Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Trichoderma viride

Trichoderma viride is a cosmopolitan species of filamentous fungus belonging to the genus Trichoderma in the phylum Ascomycota.^[1] It is characterized by its green-spored conidia, which are often warted and broadly rounded, and serves as the type species of the genus.^[2] This soil-borne ascomycete is known for its rapid growth, optimal at temperatures between 25–30°C, and its ability to produce lytic enzymes and antibiotics that enable it to act as an effective antagonist against plant pathogenic fungi.^[3] In terms of taxonomy, T. viride is classified within the class Sordariomycetes, order Hypocreales, and family Hypocreaceae.^[1] Morphologically, it features straight to hooked phialides and subglobose to ellipsoidal conidia, with strains exhibiting variations such as finely ornamented spores in some isolates.^[2] Molecular analyses have revealed potential cryptic species within what was traditionally identified as T. viride, including distinctions between the "true" T. viride (anamorph of Hypocrea rufa) and strains closer to T. asperellum.^[2] Ecologically, it thrives in diverse habitats including natural soils, decaying wood, compost, and plant rhizospheres, particularly in temperate and warm regions worldwide, where it functions as a saprophyte and opportunistic mycoparasite.^[3]^[2] One of the most notable aspects of T. viride is its role in biological control, where it suppresses soil-borne plant diseases such as root rot in crops like pulses and oilseeds through mechanisms including mycoparasitism, competition, and induction of plant defenses.^[3] Commercial formulations of T. viride are widely used as biofungicides to manage fungal pathogens, reducing the need for chemical pesticides.^[4] Additionally, it contributes to biotechnology by producing cellulolytic enzymes for lignocellulose degradation in bioenergy applications and has been explored for promoting plant growth and enhancing soil quality.^[3] However, it can also act as a contaminant, causing green mold in edible mushroom cultivation, which impacts yields.^[3]

Taxonomy and Phylogeny

Taxonomic History

The genus Trichoderma was established by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1794, with T. viride designated as the type species based on material collected in Germany and described in his work Dispositio Methodica Fungorum.^[5] This initial description characterized T. viride as a green-spored fungus, laying the foundation for its recognition within the Hypocreales, though early taxonomic concepts were limited by morphological observations alone.^[6] During the 19th century, T. viride solidified its status as the type species of Trichoderma, with subsequent mycologists building on Persoon's descriptions to incorporate it into broader fungal classifications, often emphasizing its soil-inhabiting nature and conidial morphology. By the mid-20th century, morphological revisions highlighted variability within strains attributed to T. viride, prompting Mien A. Rifai's seminal 1969 monograph, which proposed sectional divisions within the genus—such as the Viride section—to better delineate species based on conidial ornamentation, growth rates, and teleomorph connections. Advances in the late 20th century revealed T. viride as a species complex rather than a single entity, with molecular phylogenetic studies using ITS rDNA sequencing and RFLP analyses from the 1990s onward distinguishing cryptic diversity.^[2] This led to reclassifications of many strains, such as those with finer conidial warts and faster growth reassigned to T. asperellum (Samuels et al., 1998; Lieckfeldt et al., 1999), while others were placed in T. koningii or related taxa, reducing the circumscription of the "true" T. viride to a narrower clade.^[7] The teleomorph of T. viride is Hypocrea rufa, confirmed through these molecular correlations.

Current Classification and Synonyms

Trichoderma viride is classified within the kingdom Fungi, phylum Ascomycota, class Sordariomycetes, order Hypocreales, family Hypocreaceae, genus Trichoderma, and species T. viride Pers. (1794).^[8]^[9]^[10] Phylogenetic analyses using internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions of ribosomal DNA, along with translation elongation factor 1-alpha (tef1) and RNA polymerase II subunit (rpb2) gene sequences, place T. viride within the Viride clade of the genus Trichoderma.^[11]^[12] The Viride clade is the largest and most diverse group of species in the genus, including the type species T. viride.^[13] Accepted synonyms for T. viride include Hypocrea rufa (Pers.) Fr. (the teleomorph state), Trichoderma lignorum (Tode) Harz, Sphaeria rufa Pers., and Pyrenium lignorum Tode.^[8]^[14] Varietal names such as Trichoderma viride var. viride have also been used historically.^[15] The taxon T. viride sensu lato represents a species complex comprising multiple cryptic species, which are distinguished through multilocus sequencing of ITS, tef1, and rpb2 loci, revealing closely related entities like T. viridescens and others with varying conidial ornamentation.^[14]^[16] This complex highlights the need for polyphasic approaches in Trichoderma taxonomy to resolve morphological ambiguities.^[17]

Morphology and Reproduction

Vegetative and Macroscopic Features

Trichoderma viride exhibits rapid vegetative growth, forming colonies that reach a radius of 11–33 mm on potato dextrose agar (PDA) at 25°C after 48 hours.^[18] These colonies initially appear white or transparent, particularly on cornmeal dextrose agar (CMD), transitioning to pale green as they age due to spore production, and eventually developing a darker green hue.^[18]^[3] A characteristic coconut-like odor is often produced by mature cultures.^[18] The mycelium is cottony and floccose, with no diffusing pigments observed in standard media.^[18] The vegetative hyphae of T. viride are septate, hyaline, smooth-walled, and thin.^[19] These hyphae branch irregularly and form a dense, ramifying network that supports the fungus's saprophytic lifestyle.^[19] Optimal growth occurs at 22.5–25°C, with maximum temperatures around 30°C, enabling vigorous colonization of organic substrates.^[18] In natural settings, T. viride manifests as greenish patches or crusts on decaying wood, bark, and forest soil, often with whitish or yellowish margins.^[20] No stromata are formed during the asexual vegetative phase.^[3] Colony morphology varies by medium; on PDA, growth is granular and light green, while on malt extract agar (MEA), it tends to be faster and more uniformly velvety.^[21]^[22]

