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Tubercle

A tubercle is a small rounded nodule or projection found on bones, tissues, plant structures, or other biological features, serving various functional roles depending on the context.^[1]^[2] In anatomy, a tubercle denotes a small, rounded prominence on a bone that typically provides an attachment site for connective tissues such as muscles, tendons, or ligaments, thereby supporting movement and structural stability.^[3] Notable examples include the greater and lesser tubercles of the humerus, which anchor the rotator cuff muscles, and the tubercle of the rib, which articulates with the transverse process of a vertebra to facilitate rib motion during respiration.^[3]^[4] These bony features are distinguished from larger projections like tuberosities by their smaller size and more rounded shape, contributing to the overall architecture of the skeletal system.^[3] In pathology, the term tubercle specifically refers to a granulomatous lesion formed as part of the body's immune response to infection by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of tuberculosis (TB); these tubercles, also known as tuberculous granulomas, consist of central caseous necrosis surrounded by immune cells that aim to contain the bacteria and prevent dissemination.^[5] In active TB disease, such tubercles can liquefy, leading to cavitation in the lungs and potential spread of bacilli, while in latent TB, they remain dormant without symptoms.^[5] This pathological structure is a hallmark of TB and underscores the disease's chronic nature, affecting millions globally each year.^[6] In botany, a tubercle describes a small, wart-like protuberance on plant surfaces, such as seeds or nutlets, often aiding in dispersal, protection, or attachment; for instance, in species of the Caryophyllaceae family, seed tubercles vary in shape and size, influencing ecological interactions like soil adhesion or animal-mediated spread.^[7]^[8] These structures highlight the diverse adaptive roles of surface projections across kingdoms.

Etymology and definition

Etymology

The term "tubercle" originates from the Latin word tuberculum, a diminutive form of tuber, which refers to a swelling, lump, or even a truffle, thereby denoting a small swelling or protuberance.^[9]^[1] This linguistic root reflects the term's early association with nodular or elevated structures observed in natural forms. The word entered English usage in the mid-16th century, with the earliest recorded application in 1556, initially in anatomical descriptions to denote small, rounded projections on bones or other body parts.^[1] During the 16th and 17th centuries, anatomists such as Andreas Vesalius employed the Latin tuberculum in works like De Humani Corporis Fabrica (1543) to precisely identify such bony eminences, marking the term's integration into scientific nomenclature for structural features in human and animal anatomy.^[10] By the 19th century, the term evolved in pathological contexts, particularly through the work of René Laënnec, who in 1819 described tubercles as the characteristic nodular lesions in pulmonary tuberculosis, linking them causally to the disease in his Traité de l'auscultation médiate.^[11]^[12] This application broadened "tubercle" beyond anatomy to encompass pathological nodules, influencing its general biological usage as a small, rounded outgrowth or nodule.

General definition

A tubercle is defined as a small, rounded nodule, eminence, or warty outgrowth occurring on the surfaces of organs, tissues, or structures in plants, animals, and pathological contexts.^[1]^[13] This term encompasses projections that are typically compact and elevated, distinguishing them from broader or irregular formations. The word originates from the Latin tuberculum, a diminutive of tuber meaning "lump" or "swelling."^[9] Tubercle is differentiated from related anatomical terms such as tuberosity, which refers to a larger, often roughened bony prominence serving as an attachment site for muscles or connective tissues, whereas a tubercle is smaller and more rounded.^[14]^[3] In contrast to a nodule—a general term for any small, rounded mass or lump—a tubercle implies a more defined, wart-like or protuberant quality, particularly in biological or medical descriptions.^[1]^[15] Common characteristics of tubercles include their modest dimensions, though sizes can vary widely. They may fulfill roles in structural reinforcement, facilitating tissue attachments, or providing protective elevations on surfaces.^[3]^[14]

