evolution of triatomine bugs (triatominae ... - SciELO
Host and habitat associations lead us to propose that T. cruzi 1 (Z1) has evolved in an arboreal, palm tree habitat with the triatomine tribe Rhodniini, in ...
[73]
Temperature and relative humidity affect the selection of shelters by ...
The preference of Triatoma infestans for shelters at different temperatures or relative humidities (RH) was tested in laboratory assays.Missing: dark crevices
[74]
The effect of relative humidity on the behaviour and development of ...
May 28, 2002 · To better characterize the effects of environmental RH on the biology of Triatominae, the impact of this environmental parameter on egg hatching ...Missing: microhabitat crevices
[75]
Behavioural and electrophysiological responses of Triatoma ...
Sep 11, 2017 · Insects were maintained at a temperature of 25–28°C and 60–80% relative humidity, and with an LD 8 : 16 h illumination cycle. Insects were fed ...
[76]
Historical Biogeography and the Evolution of Hematophagy in ...
Nucleotide sequences were used in molecular-clock analyses to estimate time divergence between species of Rhodniini. The potential distribution of each ...
[77]
Visually-guided defensive behaviors in triatomines (Heteroptera
Vision is likely the main sense involved in predator–prey interactions. While predators' visual systems are typically tuned to detect and precisely follow ...
[78]
Food web structure and microenvironment affect Chagas disease ...
Jan 11, 2023 · These predator–prey interactions can be applied to the study of vector-borne diseases because they influence ecological community structure ...
[79]
Competitive displacement in Triatominae: the Triatoma infestans ...
Aug 7, 2025 · Displacements typically result from interactions of multiple mechanisms, not all of which involve direct competition. Various biotic and ...
[80]
Under pressure: phenotypic divergence and convergence ...
Apr 8, 2021 · Under pressure: phenotypic divergence and convergence associated with microhabitat adaptations in Triatominae.Missing: crevices | Show results with:crevices<|separator|>
[81]
American triatomine species occurrences: updates and novelties in ...
May 31, 2022 · Also known as “kissing bugs”, the subfamily currently includes 157 validated species (154 extant and three extinct), in 18 genera and five ...Missing: count | Show results with:count
[82]
Using iNaturalist presence data to produce suitability maps for ...
Nov 6, 2024 · There are 11 species of triatomines in the USA, with seven reported in the American Southwest. These species are capable of transmitting ...
[83]
Atlas of Mexican Triatominae (Reduviidae: Hemiptera) and vector ...
Nineteen of the 31 Mexican triatomine species have been consistently found to invade human houses and all have been found to be naturally infected with ...
[84]
(PDF) Geographic distribution of Triatominae vectors in America
Oct 5, 2017 · The control of domestic populations of the most important Triatominae vectors in Latin America has been successful after 30+ years of vector ...
[85]
Amazonian Triatomine Biodiversity and the Transmission of Chagas ...
Feb 11, 2016 · The upper Amazonia and Guyana shield are hot-spots of biodiversity that offer genuine opportunities to explore the relationship between the risk ...
[86]
Elimination of Rhodnius prolixus in Central America
Feb 22, 2012 · In Central America, it was first discovered in 1915 in El Salvador, from where it spread northwest to Guatemala and Mexico, and southeast to ...
[87]
Triatomines: Trypanosomatids, Bacteria, and Viruses Potential ...
Currently, the 151 Triatominae species described are grouped in 17 genera ... A new species of Rhodnius from Brazil (Hemiptera, Reduviidae, Triatominae).
[88]
The Response of the Blood-sucking Bug Triatoma infestans to ...
The attractiveness to carbon dioxide depended on the time of the day, i.e. these nocturnal bugs only oriented towards carbon dioxide-loaded airstreams during ...
[89]
[PDF] Exploiting triatomine behaviour: alternative perspectives for their ...
Heat, water vapour and odours released by vertebrate hosts allow triatomines to detect their pres- ence, localise them in space and orient to their position.