Microscopic Structures and Life Cycle

Trichoderma viride exhibits distinctive microscopic features characteristic of the genus, including branched conidiophores that form tree-like structures with phialides. The conidiophores display irregular branching with a short, sinuous main axis, typically 8–12 μm thick, and bear solitary hooked or sinuous phialides measuring (4.0–)6.5–11.2(–18.2) μm long and (1.0–)2.5–3.2(–4.0) μm wide at the base.^[14] These phialides produce conidia through enteroblastic conidiogenesis, resulting in warted, subglobose to ellipsoidal conidia that measure (3.0–)3.5–4.5(–5.5) × (2.8–)3.4–4.0(–5.0) μm, appearing green in mass due to pigmentation.^[14] The warted surface of the conidia serves as a key microscopic identifier for T. viride. Chlamydospores are typically absent in true T. viride strains.^[18]^[23] Asexual reproduction dominates the life history of T. viride, occurring via enteroblastic conidiogenesis where conidia are formed sequentially within phialides from inner wall layers.^[24] This process is triggered by environmental cues such as light and mechanical stimuli, leading to rapid sporulation in suitable conditions.^[25] In soil environments, asexual conidiation prevails, enabling efficient dispersal and colonization without reliance on sexual stages.^[6] Sexual reproduction in T. viride is rare and manifests through its teleomorph, Hypocrea rufa, which produces orange to reddish-brown stromata on decaying wood.^[14] Within perithecia embedded in these stromata, cylindrical asci develop, measuring (70–)87–112(–132) μm long and (4–)5.5–7(–8.5) μm wide, each containing eight uniseriate, hyaline, verrucose ascospores.^[14] The ascospores are dimorphic, disarticulating into a subglobose to oval distal part [(3.7–)4.5–5.7(–7.7) × (3.2–)4.0–4.7(–6.5) μm] and an oblong to wedge-shaped proximal part [(3.7–)4.7–6.5(–8.0) × (3.0–)3.5–4.2(–5.2) μm].^[14] The life cycle of T. viride begins with conidial germination under favorable moisture and nutrient conditions, producing germ tubes that develop into septate hyphae and extensive mycelial networks.^[26] Mycelial growth precedes conidiophore formation and sporulation, completing the asexual cycle in laboratory conditions typically within 2–5 days at 25°C on nutrient media like potato dextrose agar.^[18] Sexual stages, when induced, involve ascospore formation within stromata but are infrequently observed in culture.^[6]

Habitat and Distribution

Natural Environments

Trichoderma viride is primarily a soil-borne fungus, commonly found in rhizosphere soils where it colonizes the root zones of plants, as well as in decaying wood and forest litter.^[27]^[28] It thrives in environments rich in organic matter, such as plant debris, where it acts as a saprophyte breaking down cellulose and lignin.^[27] Additionally, it can exist as an endophyte within plant roots, contributing to internal microbial communities without causing disease.^[27] The fungus prefers neutral to slightly acidic soils with a pH range of 5 to 7, which supports its optimal mycelial growth and sporulation.^[3] As a mesophilic aerobe, T. viride exhibits peak activity at temperatures between 25°C and 30°C, requiring adequate oxygen for respiration.^[3] It is sensitive to extreme dryness, which limits spore germination and hyphal extension, and to flooding, which creates anaerobic conditions inhibiting its aerobic metabolism.^[29]^[30] In specific natural niches, T. viride occurs in agricultural fields associated with crop rhizospheres, forest ecosystems on decomposing litter, and compost heaps where organic waste accumulates.^[31] It can become problematic in mushroom beds, acting as a contaminant that outcompetes cultivated fungi like Agaricus bisporus due to its rapid growth on nutrient-rich substrates.^[3] Overall, T. viride is ubiquitous in soils globally, reflecting its adaptability to diverse organic-rich terrestrial environments.^[27]

Global Occurrence and Cultivation

Trichoderma viride exhibits a cosmopolitan distribution and is one of the most commonly reported and widely distributed soil fungi, occurring in diverse habitats from temperate to tropical regions worldwide. However, many historical reports under the name T. viride actually refer to the species complex including the closely related T. asperellum, with true T. viride (anamorph of Hypocrea rufa) more prevalent in temperate areas and T. asperellum in warmer regions; this distinction, established in 1999, affects interpretations of ecological data and biocontrol applications.^[2] As of 2025, the genus Trichoderma includes over 400 species, with ongoing molecular reclassifications.^[32] It has been isolated from soils across Europe, including Germany, Denmark, and Sweden; North America, with records from various U.S. states such as Maryland, Georgia, Wisconsin, Oregon, Virginia, and Washington, as well as Canada; Asia, encompassing countries like Korea, Vietnam, Japan, Taiwan, Russia, India, China, Indonesia, Mongolia, and others; and the Southwest Pacific, including New Zealand and Australia.^[2]^[3]^[33] In Asia, particularly in India and China, it is frequently found in forest soils, rhizospheres, agricultural fields, and vegetable gardens, showing a north-to-south gradient in species distribution.^[3]^[34] The spread of T. viride is facilitated by its wind-dispersed conidia, which enable long-distance dispersal, as well as through human-mediated means such as contaminated seeds and agricultural tools.^[2] Soil serves as the primary reservoir for this fungus, allowing it to persist and colonize new areas effectively.^[33] Cultivation of T. viride for biocontrol purposes involves mass production techniques using solid substrates like grains or liquid media to generate high spore yields. On solid substrates, sorghum grains are commonly moistened, sterilized, and inoculated, with incubation for 10-15 days to produce spore-covered biomass.^[35] Liquid fermentation uses media such as molasses-yeast or potato dextrose broth in deep tanks, followed by mixing with carriers like talc for drying.^[36]^[37] Resulting formulations include wettable powders, achieved by blending fungal biomass with inert carriers to reach concentrations like 1-1.5% WP, and granules for soil application, enhancing shelf life and ease of field use in biocontrol.^[38]^[39] Commercial strains are selected for virulence, such as isolates from Tamil Nadu, India, optimized for controlling root rot in pulse crops like blackgram through seed treatment formulations developed at local agricultural universities.^[40]