In botany

Leaf and stem tubercles

Leaf and stem tubercles are small, rounded outgrowths or wart-like protuberances that occur on the surfaces of plant leaves and stems, particularly in succulents and certain other families.^[16] These structures often arise from modified epidermal or cortical tissues and vary in size from minute bumps to more prominent nodules.^[17] In functional terms, tubercles on stems and leaves primarily serve roles in protection, water storage, and adaptation to environmental stresses. On succulent stems, such as those of cacti, tubercles facilitate water storage by allowing the plant tissue to expand and contract with seasonal moisture availability, preventing surface cracking during hydration cycles.^[17] They also enhance photosynthetic efficiency by increasing the surface area available for light capture without proportionally enlarging the overall plant volume.^[18] For defense, tubercles often bear spines or create a rough texture that deters herbivory; in cacti like those in the genus Mammillaria, tubercles support areoles from which spines emerge to protect the plant from grazing animals.^[19] On leaves, tubercles contribute to reduced water loss in arid-adapted species and may provide a physical barrier against herbivores through their verrucose (warted) morphology.^[20] Representative examples illustrate these roles across plant families. In the Orchidaceae, the tubercled rein orchid (Platanthera flava var. herbiola) features a prominent tubercle on the lip (labellum) of its flower, which guides nectar-seeking insects to one side, ensuring efficient pollinium removal and preventing cross-pollination inefficiencies.^[21] In the Cactaceae, areoles—specialized multicellular structures atop tubercles—produce both spines for defense and floral buds, as seen in species like Echinocereus, where the tubercle-areole complex supports reproductive and protective functions simultaneously.^[22] In leaf-bearing succulents such as Faucaria tuberculosa (Aizoaceae), white tubercles dot the upper leaf surfaces, aiding in camouflage and herbivore deterrence while contributing to the plant's overall water-retentive adaptations.^[23]

Root tubercles

Root nodules (historically known as root tubercles), are specialized swollen structures that develop on the roots of certain plants, primarily serving as sites for symbiotic associations with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Unlike true tubers, which are enlarged storage organs derived from stems or roots for nutrient accumulation and vegetative propagation, root nodules function specifically to house and protect bacterial symbionts that convert atmospheric nitrogen into bioavailable forms.^[24]^[25] The primary examples of root nodules occur in the Fabaceae family, which encompasses approximately 19,500 species worldwide,^[26] where they form through infection by soil-dwelling Rhizobium bacteria (or related genera). These nodules typically appear as small, rounded, pinkish growths on the roots of legumes such as soybeans, alfalfa, and peas, with the characteristic pink color arising from high concentrations of leghemoglobin, a plant-produced oxygen-binding protein.^[24] Within the nodules, the bacteria differentiate into bacteroids, which reside in membrane-bound compartments called symbiosomes and perform nitrogen fixation by reducing N₂ to ammonia using the enzyme nitrogenase.^[27] The formation of root nodules begins with the attachment of Rhizobium bacteria to root hairs, triggered by plant-released flavonoids that induce bacterial production of Nod factors—lipochitooligosaccharide signals that cause root hair curling and initiate infection thread development. This infection process prompts localized cell division in the root cortex, leading to the outgrowth of nodule primordia within 1–2 weeks. As the nodule matures, bacteria are released into host cells, where leghemoglobin maintains a microaerobic environment (oxygen levels of 3–40 nM) essential for nitrogenase activity, as the enzyme is highly sensitive to oxygen inactivation while bacterial respiration requires minimal oxygen supply.^[28]^[27]^[24] Ecologically, root nodules play a pivotal role in enhancing soil fertility by facilitating biological nitrogen fixation, which can supply 25–200 kg of nitrogen per hectare annually depending on the legume species and environmental conditions, thereby reducing reliance on synthetic fertilizers and supporting sustainable agriculture and natural nutrient cycling. This symbiosis occurs in nearly all Fabaceae species, contributing to the family's dominance in diverse ecosystems from temperate grasslands to tropical forests.^[24]^[26]