[90]
[PDF] The Olfactory Chemosensation of Hematophagous Hemipteran Insects
Aug 9, 2021 · In the host-seeking process, heat, host odor, and carbon dioxide (CO2) are important cues for both kissing bugs and bed bugs. Kissing bugs ...Missing: nocturnal | Show results with:nocturnal<|separator|>
[91]
[PDF] Evaluation of a CO2-free commercial mosquito attractant to capture ...
Triatomines are nocturnal and often domiciliated. During the day, domiciliated species hide in refuges, located in crevices in the ceiling and walls of houses, ...
[92]
Identification of bloodmeal sources of triatomines captured in the ...
We identified only 3 sources for the blood meals of the insect vectors: human, chicken and canine blood. In total, 76 triatomines were captured.Missing: circulatory system hemocoel
[93]
[PDF] School & Home Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Newsletter
Blood is taken rapidly with feeding lasting 10 to 30 minutes. Fully engorged bugs can take one to five times their weight in blood, and the bugs will feed about ...
[94]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7144232/
[95]
Feeding and Defecation Behavior of Triatoma rubida (Uhler, 1894 ...
... (Triatominae). Trypanosoma cruzi is transmitted to humans when feces and/or ... Infection of kissing bugs with Trypanosoma cruzi, Tucson, Arizona, USA.Missing: habits | Show results with:habits
[96]
[PDF] Biology of Triatoma carcavalloi Jurberg, Rocha & Lent, 1998 under ...
Feb 27, 2014 · The average first meal occurred 3.1 days after hatching. The 5th stage nymph to adult intermolting period was the longest at 193.4 days. The ...
[97]
[PDF] s12864-025-11632-8.pdf - BMC Genomics
It also demonstrates a remarkable capac- ity for starvation, with fourth-instar nymphs displaying the highest resistance—surviving up to 120 days without food— ...
[98]
An Ecological Appraisal With Special Emphasis on its Insect Vectors
infestans have been known to endure starvation from 5 months to a year, depending ... and Triatominae. 1. Med. Entomol. 2:96-99. 195. Ryckman, R. E., Ryckman ...
[99]
Biology of Triatoma sherlocki (Hemiptera ... - BioOne Complete
Survival time under starvation conditions was measured between ecdy- ... for 551 days (approximately 1 year and 7 months). ... Triatominae: biologıa y control.
[100]
Alteration of the aggregation and spatial organization of the ... - Nature
Nov 22, 2019 · In adults, sexual attraction will also play a role in their distribution. In triatomines, the sex pheromone is emitted by the females, inducing ...
[101]
Host-Seeking Behavior and Dispersal of Triatoma infestans, a ...
Jan 8, 2015 · Chagas disease is transmitted by triatomine bugs that actively disperse by walking and flying. The control of this vector-borne disease focuses ...Missing: geotaxis chemotaxis<|control11|><|separator|>
[102]
Dispersal of Triatoma infestans and other Triatominae species in the ...
These results suggest that dispersal by walking in T. infestans females may be an adaptive strategy that could facilitate achieving successful colonisation in ...Missing: geotaxis chemotaxis
[103]
Behavioural biology of Chagas disease vectors - PMC
This report presents an analytical review of current knowledge about triatomine behaviour and suggests possible future research topics addressing particular ...Missing: ganglia fused
[104]
Flight Muscle Dimorphism and Heterogeneity in Flight Initiation of ...
The only case of flight polymorphism reported within Triatominae has been the wing polymorphism in Mepraia spinolai Porter, in which males may be macropterous, ...
[105]
Seasonal Flight Pattern of the Kissing Bugs Triatoma rubida and T ...
Mar 7, 2022 · They were surveyed during their summer dispersal flight period to determine which environmental factors are correlated with flight activity.Missing: geotaxis chemotaxis
[106]
Reinfestation Sources for Chagas Disease Vector, Triatoma ... - CDC
Jul 7, 2006 · Reinfestation by Triatoma infestans after insecticide spraying has caused elimination efforts in the dry Chaco region to fail repeatedly.