Ecology and Interactions

Role in Soil Ecosystems

Trichoderma viride plays a pivotal role in soil ecosystems as a saprotrophic fungus, contributing to organic matter decomposition and nutrient dynamics. Note that many ecological studies on T. viride may encompass the broader species complex due to historical taxonomic ambiguities, including cryptic species like T. asperellum. This species is commonly found in rhizosphere soils and is often among the most prevalent culturable fungi, influencing overall microbial balance. Its activities enhance soil fertility and structure, supporting sustainable ecosystem functions.^[41] In decomposition processes, T. viride excels at breaking down lignocellulosic materials, such as plant residues, through the secretion of hydrolytic enzymes including cellulases (endoglucanases, exoglucanases, and β-glucosidases) and hemicellulases. These enzymes synergistically cleave β-1,4-glucosidic and hemicellulosic bonds, converting complex substrates like corncob and eucalyptus sawdust into reducing sugars with activities reaching up to 10.785 U/g under optimal conditions (pH 4.8–5.2, 40–50°C). This lignocellulolytic capability facilitates the recycling of carbon-rich organic matter, improving soil aeration and humus formation.^[42]^[43] Regarding nutrient cycling, T. viride promotes phosphorus solubilization by secreting organic acids that lower soil pH and dissolve insoluble forms like tricalcium phosphate and lecithin, increasing available Pi by up to 394.75% in culture and enhancing plant uptake by 65–114% in shoots of species like Melilotus officinalis. It also indirectly supports nitrogen fixation through symbiotic interactions with diazotrophic bacteria such as Azotobacter chroococcum, boosting soil macronutrient levels and availability for plant growth. These mechanisms collectively improve soil nutrient pools without relying on external inputs.^[44]^[45] T. viride significantly impacts soil biodiversity by modulating microbial community structure, particularly in the rhizosphere, where it increases β-diversity (community variation) among bacteria and fungi while maintaining alpha diversity (richness and evenness). For instance, inoculation alters phyla abundances, such as reducing Saprotroph-Symbiotroph guilds from 22.55% to 13.26%, and enhances co-occurrence network complexity with 818 edges compared to 766 in controls, fostering resilient microbial interactions. As a dominant culturable fungus, it shapes ecosystem-level diversity tied to environmental factors like climate and vegetation.^[41]^[46] Symbiotically, T. viride engages in endophytic colonization of plant roots, promoting growth through hormone modulation, notably by producing indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) at levels up to 115 μg/mL in tryptophan-supplemented media. This auxin stimulates root development and biomass accumulation in hosts like Arabidopsis, mediated by auxin-dependent pathways and volatile organic compounds, thereby enhancing plant-soil nutrient exchange without pathogenic effects.^[47]^[48]^[49]

Antagonistic Mechanisms

Trichoderma viride employs multiple antagonistic mechanisms to suppress phytopathogenic fungi, primarily through direct confrontation and indirect modulation of host defenses. These interactions enable the fungus to act as an effective biocontrol agent in soil ecosystems, targeting pathogens such as Fusarium and Rhizoctonia species. The mechanisms include mycoparasitism, antibiosis, competition, and induction of plant resistance, often operating synergistically to inhibit pathogen growth and establishment.^[50] In mycoparasitism, T. viride directly parasitizes fungal pathogens by coiling its hyphae around the host's hyphae and penetrating the cell walls using hydrolytic enzymes. Key enzymes involved include chitinases, which degrade chitin, and β-1,3-glucanases, which break down glucan components of the pathogen's cell wall, leading to hyphal disintegration and nutrient acquisition by the parasite. This process has been observed in interactions with pathogens like Pestalotiopsis theae and Fusarium solani, where T. viride strain SDRLIN1 exhibited coiling and penetration in dual culture assays.^[50]^[51]^[52] Antibiosis in T. viride involves the production of secondary metabolites that diffuse into the surrounding environment and inhibit pathogen growth. Notable compounds include peptaibols, short peptides (14-20 amino acids) that form ion channels in pathogen membranes, causing leakage and lysis. These metabolites, produced during stationary growth phases, have demonstrated inhibition zones against Fusarium proliferatum (up to 80% mycelial growth reduction) and other fusarial pathogens in culture filtrate assays.^[51]^[53]^[54] Competition represents a non-confrontational mechanism where T. viride outcompetes pathogens for ecological niches through rapid colonization and resource utilization. The fungus exhibits fast-growing hyphae that quickly occupy substrates and root zones, depriving pathogens of essential nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, and iron via siderophore production. In rhizosphere environments, T. viride's aggressive growth has been shown to reduce pathogen establishment by 42-76% in dual culture setups against F. solani, highlighting its competitive edge in nutrient-limited soils.^[50]^[51]^[55] T. viride also induces systemic resistance in plants, priming defense pathways without direct antagonism of the pathogen. This involves elicitation of jasmonic acid (JA) and ethylene signaling, which upregulate pathogenesis-related (PR) genes and enhance physical barriers like lignification. Root colonization by T. viride triggers JA-dependent responses, leading to reduced susceptibility to foliar pathogens in crops like canola and tomato, as evidenced by altered stress gene expression and improved yield under field conditions. Secondary metabolites such as 6-pentyl-α-pyrone further amplify these defenses by modulating hormone pathways.^[51]^[56]^[57]