In mycology

Ectomycorrhizal tubercles

Ectomycorrhizal tubercles, also known as tuberculate ectomycorrhizae, represent a specialized variant of ectomycorrhizal symbiosis characterized by densely packed clusters of mycorrhizal root tips enveloped in a thick hyphal sheath, forming compact, tuber-like masses on plant roots. These structures develop as fungal hyphae aggregate around short lateral roots, creating a protective peridial-like mantle that encases the root cluster and facilitates symbiotic exchange. The mantle, often several micrometers thick, serves as a barrier against pathogens while extending the absorptive capacity of the root system.^[29] The formation of these tubercles enhances the host plant's access to soil resources in nutrient-limited environments, particularly through improved uptake of phosphorus and water via the fungal extraradical mycelium. Fungal hyphae penetrate soil pores inaccessible to roots alone, solubilizing and transporting immobile nutrients like phosphorus to the plant in exchange for photosynthates. This mutualism is especially adaptive in coarse-textured, low-fertility soils, where the tubercle's architecture maximizes contact with soil particles and moisture. Studies have also identified associated nitrogen-fixing bacteria within the sheath, contributing to overall nutrient provisioning.^[29]^[30] Prominent examples include the tuberculate ectomycorrhizae formed by Suillus tomentosus with conifers such as Pinus contorta var. latifolia (lodgepole pine), where the structures can attain diameters of 1–3 cm and exhibit a robust hyphal rind. Similar tuberculate formations occur with the angiosperm host Quercus, involving Boletus species, demonstrating the adaptability of this morphology across host taxa. These associations are typically monopodial or dimorphic, with the tubercle serving as a persistent, long-lived unit compared to standard ectomycorrhizae.^[29] Ectomycorrhizal tubercles are prevalent in boreal and sub-boreal forest ecosystems, particularly under coniferous canopies in regions with cold climates and nutrient-poor substrates, such as those dominated by Pinus species. First noted in the late 19th century amid early investigations into mycorrhizal associations by researchers like Albert Bernhard Frank, these structures gained detailed recognition in the 20th century through morphological studies. Post-2000 research has elucidated their nutrient transfer dynamics, confirming roles in phosphorus mobilization, water relations, and even indirect nitrogen fixation via bacterial partners, underscoring their ecological significance in forest productivity and resilience.^[29]^[31]^[30]

Spore and conidial tubercles

Spore and conidial tubercles are microscopic, knob-like projections adorning the surface of fungal spores or conidia, imparting a warty or bumpy texture that distinguishes them from smooth variants. These ornamentations, often termed "tuberculate" from the Latin tuberculum meaning a small swelling, originated in morphological descriptions in the late 18th century and were standardized in 20th-century fungal taxonomy with advances in light and electron microscopy.^[32]^[33] In the dimorphic ascomycete Histoplasma capsulatum, tuberculate macroconidia exemplify this feature, appearing as large, thick-walled, round asexual spores measuring 7–15 μm in diameter with prominent finger-like surface projections produced in the mycelial phase at 25–30°C. These structures are highly diagnostic for species identification in clinical mycology, though similar forms occur in unrelated fungi like Sepedonium spp.^[34]^[33] Among basidiomycetes, species in the genus Thelephora display tuberculate basidiospores, where the ornamented surfaces aid in taxonomic differentiation alongside variations in shape and size. The projections typically measure up to 1 μm in height and are visible under light microscopy, often after staining, emphasizing their utility in delineating fungal diversity.^[35]^[36] Such tuberculate ornamentations may enhance spore dispersal by increasing surface hydrophobicity, thereby reducing adhesion to water droplets and facilitating airborne or vector-mediated transport while promoting attachment to suitable substrates. In mycology, these features are pivotal for species-level identification, as spore morphology provides stable, heritable characters for classification.^[37]^[38]

In zoology

In invertebrates

In invertebrates, tubercles are small, protuberant nodules or bumps typically found on the dorsal or external body surfaces, serving functions such as sensory perception, physical protection against predators, or support for reproductive behaviors. These structures vary in composition, from soft glandular tissues to hardened calcareous or chitinous formations, and are common across phyla like Mollusca, Arthropoda, and Echinodermata.^[39]^[40] In mollusks, particularly dorid nudibranchs, dorsal tubercles on the mantle provide both mechanical reinforcement and chemical defense. For instance, in Phyllidia varicosa, the prominent, yellow-capped tubercles contain calcareous spicules and are associated with mantle glands that secrete toxic mucus, deterring predators like fish and crustaceans through potent secondary metabolites derived from sponge prey, such as isocyanosesquiterpenes. These tubercles enhance camouflage via aposematic coloration in coral reef environments and represent evolutionary adaptations for survival in predator-rich marine habitats.^[41]^[42] Among arthropods, tubercles often bear defensive setae or spines, as seen in lepidopteran larvae where dorsal tubercles support irritating hairs or chemical-releasing glands to ward off attackers. In echinoderms like sea urchins, tubercles act as ball-and-socket bases for movable spines, enabling rapid defensive postures or locomotion assistance on substrates. These examples illustrate tubercles' role in invertebrate resilience, with functions tailored to ecological pressures such as predation in diverse habitats.^[43]^[40]