[107]
[PDF] Reinfestation Sources for Chagas Disease Vector, Triatoma ...
In addition to active dispersal, passive transport of T. infestans in workers' belongings provided an additional means of introducing bugs into communities ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[108]
[PDF] Untitled - IRIS PAHO
More than 50 species of triatomine bugs have been re- ported to be naturally infected with T. cruzi, and about a dozen are epidemiologically important as ...
[109]
Chagas Disease - Trypanosoma cruzi Life Cycle
An infected triatomine insect vector takes a blood meal from a mammalian host and releases trypomastigotes in its feces. Trypomastigotes enter the host through ...Missing: Triatominae contamination
[110]
Trypanosoma cruzi and Chagas' Disease in the United States
Oct 1, 2011 · T. cruzi is carried in the guts of hematophagous triatomine bugs; transmission occurs when infected bug feces contaminate the bite site or ...
[111]
Is vectorial transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi an efficient route to ...
Nov 29, 2019 · When insect vectors breed and feed inside the houses, a domestic cycle is occurring, involving human and domestic mammals as reservoirs [4,10].
[112]
Trypanosoma cruzi infections and associated pathology in urban ...
Mar 10, 2020 · opossums have long been recognized as T. cruzi reservoirs where they bridge transmission cycles to domestic animals and humans (Herrera and ...
[113]
Trypanosoma cruzi transmission in the wild and its most important ...
Sep 6, 2018 · A four-year study of the sylvatic transmission cycles of T. cruzi, performed in Argentina, concluded that cingulate and marsupials other than ...
[114]
Vital statistics of the introduced species Triatoma infestans (Klug ...
All studied specimens began feeding as soon as a blood meal source was offered, showing “aggressive” behavior. Feeding times were ˃ 10 min for all instars, ...
[115]
Triatomine bugs, their microbiota and Trypanosoma cruzi - NIH
Dec 9, 2016 · Triatomine bugs (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) are vectors of the flagellate Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease.
[116]
PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases - Research journals
The microbiota of triatomine guts represents one of the factors that may interfere with T. cruzi transmission and virulence in humans. The knowledge of its ...
[117]
[PDF] Triatomine Bugs: History, Control, and Citizen Surveillance
Jul 25, 2025 · Number of Triatominae species by country. Sources: [21–37]. Page 9 ... Rhodnius micki, a new species of Triatominae (Hemiptera, Reduviidae) from ...
[118]
An Illustrated Identification Key to Assassin Bug Subfamilies and ...
Peaks in taxonomic activity in Reduviidae occurred in the late 19th and early 20th century, spearheaded by the prolific Swedish entomologist Carl Stål as well ...
[119]
The history of Chagas disease - PMC - PubMed Central
Jul 10, 2014 · Identification of T. cruzi as the etiological agent and triatome bugs as the transmission vector of Chagas disease occurred within a few years ...
[120]
Different profiles and epidemiological scenarios: past, present and ...
Starting by the 1950s, the vector control programmes evolved from the use of organochlorinate insecticides, to be replaced by organophosphates, to then adopt ...
[121]
Campaign - Portal da Doença de Chagas
The 1950 campaign brought major projection to Chagas disease in the medical ... infestans species of the Chagas disease triatomine vector was the main ...
[122]
New Findings of Insecticide Resistance in Triatoma infestans ...
Toxicological tests conducted during the late 1990s showed small levels of deltamethrin resistance associated to control campaigns in Argentina and Brazil ( ...
[123]
"WhatsBarb" Citizen Surveillance: Survey of Insects Mistaken for ...
Mar 31, 2025 · Citizen surveillance has been demonstrated as an effective alternative strategy, increasing the possibility of monitoring vector populations on ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[124]
Potential geographic displacement of Chagas disease vectors under ...
May 21, 2025 · In tropical regions, rising temperatures and shifting precipitation patterns influence the distribution and behaviour of insect disease vectors, ...
[125]
Indoor residual spraying practices against Triatoma infestans in the ...