Applications and Uses

Biocontrol in Agriculture

Trichoderma viride serves as an effective biological control agent in agriculture, primarily targeting soil-borne fungal pathogens that cause root rots and damping-off diseases in various crops, including pulses, oilseeds, and vegetables. It suppresses infections by Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium species, which are major contributors to root rot in these plant groups.^[58] This fungus is particularly valuable for protecting crops like groundnut and tomato, where soil pathogens lead to significant yield losses.^[59] Field trials have demonstrated substantial efficacy of T. viride in reducing disease incidence. For instance, in tomato crops, seed and soil treatments with T. viride isolates reduced pre- and post-emergence damping-off caused by Pythium spp. and R. solani by 57-68%, improving seedling survival rates.^[60] In India, applications against root rot in groundnut (Macrophomina phaseolina) achieved up to 73% disease control through combined seed treatment and soil application, enhancing pod yield and plant vigor.^[61] These results highlight its role in sustainable disease management, often integrated with practices like crop rotation to disrupt pathogen cycles. Application methods for T. viride typically involve seed treatment or soil drench to ensure direct contact with roots and soil microbes. Seeds are coated with formulations at 4-10 g/kg, containing 10⁶-10⁸ colony-forming units (CFU)/g, and shaded-dried before sowing; soil drenches use 1-2 kg/ha mixed in water for even distribution.^[62]^[63] These approaches leverage T. viride's antagonistic mechanisms, such as mycoparasitism and competition, to colonize the rhizosphere and inhibit pathogen growth.^[64] Despite its benefits, the performance of T. viride can vary due to abiotic factors, including temperature fluctuations, soil pH, and moisture levels, which influence spore germination and antagonist activity.^[65] Optimal efficacy is observed under moderate temperatures (20-30°C) and neutral pH, with reduced effectiveness in extreme conditions requiring formulation adjustments or complementary strategies.^[66]

Industrial and Other Applications

Trichoderma viride serves as a significant source of industrial enzymes, particularly cellulases and xylanases, which are essential for breaking down lignocellulosic biomass in sectors like biofuel production and the paper industry. In optimized submerged fermentation systems, such as rotating fibrous-bed bioreactors, T. viride achieves enhanced cellulase production, with filter paper units (FPU) activities up to 35.5% higher than in conventional stirred-tank reactors, facilitating efficient saccharification of substrates like sugarcane bagasse for bioethanol generation.^[67] Similarly, solid-state fermentation on agricultural wastes yields high xylanase activities, supporting pulp delignification and waste valorization in paper manufacturing, with reported cellulase levels reaching approximately 300 FPU per gram of cellulose under suitable conditions.^[68] Beyond enzyme production, T. viride contributes to bioremediation efforts by degrading environmental pollutants in contaminated soils. The fungus effectively breaks down persistent pesticides, such as malathion and photodieldrin, converting them into non-toxic, water-soluble metabolites through enzymatic hydrolysis and microbial metabolism.^[69]^[70] For heavy metals, T. viride demonstrates tolerance and bioaccumulation capabilities, removing up to 4.66 mg/g of hexavalent chromium from aqueous solutions and mitigating nickel and copper toxicity in co-contaminated sites via biosorption and redox transformations.^[71]^[72] Despite its benefits, T. viride poses risks in certain applications, notably as a causative agent of green mold disease in mushroom cultivation. In Agaricus bisporus production, T. viride invades compost and casing layers, leading to rapid mycelial overgrowth, sporulation, and yield losses of up to 50% in affected crops due to competitive exclusion and toxin production.^[73] Additionally, though rare, T. viride can cause opportunistic infections in immunocompromised humans, such as nonfatal pulmonary trichodermosis in patients with acute myeloid leukemia, manifesting as invasive fungal pneumonia treatable with antifungal therapy.^[74] In animal nutrition, T. viride exhibits probiotic potential when incorporated into feed formulations, promoting growth through improved nutrient digestibility and gut health. Fermentation of substrates like wheat bran with T. viride enhances broiler performance, increasing average daily gain by 8.6% and feed conversion efficiency by 8.7% via elevated enzyme activities that aid fiber breakdown and microbial balance in the digestive tract.^[75]^[76]

Research and Future Prospects

Genomic and Molecular Studies

The genome of Trichoderma viride spans approximately 35–40 Mb and encodes around 12,000 protein-coding genes, aligning closely with the genomic architecture observed in related species such as T. reesei, which has a 34 Mb genome with about 9,300 genes.^[77]^[78] This compact size reflects the genus's adaptation as soil inhabitants and mycoparasites, with low repetitive content and efficient gene organization. Draft genome assemblies for multiple T. viride strains are publicly accessible via the NCBI database, including the assembly for strain Tv-1511 (GCA_007896495.1), submitted by the Institute of Biology, Shandong Academy of Sciences, which supports comparative analyses across the genus.^[79] Sequencing efforts have employed multilocus phylogenetic approaches, utilizing markers like ITS, tef1, and rpb2 to resolve the T. viride species complex and distinguish it from morphologically similar taxa such as T. atroviride.^[80]^[81] These studies reveal genetic divergences that underpin ecological specialization, with hybridization experiments confirming species boundaries within the complex. Genome mining in strains like J1-030 has uncovered biosynthetic gene clusters for secondary metabolites, including terpene synthase genes that drive terpenoid diversity, such as sesquiterpenes with potential antimicrobial roles.^[82] For instance, the gene Tvi09626 encodes a class I sesquiterpene synthase producing brasilane-type compounds, highlighting T. viride's capacity for novel natural product synthesis.^[83] Notable among genomic features in the genus Trichoderma, including T. viride, are ABC transporter genes, which facilitate the export of antibiotics and toxins, enhancing mycoparasitic fitness by enabling cell-to-cell communication and resistance to host defenses.^[84]^[85] These transporters, often clustered with secondary metabolism loci, contribute to the fungus's antagonistic mechanisms against phytopathogens. Recent molecular advancements include CRISPR-Cas9 editing protocols adapted for Trichoderma species, enabling targeted modifications to boost biocontrol traits like metabolite production or stress tolerance, though applications specific to T. viride remain emerging.^[86]