In vertebrates

In vertebrates, tubercles are small, rounded projections or nodules on the skin, scales, or appendages, often serving specialized functions such as improving hydrodynamic efficiency, facilitating attachment during reproduction, or enhancing display signals.^[1] These structures vary across taxa, adapting to environmental pressures like aquatic locomotion or mating behaviors, and are distinct from bony eminences by their primarily soft-tissue or integumentary composition.^[44] A prominent example occurs on the leading edges of humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) flippers, where sinusoidal tubercles reduce drag by up to 32% and delay stall angle by approximately 40% through vortex shedding control, enhancing maneuverability during feeding and migration.^[45]^[46] This adaptation exemplifies how tubercles optimize fluid dynamics in cetaceans, allowing efficient low-speed turns without excessive energy expenditure.^[47] In amphibians, male frogs such as those in the genus Rana develop nuptial pads on their thumbs during breeding seasons; these pads feature spiny tubercles that provide grip during amplexus, the clasping embrace essential for external fertilization.^[48] The tubercles, supported by glandular tissues, swell and become keratinized, improving adhesion on slippery female skin and increasing mating success.^[49] Fossil evidence from the Late Cretaceous reveals tuberculate skin in dinosaurs like Edmontosaurus annectens, with conical tubercles forming part of a mosaic of scales and osteoderms preserved in "mummified" specimens from Wyoming badlands.^[50] These integumentary features likely contributed to visual display or thermoregulation in hadrosaur herds, adding texture to body surfaces for social signaling amid diverse Cretaceous ecosystems.

In human anatomy

Skeletal tubercles

Skeletal tubercles are small, rounded eminences or projections on the surface of bones in the human skeleton, typically smaller than tuberosities, that serve as attachment sites for tendons, ligaments, or muscles.^[3] These structures enhance mechanical stability by providing precise points for connective tissue insertion, facilitating movement and load distribution across the appendicular and axial skeleton.^[52] Prominent examples include the greater tubercle of the humerus, located laterally to the humeral head, which offers insertion points for the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, and teres minor muscles of the rotator cuff, enabling shoulder abduction and external rotation.^[53] Another key instance is the conoid tubercle on the inferior surface of the lateral clavicle, which anchors the conoid ligament as part of the coracoclavicular ligament complex, stabilizing the acromioclavicular joint against superior displacement.^[54] Additional examples include the adductor tubercle on the medial epicondyle of the femur, serving as an attachment for the adductor magnus tendon, and the pharyngeal tubercle on the anterior inferior surface of the basilar part of the occipital bone, providing attachment for the superior constrictor muscle of the pharynx.^[3] Clinically, skeletal tubercles are common sites for avulsion fractures, where forceful muscle contractions pull bone fragments away from the main structure; for instance, avulsions at the greater tubercle occur due to rotator cuff traction, often in athletes or following trauma.^[55] These conditions are typically diagnosed via X-ray imaging, where tubercles appear as distinct bony projections measuring approximately 2-10 mm in height, aiding in assessment of fractures or developmental irregularities.^[3] Developmentally, skeletal tubercles arise through endochondral ossification, a process beginning in utero around the sixth to seventh week of embryonic life, where cartilaginous models of bones are progressively replaced by bone tissue, with tubercles forming as secondary centers of ossification to support future attachments.^[56] This coordinated growth ensures tubercles integrate seamlessly with surrounding bone during fetal skeletal maturation.^[57]