Jun 16, 2021 · Indoor residual spraying (IRS) of insecticides is a key method to reduce vector transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi, causing Chagas disease in ...
[126]
Past and present of Chagas vector control and future needs ...
Jan 21, 1999 · The active ingredients used since the 1960's were chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphorus, carbamate and pyrethroid insecticides. Chemical ...
[127]
Toxicological and biochemical analysis of the susceptibility of ...
Organophosphate insecticides were previously used to control T. infestans in South American campaigns, but have been replaced by pyrethroid insecticides ...
[128]
Improving houses in the Bolivian Chaco increases effectiveness of ...
Jun 11, 2021 · We conducted a pilot to test the impact of housing improvement plus indoor residual spraying (IRS) on house infestation and vector abundance in a rural ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[129]
Insights into the evolution and dispersion of pyrethroid resistance ...
Sylvatic populations of Triatoma infestans represent a challenge to Chagas disease control as they are not targeted by vector control activities and may play a ...
[130]
First report of two kdr mutations L1014F/S in natural populations of ...
First report of two kdr mutations L1014F/S in natural populations of Triatoma pallidipennis Stal and Triatoma picturata Usinger vectors of Chagas disease in ...Missing: Triatominae date
[131]
Insecticide resistance in vector Chagas disease - ScienceDirect.com
This is how the chemical control, historically based on the use of organochlorine, organophosphate, carbamate and pyrethroid insecticides, led to the reduction ...
[132]
Insights into the evolution and dispersion of pyrethroid resistance ...
Pyrethroid resistance in T. infestans was initially described in Argentina and Bolivia in the late 1990s.
[133]
Efficacy of Pyrethroid Insecticides Against Domestic and ...
Mortality from deltamethrin-sprayed walls, although initially low, recuperated at 3 mo and steadily decreased, resulting in 3.3% mortality at 12 mo. Mortality ...
[134]
Impregnated Netting Slows Infestation by Triatoma infestans - PMC
Impregnated netting can slow the spread of T. infestans and is a potentially valuable tool in the control of Chagas disease. INTRODUCTION. Chagas disease, ...Missing: plastering cracks
[135]
Improved detection of house infestations with triatomines using ...
Jan 14, 2020 · We conducted a matched-pairs trial of three methods for detecting house infestation with triatominae bugs in a well-defined endemic rural area in the Argentine ...
[136]
TraeTuChipo: citizen science for the surveillance of Chagas disease
Nov 18, 2022 · One project aims to provide real-time information on the distribution of triatomines using the help of Venezuelans to keep an eye out for the bugs around them.Missing: apps 2020s
[137]
“WhatsBarb” Citizen Surveillance: Survey of Insects Mistaken for ...
Mar 31, 2025 · A pilot community science program in Mexico for passive triatomine surveillance and increase Chagas disease awareness. SciELO Preprints ...Missing: 2020s | Show results with:2020s
[138]
Eco-health approach to fight Chagas disease
Sustainable prevention of Chagas' disease by reducing the risk of household infestation of Triatomine bugs, through the empowerment of communities to use ...
[139]
Overview of paratransgenesis as a strategy to control pathogen ...
Mar 31, 2022 · Wolbachia infections in insects can cause incompatibility of the egg and sperm, leading to sterility, feminisation, parthenogenesis and male ...
[140]
Habitat Management to Reduce Human Exposure to Trypanosoma ...
Aug 11, 2016 · The results of our research suggest that upstream control via careful vegetation management could serve as an additional means to discourage ...
[141]
Advances and challenges towards a vaccine against Chagas disease
Several vacines types, including recombinant proteins, DNA and viral vectors, as well as heterologous prime-boost combinations, have been found immunogenic and ...
[142]
Control of rural house infestation by Triatoma infestans in the ...
May 1, 2015 · This study reports for the first time a large-scale effect of a vector control intervention using a microencapsulated formulation of organophosphates and ...Missing: historical | Show results with:historical<|separator|>