Emerging Developments and Challenges

Recent studies have demonstrated the efficacy of protoplast fusion techniques in enhancing Trichoderma viride strains for improved enzyme production, particularly cellulases, which are crucial for industrial applications. In a 2021 investigation, two-step protoplast fusion between compatible Trichoderma species resulted in hybrid strains exhibiting up to 1.8-fold higher cellulase activity compared to parental lines, attributed to upregulated cellulolytic genes and genetic recombination.^[87] This approach has been extended post-2020 to generate strains with superior antagonistic properties and yield enhancements, facilitating more efficient biocontrol formulations.^[88] Advancements in nanotechnology have introduced nanoparticle-based delivery systems for T. viride biocontrol agents, improving stability and targeted application against pathogens. T. viride has been utilized to biosynthesize silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) ranging from 4-28 nm, which exhibit enhanced antifungal activity against Fusarium oxysporum and Alternaria brassicicola when integrated into formulations, reducing pathogen growth by over 70% in vitro.^[89] These eco-friendly nanoparticles enhance spore viability and delivery precision, addressing limitations in traditional applications.^[90] To counter climate-induced stresses in agriculture, research has focused on developing heat-tolerant T. viride strains through genetic modifications. Transgenic Trichoderma reesei expressing a small heat shock protein from T. viride demonstrated significantly improved survival at 45°C and enhanced resistance to fungal competitors, promoting better root colonization and plant growth under elevated temperatures.^[91] Such adaptations leverage existing genomic resources to engineer strains resilient to abiotic stresses, ensuring sustained biocontrol efficacy amid global warming. Despite these innovations, T. viride commercialization faces regulatory challenges, including stringent EU approvals under Regulation (EC) No 1107/2009, which require extensive strain-specific safety and efficacy data, often delaying market entry.^[92] Ecologically, overuse risks disrupting native soil microbiota and inducing pathogen resistance, as repeated applications may select for tolerant fungal strains, potentially reducing long-term effectiveness.^[93] Looking ahead, synthetic biology offers prospects for engineering T. viride to produce novel metabolites, such as enhanced peptaibols and polyketides, through targeted gene editing for broader antimicrobial spectra.^[94] Integration with genetically modified crops, including the transfer of T. viride genes for stress tolerance into Brassica species, promises synergistic improvements in yield and disease resistance, fostering sustainable farming systems.^[95]