Cranial and visceral tubercles

In human anatomy, cranial and visceral tubercles encompass various small, rounded projections in the head, brain, oral cavity, and genital region, serving roles from vestigial remnants to structural supports and embryonic precursors. These structures highlight the diversity of tubercular formations beyond skeletal attachments, often linked to sensory, developmental, or mechanical functions.^[58] Darwin's tubercle, a small projection on the posterior superior aspect of the helix of the auricle, represents a vestigial feature in the external ear. It is considered an atavistic trait, reminiscent of the pointed ears in mammalian ancestors, and occurs in approximately 10.5% of Spanish adults, 40% of Indian adults, and up to 58% of Swedish schoolchildren, with genetic factors influencing its bilateral or unilateral presence.^[59] This tubercle has no significant auditory function in modern humans but may occasionally cause cosmetic concerns, though it is typically asymptomatic.^[59] The genital tubercle arises during embryonic development around week 4 of gestation as an indifferent structure located cranial to the urogenital folds. By weeks 8–9, under the influence of dihydrotestosterone in genetic males, it elongates and differentiates into the penis, while in genetic females, it forms the clitoris without androgen exposure.^[60] This developmental tubercle is crucial for sexual dimorphism in external genitalia, with its phallic growth driven by mesenchymal proliferation and urethral groove canalization.^[61] In the oral cavity, maxillary tubercles include accessory cusps such as the cusp of Carabelli, a small elevation on the mesiopalatal surface of the permanent maxillary first molar, positioned lingual to the main cusps and contributing to occlusal stability. This tubercle enhances the grinding surface for mastication, aiding in food comminution by interlocking with mandibular teeth during occlusion, though its size varies and larger forms may occasionally disrupt alignment.^[62] Similarly, the maxillary tuberosity, located posterior to the upper molars, features subtle tubercles that provide structural support for occlusal forces and prosthetic fitting.^[63] In the oral region, bony exostoses such as torus palatinus on the hard palate may require surgical intervention if they interfere with occlusion or denture placement, using techniques such as laser excision or osteotomy.^[64]^[65] The tuberculum sellae, a midline bony elevation on the superior surface of the sphenoid bone, forms the anterior boundary of the sella turcica, separating the chiasmatic sulcus from the hypophyseal fossa. It provides structural integrity to the skull base, anchoring dural folds and facilitating the passage of optic chiasm fibers while protecting the pituitary gland.^[66] This tubercle is essential for neurosurgical approaches, as variations in its height can influence access to sellar lesions.^[67] Within the brain, the septotubercular tract comprises fiber connections from the septal nuclei to the olfactory tubercle, forming part of the olfactory-limbic pathway. These projections transmit olfactory signals alongside emotional and motivational inputs, potentially modulating reward responses to odors, though its precise function remains debated due to limited direct evidence in odor discrimination.^[68] The tract integrates with the ventral striatum, contributing to the brain's processing of chemosensory cues in a multisensory context.^[69] Variations in these tubercles often stem from genetic and ethnic factors; for instance, Darwin's tubercle shows higher prevalence in certain populations, prompting occasional elective surgical excision for aesthetic reasons via otoplasty techniques that preserve ear contour.^[59] Such interventions prioritize minimally invasive methods to minimize scarring and maintain oral health.^[65]

In pathology

Tuberculous tubercles

Tuberculous tubercles, also known as tuberculous granulomas, are characteristic granulomatous nodules formed as a host immune response to infection by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. These lesions consist of a central area of caseous necrosis surrounded by epithelioid macrophages, multinucleated Langhans giant cells, lymphocytes, and an outer fibrous capsule. The formation begins with the inhalation of bacilli, leading to an initial inflammatory response where alveolar macrophages engulf the bacteria; if the infection progresses, T-cell mediated immunity recruits additional macrophages that differentiate into epithelioid cells and fuse to form Langhans giant cells, encapsulating the necrotic core to contain the pathogen. In primary tuberculosis, this process often manifests as the Ghon complex, comprising a subpleural Ghon focus in the mid- or lower lung zones along with regional hilar lymphadenopathy. In the lungs, tuberculous tubercles commonly present as tuberculomas, which are well-circumscribed nodules typically ranging from 0.5 to 4 cm in diameter, often located in the apical and posterior segments of the upper lobes during post-primary or reactivation tuberculosis due to higher oxygen tension favoring bacterial growth. These lesions may cavitate if necrosis expands, leading to productive cough and hemoptysis. Extrapulmonary dissemination occurs in approximately 15-20% of tuberculosis cases, with lymph nodes being the most frequent site (accounting for 20-50% of extrapulmonary manifestations), followed by spread to the meninges in about 5-10% of extrapulmonary cases, where tubercles form basilar exudates potentially causing tuberculous meningitis. Diagnosis of tuberculous tubercles relies on histopathological examination of biopsy samples, which reveal acid-fast bacilli via Ziehl-Neelsen staining within the caseous material, confirming M. tuberculosis infection. This diagnostic approach traces back to Robert Koch's seminal 1882 discovery and isolation of the tubercle bacillus, which established the causative link to tuberculosis and enabled targeted identification methods. Anti-tuberculosis antibiotics, such as isoniazid, rifampin, pyrazinamide, and ethambutol, effectively treat active disease by sterilizing tubercles and resolving acute lesions over 6-9 months of multi-drug therapy. However, latent tuberculosis infection—where viable bacilli persist in dormant tubercles without active symptoms—affects approximately 23-25% of the global population, and without specific preventive treatment like isoniazid monotherapy, these latent foci can reactivate later in life.