References

[1]
Trichoderma viride | Taxonomy - PubChem - NIH
Scientific Name. Trichoderma viride ; Rank. species ; Domain. Eukaryota ; Lineage. Eukaryota; Fungi; Ascomycota; Sordariomycetes; Hypocreales; Hypocreaceae; ...
[2]
A Morphological and Molecular Perspective of Trichoderma viride
Trichoderma (Ascomycetes, Hypocreales) strains that have warted conidia are traditionally identified as T. viride, the type species of Trichoderma.
[3]
Trichoderma Viride - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Trichoderma viride is a biocontrol agent for root rot, a soil-borne, green-spored ascomycete, and a destructive species infecting edible fungi.
[4]
Trichoderma - Biological Control
Trichoderma are fungi found in soils, colonizing plant roots and used for biological control of plant diseases.
[5]
Biology and biotechnology of Trichoderma - PMC - NIH
viride was a chemical with characteristic coconut-like aroma, a 6-pentyl-α-pyrone with antibiotic properties, the production of which was constantly improved to ...
[6]
Trichoderma: Systematics, the Sexual State, and Ecology
Trichoderma was first proposed as a genus by Persoon in 1794 (77) on the basis of material collected in Germany. Persoon in- cluded four species and evidently ...
[7]
https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.65.6.2418-2428.1999
[8]
Trichoderma viride - NCBI - NIH
THE NCBI Taxonomy database allows browsing of the taxonomy tree, which contains a classification of organisms.
[9]
Taxon: Trichoderma viride - USDA
Taxonomic Classification Level. Kingdom: Phylum: Class: Order: Fungi; Ascomycota; Sordariomycetes; Hypocreales. Family: Genus: Species: Sub-Species: Variety ...
[10]
m15 Trichoderma viride - Thermo Fisher Scientific
Taxonomy ; Phylum. Ascomycota ; Subphylum. Pezizomycotina ; Class. Sordariomycetes ; Order. Hypocreales.Missing: synonyms | Show results with:synonyms
[11]
Phylogeny of the genus trichoderma based on sequence analysis of ...
... phylogenetic relationships of species of Trichoderma sect. Pachybasium. To this end, 85 strains-including all the available ex-type strains-were analyzed ...
[12]
Phylogeny of the GenusTrichodermaBased on Sequence Analysis ...
Group A comprises two clades (A1 and A2), with A1 includingT. polysporum, T. piluliferum,andT. minutisporum,while A2 includedT. hamatum, T. pubescens,andT.
[13]
A revision of the genus Trichoderma. III. Section Pachybasium
Aug 7, 2025 · The phylogenetic connections of many of the genus Trichoderma members are still unknown, therefore Bissett's (1991) notions of "species ...
[14]
Hypocrea rufa/Trichoderma viride: a reassessment, and description ...
Its anamorph, T. viride, the type species of Trichoderma, is re-described and epitypified. Eidamia viridescens is combined as Trichoderma viridescens and is ...
[15]
Accepted Trichoderma names in the year 2015 - IMA Fungus
Sep 29, 2015 · Trichoderma Pers. 1794, typified by T. viride Pers. 1794, is an asexual morph-typified name and has priority over Sarawakus Lloyd 1924, ...Abstract · Introduction · Accepted Trichoderma Names...
[16]
[PDF] Hypocrea rufa/Trichoderma viride - Studies in Mycology
In spite of some discordant indications, that view held sway until. 1969 when Rifai (1969) monographed the genus and characterised T.virideas the only species ...
[17]
Species concepts and biodiversity in Trichoderma and Hypocrea
Trichoderma/Hypocrea is a genus of soil-borne or wood-decaying fungi containing members important to mankind as producers of industrial enzymes and biocontrol ...
[18]
https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.65.6.2418-2428.1999
[19]
Phylogeny of the Clinically Relevant Species of the Emerging ...
Vegetative hyphae septate, hyaline, smooth and thin walled. ... Nonfatal pulmonary Trichoderma viride infection in an adult patient with acute myeloid leukemia.
[20]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444595768000011
[21]
Cultural and Morphological Characterization of Trichoderma spp ...
T. viride on NA appear granular with light green and yellowish conidia dispersed through out the colony. No concentric rings were formed by T. viride on NA. T ...Missing: macroscopic | Show results with:macroscopic
[22]
Colony appearance of four different species of Trichoderma grown ...
This study aimed to characterize 41 isolates of Trichoderma from conventional cotton crops soils as the morphological and cultural characteristicsMissing: macroscopic | Show results with:macroscopic
[23]
A Morphological and Molecular Perspective of Trichoderma viride
Unfortunately, literature published before 1969 is likely to be unreliable because the name “Trichoderma viride” was applied to most strains ofTrichoderma spp. ...
[24]
(PDF) Asexual development in Trichoderma: from conidia to ...
Trichoderma spp. have served as models for asexual reproduction in filamentous fungi for over 50 years. Physical stimuli, such as light exposure and mechanical ...
[25]
conidiation in the filamentous fungus Trichoderma - PubMed
Physical stimuli, such as light exposure and mechanical injury to the mycelium, trigger conidiation; however, conidiogenesis itself is a holistic response ...Missing: viride | Show results with:viride
[26]
https://lamycosphere.com/en-int/blogs/the-future-is-fungi/trichoderma-ally-or-enemy-understand-its-role-in-myciculture-and-agriculture
[27]
Effects of temperature, light and incubation period on production ...
Jan 11, 2016 · Methods and results: The incubation temperatures of 20, 25, or 30°C were assessed on the production of T. atroviride conidia under constant ...
[28]
Trichoderma Species: Our Best Fungal Allies in the Biocontrol ... - NIH
This fungus is found in several substrates such as soil, other fungi, decaying plant material, and as an endophyte of several plants, acting as a biocontrol ...Missing: habitat | Show results with:habitat
[29]
Trichoderma species occurring on wood with decay symptoms in ...
Nov 19, 2015 · The aim of this study was to explore the species diversity of Trichoderma obtained from samples of wood collected in the forests of the Gorce Mountains.
[30]
Trichoderma - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Trichoderma is a fungal genus that was described in 1794, including anamorphic fungi isolated primarily from soil and decomposing organic matter (Persoon 1794).
[31]
Screening and Identification of Trichoderma Strains isolated from ...
Dec 21, 2021 · In this study, 1308 Trichoderma strains were obtained from the plant rhizosphere soil, above-ground plants, and decaying wood from natural habitats in China.
[32]
Trichoderma: The Current Status of Its Application in Agriculture for ...
Feb 19, 2022 · The presence of Trichoderma in the rhizosphere and plant tissues leads to increased plant tolerance to both biotic and abiotic stresses [155]. ...
[33]
Trichoderma biodiversity in China: Evidence for a North to South ...
This study therefore reveals a North–South gradient in species distribution in East Asia, and identifies Northern China as a potential center of origin of a ...
[34]