Other pathological tubercles

Other pathological tubercles refer to abnormal nodular lesions that resemble the granulomatous structures of tubercles but arise from non-mycobacterial causes, including inflammatory, neoplastic, or infectious processes distinct from tuberculosis.^[70] These nodules often form as localized aggregates of immune cells or tissue responses, mimicking the compact, rounded appearance of true tubercles in imaging or gross pathology.^[71] In sarcoidosis, non-caseating granulomas appear as discrete nodules primarily in the lungs and skin, composed of epithelioid histiocytes and multinucleated giant cells without central necrosis.^[70] Fungal histoplasmosis produces tubercles-like granulomas in the lungs due to infection by Histoplasma capsulatum, where small yeast forms (2-5 μm) are identifiable within macrophages, often in endemic river valley regions.^[72] Rheumatoid nodules manifest as firm subcutaneous lesions in 20-30% of rheumatoid arthritis patients, typically over pressure points like the elbows, and feature central fibrinoid necrosis surrounded by palisading fibroblasts and histiocytes.^[73] Thyroid tubercles, in contrast, often represent benign anatomical extensions such as the Zuckerkandl tubercle or pyramidal lobe, which are normal posterior or superior protrusions of thyroid tissue that can mimic pathological nodules on imaging but lack granulomatous histology.^[74] Histological features vary by etiology: sarcoid granulomas are non-necrotizing and asteroid bodies may be present; histoplasmosis shows yeast-laden macrophages; rheumatoid nodules exhibit palisading with collagen degeneration; and thyroid extensions are simply hyperplastic follicular tissue without inflammation.^[75] Differential diagnosis relies on biopsy, with special stains (e.g., GMS for fungi) and cultures to exclude infection or malignancy, as these lesions can overlap radiographically with neoplastic processes.^[76] Epidemiologically, sarcoidosis has an incidence of approximately 10 per 100,000 in the United States, with higher rates in African Americans and northern Europeans.^[70] Post-2020 studies have noted that COVID-19 pneumonia can present with multiple solid pulmonary nodules mimicking tubercle-like lesions, often resolving spontaneously but requiring exclusion of infection or fibrosis via follow-up imaging.^[77]

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Molecular phylogeny and morphology reveal four new species of ...
Mar 13, 2023 · Generally, species of Thelephora contain a variety of shapes of basidiocarps and basidiospores with tuberculate or echinulate ornamentation, ...
[40]
[PDF] Handbook to Strategy 1 Fungal Species in the Northwest Forest Plan
Spores smaller, ornamentation up to 1 µm tall ... SPORES tuberculate to angular tuberculate, 4.5-9 x 4.5-8 µm, inamyloid, spore print white. Distribution ...
[41]
Spore Dispersal - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Spore dispersal refers to the process by which spores are released from fruiting bodies to facilitate their spread into suitable environments, ...
[42]
aMain spore surface ornamentation types used in this study. a,...
1b); (2) verrucate with longitudinal crest ( Shalimov et al. 2013) (Fig. 1c); (3) tuberculate: width of surface projections greater than or equal to height ( ...
[43]
A common terminology for the external anatomy of centipedes ... - NIH
(labral) tubercle/tubercles: [Geo] subconical, stout projection along the posterior margin of the labrum. Fig. 14. Syn.: (labral) tooth/teeth. paralabial ...
[44]
Phylum Echinodermata | manoa.hawaii.edu/ExploringOurFluidEarth
The spines attach to the plates on tubercles, ball-and-socket joints with muscles attached around the base that support and move the spines. The mouthparts of ...Exploring Our Fluid Earth · Activity: Comparing Echinoderms · Stella's Sea Urchins
[45]
https://pubs.aip.org/aip/pof/article/16/5/L39/458765/Leading-edge-tubercles-delay-stall-on-humpback
[46]
https://today.duke.edu/2004/05/design_0504.html
[47]
Aposematism: Unpacking the Defences - ResearchGate
bilineata are not known; however, in other lepidopteran species, tubercles can be equipped with spines, hairs, or glands that release irritating chemicals to ...
[48]
Tubercle - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
A tubercle is defined as a normal posterior extension of thyroid parenchyma that is composed of normal thyroid tissue, which can occasionally resemble a ...
[49]
Leading-edge tubercles delay stall on humpback whale (Megaptera ...
May 1, 2004 · The addition of leading-edge tubercles to a scale model of an idealized humpback whale flipper delays the stall angle by approximately 40%, while increasing ...Missing: study | Show results with:study
[50]
Mimicking Humpback Whale Flippers May Improve Airplane Wing ...
May 11, 2004 · Tests show that bump-ridged flippers do not stall as quickly and produce more lift and less drag than comparably sized sleek flippers.
[51]
Tubercles on Humpback Whales' Flippers: Application of Bio ...
May 14, 2011 · Bushnell and Moore (1991) suggested that humpbacks' tubercles might reduce drag due to lift on the flipper. Alternatively, various ...Abstract · Introduction · Acknowledgments
[52]
Frog nuptial pads secrete mating season-specific proteins related to ...
Nov 15, 2013 · Males of many frog species develop spiny nuptial pads with underlying glands on their thumbs during the mating period.Missing: tubercles | Show results with:tubercles
[53]
Nuptial Pad - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Amplexus is aided in many species by specialized patches of skin called nuptial pads on the forelimbs of males. Pairs remain in amplexus whereas the male sheds ...
[54]
Duck-billed dinosaur fleshy midline and hooves reveal ... - Science
Oct 23, 2025 · Sternberg discovered a skeleton of the duck-billed dinosaur Edmontosaurus annectens blanketed by large areas of scaly skin rendered in sediment.
[55]
Cellular structure of dinosaur scales reveals retention of reptile-type ...
May 21, 2024 · The preserved scales are tuberculate (i.e., non-overlapping and non-polarised) and polygonal-to-rounded scales. They are mostly ca. 0.8–1.2 ...
[56]
The Humerus - Proximal - Shaft - Distal - TeachMeAnatomy
Oct 29, 2024 · The greater tuberosity is located laterally on the humerus and has anterior and posterior surfaces. It serves as an attachment site for ...Proximal Landmarks · Shaft · Articulations
[57]
Greater Tubercle | Complete Anatomy - Elsevier
The greater tubercle is a large eminence on the lateral humerus, providing insertion sites for supraspinatus, infraspinatus, and teres minor muscles.
[58]
Tibial tuberosity: location, anatomy and function | Kenhub
The tibial tuberosity is a large broad protrusion located on the anterior surface of the proximal tibia. It can easily be palpated as the protrusion located ...
[59]
Conoid tubercle | Radiology Reference Article | Radiopaedia.org
Jul 27, 2022 · The conoid tubercle, also known as the coracoid tuberosity, is a bony prominence on the inferior surface of the lateral third of the clavicle. ...
[60]
Fracture Avulsion of the Greater Tuberosity: Arthroscopic ... - NIH
Apr 3, 2021 · The fracture avulsion of the greater tuberosity (GT) represents 2% of all humerus fractures, but the true incidence is likely to be higher, ...
[61]