(PDF) Evaluation of Culture Media for Biomass Production of ...
Aug 6, 2025 · In general, grains are first moistened and sterilized and then inoculated with Trichoderma for production of spores, which occurs within 10-15 ...
[35]
[PDF] Low cost carrier material for mass production of Trichoderma ...
Sterilized rice powder supplemented with dextrose is a low-cost carrier for mass production of Trichoderma inoculants, using solid state fermentation.
[36]
https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/pdf/10.5555/20203084652
[37]
Performance appraisal of Trichoderma viride based novel tablet and ...
Oct 6, 2022 · In India, wettable powder of T. viride (1% WP) is recommended for the management of chickpea wilt (CIBRC, 2022). Poor load of cfu in stored WP ...Abstract · Introduction · Results · Discussion
[38]
Biotechnological development of Trichoderma-based formulations ...
Jul 21, 2023 · viride has conidia with a diameter of 3–5 µm and chlamydospores with a diameter of 8–10 µm) (Lewis and Papavizas 1984). Conidia are the most ...Dry Formulations · Liquid And Gel Formulations · Drying Techniques
[39]
Trichoderma Viride - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The fungus, Trichoderma viride is one such biocontrol agent, mainly used for the control of root rot diseases of pulses and oil seeds in Tamil Nadu.
[40]
Effect of Trichoderma viride on rhizosphere microbial communities ...
Jun 2, 2023 · Both T. viride and chemical fungicide could affect the structure of rhizosphere microbial community, they increased the β-diversity of microbial ...Missing: biodiversity | Show results with:biodiversity
[41]
Enzymatic Saccharification of Lignocellulosic Residues by ...
The results obtained demonstrate that fungi Trichoderma viride has cellulolytic potential to be used in bioprocesses that aim at obtaining enzymes for later use ...
[42]
A novel strain of Trichoderma viride shows complete lignocellulolytic ...
In this study we describe a novel dark-green strain of Trichoderma viride exhibiting complete ensemble of cellulase, hemicellulase and ligninase activities on ...Missing: decomposition | Show results with:decomposition
[43]
Effect of Trichoderma viride on insoluble phosphorus absorption ...
Jul 31, 2023 · Trichoderma viride (T. viride) is a biocontrol agent which able to solubilize soil nutrients, but little is known about its Pi solubilizing ...Experimental Design · Results · The Content Of Pi In Shoot...
[44]
(PDF) Trichoderma - Azotobacter biofilm inoculation improves soil ...
Inoculation with T. viride alone or with Azotobacter chroococcum increased soil micro-and macronutrients, enhancing the growth of cotton and wheat [138] . As a ...
[45]
Large‐scale Trichoderma diversity was associated with ecosystem ...
Sep 9, 2019 · In addition, the Viride Clade assembly showed higher turnover rate with increased geographic distance than the whole Trichoderma community and ...
[46]
Environmental Growth Conditions of Trichoderma spp. Affects Indole ...
Feb 8, 2017 · Many Trichoderma species are able to produce the auxin phytohormone indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), and its production has been suggested to promote root growth.
[47]
(PDF) Plant Growth Promotion Efficacy of Indole Acetic Acid (IAA ...
Aug 6, 2025 · T.viride VKF3 yielded a high IAA production of 115 μg mL/1 with 0.5% L-tryptophan.The IAA produced by the isolate was confirmed through Thin ...
[48]
Mechanisms of the IAA and ACC-deaminase producing strain of ...
Jan 11, 2019 · Trichoderma strains are free-living fungi in soil and can colonize plant roots and promote plant growth [4, 25]. A number of mechanisms for ...
[49]
Antagonistic Potential of Native Trichoderma viride Strain against ...
A potent antagonist against both tea pathogenic fungi, designated as SDRLIN1, was selected and identified as Trichoderma viride.
[50]
A Review Report on the Mechanism of Trichoderma spp. as ...
Hyphal interactions between Trichoderma viride and Ganoderma boninense Pat. cause of coconut root and bole rot. Journal of the National Science Council of ...2.1. Mycoparasitism · 2.2. Promoting Plant Growth · 2.4. Antibiosis<|separator|>
[51]
Biocontrol potential of Trichoderma-derived chitinase - Frontiers
Purification and characterization of chitinase from Trichoderma viride (N9) and its antifungal activity against phytopathogenic fungi. World. J. Pharm ...
[52]
Bioactive Secondary Metabolites from Trichoderma spp. against ...
... gliotoxin, gliovirin, and peptaibols may be involved [8]. Comprehensive ... Production of gliotoxin by Trichoderma viride. Ann. Appl. Biol. 1954;41:280 ...Missing: viridin | Show results with:viridin
[53]
Original article Antagonistic activity of Trichoderma harzianum and ...
Trichoderma viride showed antagonistic activity against F. proliferatum and F. verticillioides with mycelial inhibition rates of 80.17% and 70.46%.
[54]
Trichoderma Viride Manufacturer & Exporter | Microbial Species
Rating 4.8 (1,191) Trichoderma viride is a beneficial fungus widely used in agriculture for its ... The fungus exhibits rapid colonization of the rhizosphere, effectively competing ...
[55]
Involvement of Jasmonic Acid/Ethylene Signaling Pathway in the ...
Trichoderma viride Colonizes the Roots of Brassica napus L., Alters the Expression of Stress-Responsive Genes, and Increases the Yield of Canola under Field ...
[56]
Trichoderma as a Model to Study Effector-Like Molecules - PMC - NIH
May 15, 2019 · ... Trichoderma viride. Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol. 44 289–299. 10.1016 ... resistance through jasmonic acid/ethylene and salicylic acid pathways.
[57]
Trichoderma and its role in biological control of plant fungal and ...
May 3, 2023 · Trichoderma is mainly used to control soil-borne diseases as well as some leaf and panicle diseases of various plants.
[58]
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10189891/
[59]
[PDF] Biocontrol efficacy of Trichoderma isolates against tomato damping ...
Apr 20, 2019 · Trichoderma isolates, especially TR 55, increased germination and reduced damping-off in tomato seeds caused by Pythium and Rhizoctonia.
[60]
(PDF) Efficacy of bioagents against root rot disease of groundnut ...
Jan 24, 2021 · Efficacy of selected bioagents like Trichoderma harzianum, T.viride and Pseudomonas fluorescens were evaluated used as alone or with different combinations as ...
[61]
Trichoderma Viride 1.5% w.p. | Manufacturer & Exporter - Peptech Bio
Method of Application an Dosage of Trichoderma Viride 1.5% WP · Seed Treatment: Mix 8-10 gm formulation in 50 ml of water and apply on 1 kg of seed uniformly.
[62]
https://peptechbio.com/products/trichoderma-viride-1-5-w-p-tricho-pep-p/
[63]
https://katyayanikrishidirect.com/products/trichoderma-viride-bio-fungicide
[64]
https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9070912
[65]
https://doi.org/10.3390/plants9060697
[66]
Enhanced cellulase production by Trichoderma viride in a rotating ...
This study demonstrated the advantages of immobilizing mycelia in the rotating fibrous bed for cellulase production because of the easier reactor operation.Missing: decomposition | Show results with:decomposition
[67]
[PDF] Production of Cellulase by Trichoderma sp. by Utilization of Various ...
activity was ~300 FPU/gram of cellulose and 126 FPU/g of koji obtained (Xia et al ... Biodegradation of wastepaper by cellulase from Trichoderma viride.
[68]
Malathion degradation by Trichoderma viride and a Pseudomonas ...
Malathion was found to be metabolized quickly by a soil fungus, Trichoderma viride, and a bacterium, Pseudomonas sp., which were originally found in soils ...Missing: pesticides | Show results with:pesticides
[69]
Degradation of [14C]photodieldrin by Trichoderma viride as affected ...
Of nine species investigated, Trichoderma viride was the only one which degraded the insecticide to an appreciable extent into water-soluble, non-insecticidal ...
[70]
An efficient fungi-biochar-based system for advancing sustainable ...
Feb 15, 2025 · For example, a strain of Trichoderma viride was able to remove 4.66 mg/g of hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) from solution(Alabssawy and Hashem, ...
[71]
Screening of Native Trichoderma Species for Nickel and Copper ...
Mar 22, 2023 · Bioremediation of co-contaminated soil with heavy metals and pesticides ... Trichoderma viride: An alternative bioremediation of cadmium and lead.
[72]
Management of Green Mold Disease in White Button Mushroom ...
May 24, 2022 · ... Green Mold Disease in White Button Mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) ... green mould (Trichoderma viride) during the cultivation of Agaricus bitorquis.
[73]
Invasive Trichoderma spp. infections: clinical presentation and ...
Aug 5, 2022 · Nonfatal pulmonary Trichoderma viride infection in an adult patient with acute myeloid leukemia: report of one case and review of the ...Table 1 · Table 2 · Discussion
[74]
Full article: Effects of Trichoderma fermented wheat bran on growth ...
2014. Effects of fermentation by Trichoderma viride on nutritive value of copra meal, cellulase activity and performance of broiler chickens. Livestock Res ...
[75]
[PDF] Alternatives to Antibiotic Use for Growth Promotion in Animal ...
Trichoderma viride. Average daily growth and feed conversion were improved by 8.6 and 8.7%, respec- tively (17). Another experiment reported that an.
[76]
[PDF] Trichoderma Genome to Genomics: A Review - Walsh Medical Media
Oct 6, 2014 · Introduction. The genus Trichoderma is commonly found in soils and on decaying wood and vegetable matter. Strains of Trichoderma are rarely ...
[77]
Evolution and comparative genomics of the most common ...
Jun 12, 2019 · Among these fungicolous fungal genera, Trichoderma is the largest taxon with many ubiquitously distributed species. Detailed ecological and ...
[78]
ASM789649v1 - Genome - Assembly - NCBI
Trichoderma viride (ascomycete fungi) genome assembly ASM789649v1 from Institute of Biology, Shnaodong Academy of Science, China [GCA_007896495.1 ]Missing: QM9413 | Show results with:QM9413
[79]
Delineation of species within the Trichoderma viride/atroviride ...
The hybridization results showed that the morphologically defined species could be delineated molecularly, suggesting that the species are more separated than ...
[80]
MIST: a Multilocus Identification System for Trichoderma - PMC
Sep 1, 2020 · Currently, new Trichoderma species are defined based mainly on three phylogenetic markers: ITS rRNA, translation elongation factor 1-alpha (tef1) ...Missing: Pachypodium | Show results with:Pachypodium
[81]
Genome mining in Trichoderma viride J1-030
Aug 28, 2019 · Genome mining in Trichoderma viride J1-030: discovery and identification of novel sesquiterpene synthase and its products. Xiang Sun. Xiang ...
[82]
Genome mining in Trichoderma viride J1-030: discovery and ... - BJOC
Aug 28, 2019 · Through genome sequencing of T. viride J1-030 and prediction of the potential terpene synthases in J1-030 genome, gene Tvi09626 was selected and ...
[83]
The Genomes of Three Uneven Siblings - PubMed Central - NIH
Trichoderma ABC transporters have been shown to be important for cell-to-cell communication, e.g., the pheromone transporter STE6 in sexual development (350).
[84]
Identification of a New Biocontrol Gene in Trichoderma atroviride
Nov 19, 2008 · Isolation and sequence analysis of a Trichoderma ABC transporter gene. We identified and cloned the full sequence of an ABC trans- porter gene ...
[85]
Use of CRISPR‐Cas tools to engineer Trichoderma species - PMC
Jul 31, 2022 · The recent development of the CRISPR‐Cas system for gene editing has enabled researchers to achieve genome‐wide gene disruptions, gene replacements, and ...
[86]
Strain improvement of Trichoderma spp. through two-step protoplast ...
The results demonstrate that a 3-interspecific hybrid strain was isolated, with improved characteristics for cellulase degradation and showing genetic ...Missing: viride post-
[87]
Strategies for the Development of Industrial Fungal Producing Strains
Protoplast fusion is another strategy for strain improvement that allows the genetic recombination and development of hybrid organisms. It requires the ...
[88]
The Potential of Trichoderma-Mediated Nanotechnology Application ...
Sep 1, 2023 · Although the number of Trichoderma species has been increasing, research on the synthesis of NPs using this genus is still in its early stages.
[89]
Formulation of biocontrol agents from Trichoderma viride and ...
Formulation of biocontrol agents from Trichoderma viride and evaluation of viability, compatibility with metallic nanoparticles and decomposition efficacy of ...Missing: delivery | Show results with:delivery<|separator|>
[90]
Enhanced resistance to heat and fungal infection in transgenic ...
Apr 10, 2024 · The quality of these raw data was evaluated, and the retained clean reads were aligned to the T. viride Tv-1511 reference genome sequence ( ...
[91]
Molecular and genetic adaptations of heat-treated Trichoderma ...
May 24, 2025 · Heat-treated strains have also been shown to withstand harsh environmental conditions such as a pH of 3 to 12 and salinity of up to 14%, ...
[92]
In-depth comparison of commercial Trichoderma-based products
While Trichoderma strains are approved as active substances for pesticides under EU Regulation (EC) no 1107/2009, their status as biofertilizers is more complex ...
[93]
Trichoderma in Sustainable Agriculture and the Challenges Related ...
Growth Promotion and Modulation of the Soybean Microbiome INTACTA RR PRO ... Effect of Trichoderma viride As Biofertilizer on Growth and Yield of Wheat.
[94]
Advances in the discovery and study of Trichoderma natural ... - NIH
Jun 6, 2025 · Methods for culturing Trichoderma spp., isolating and characterising unique bioactive metabolites are discussed here, with an emphasis on ...
[95]
Improvement of oilseed Brassica crops by Trichoderma use
This interaction involves the use of genes from Trichoderma to genetically improve Brassica crops ... Potential and prospects of Trichoderma in plant protection.