Osgood-Schlatter Disease - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Osgood Schlatter disease, also known as osteochondrosis or traction apophysitis of the tibial tubercle, is a common cause of anterior knee pain in the ...
[62]
Embryology, Bone Ossification - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Bone ossification, or osteogenesis, is the process of bone formation. This process begins between the sixth and seventh weeks of embryonic development.
[63]
Bone development - PMC - NIH
They develop through endochondral ossification in a coordinated manner with the development of muscles and tendons. Bone formation in a tuberosity involves ...Bone Development · Endochondral And... · Origin Of Cartilage, Muscle...
[64]
Anatomy, Sphenoid Bone - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Sphenoid bone has many essential functions. It helps form the base and lateral sides of the skull in combination with the orbital floor. Its many articulations ...Missing: tuberculum | Show results with:tuberculum
[65]
Darwin's Tubercle: Review of a Unique Congenital Anomaly - PubMed
Result: Darwin's tubercle has been documented to be present in about 10.5% of the Spanish adult population, 40% of Indian adults, and 58% of Swedish school ...
[66]
Development of the Human Penis and Clitoris - PMC - NIH
At 8–9 weeks of gestation, the external genitalia consist of an indifferent genital tubercle. Sexual differentiation of the external genitalia is dependent upon ...
[67]
Embryonic origin and compartmental organization of the external ...
Nov 5, 2014 · The genital tubercle is the precursor of the penis and the clitoris, although early development of the tubercle is similar in males and females.
[68]
The functional role of the Carabelli trait in early and late hominins
De Terra (1905) and Dahlberg (1949) suggested that the Carabelli cusp is a trait that increases the molar occlusal surface to compensate for the evolutionary ...
[69]
Maxillary Tuberosity Reduction – Exodontia
A tuberosity reduction makes the tuberosity less prominent / smaller. If you have all of your teeth, an enlarged tuberosity usually is not a problem.
[70]
Tuberculum sellae - e-Anatomy - IMAIOS
Tuberculum sellae is the front raised edge of the sella turcica. It separates the chiasmatic sulcus at the front from the hypophyseal fossa at the back.
[71]
https://www.pathologyoutlines.com/topic/lungnontumorhistoplasma.html
[72]
Early prenatal development of the human precommissural septum
Apr 10, 1983 · Evidence presented suggests that the earliest fibers within the primordial septum are related to the tuberculum olfactorium and the medial ...
[73]
Sniffing out the contributions of the olfactory tubercle to the sense of ...
The olfactory tubercle receives monosynaptic olfactory input from both the olfactory bulb and the piriform cortex (White, 1965; Haberly and Price, 1977; Luskin ...
[74]
Er:YAG Laser: A New Technical Approach to Remove Torus ... - NIH
The aim of this study was to assess the ability of Er:YAG laser to remove by excision torus mandibularis and to smooth torus palatinus exostosis.
[75]
Torus palatinus (palatal tori) - Cleveland Clinic
When necessary, oral surgery is the go-to torus palatinus treatment. Surgical torus palatinus removal. Oral surgeons usually perform torus palatinus removal.
[76]
Sarcoidosis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Sarcoidosis characteristically has noncaseating granulomas with aggregates of epithelioid histiocytes, giant cells, and mature macrophages. To rule out systemic ...
[77]
Histoplasma - Pathology Outlines
Oct 8, 2025 · Histoplasmosis is caused by Histoplasma capsulatum, a dimorphic fungus endemic to the Ohio and Mississippi River valleys.
[78]
Histoplasmosis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Histoplasma capsulatum is a dimorphic fungus present worldwide in pockets of endemicity particularly associated with river valleys.
[79]
Rheumatoid Nodule - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Rheumatoid nodules are an extra-articular manifestation of rheumatoid arthritis and occur in approximately 30% of patients with the disease.40 Although rare, ...
[80]
Zuckerkandl Tubercle of the Thyroid: A Common Imaging Finding ...
Jun 1, 2012 · The ZT is a normal feature in all thyroid glands but is subject to anatomic and radiologic variation. It appears as a thickening where the ...
[81]
Sarcoidosis - Pathology Outlines
May 8, 2023 · Sarcoidosis is a multisystem granulomatous disorder with cutaneous involvement in up to 35% of cases.
[82]
Histoplasmosis: Practice Essentials, Pathophysiology, Etiology
Histoplasma capsulatum is a dimorphic fungus that remains in a mycelial form at ambient temperatures and grows as yeast at body temperature in mammals.
[83]
COVID-19 Pneumonia Presenting with Multiple Nodules Mimicking ...
Aug 11, 2022 · In this article, atypical CT findings of a 45-year-old female patient with multiple solid pulmonary nodules mimicking metastasis diagnosed with COVID-19