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Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus

Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) refers to strains of the gram-positive bacterial genus Enterococcus that have acquired resistance to the glycopeptide antibiotic vancomycin, complicating the treatment of infections they cause in healthcare settings.^[1] These opportunistic pathogens, which are normal inhabitants of the human gastrointestinal tract, primarily affect hospitalized or immunocompromised patients and can lead to serious infections including urinary tract infections, bloodstream infections (bacteremia), surgical site infections, and endocarditis.^[2] VRE's resistance poses a significant public health challenge due to its association with prolonged hospital stays, higher treatment costs, and elevated mortality rates compared to susceptible enterococcal infections.^[3] VRE first emerged as a nosocomial threat in the mid-1980s, with initial isolates obtained in 1986 in the United Kingdom and France, and reports published in 1988, followed by rapid dissemination in Europe and the United States amid increasing vancomycin usage and selective pressure from glycopeptide antibiotics like avoparcin in agriculture.^[4] By the 1990s, VRE had become a leading cause of healthcare-associated infections, ranking as the second most common enterococcal isolate in U.S. hospitals during 2011–2014, with E. faecium exhibiting vancomycin resistance in over 80% of central line-associated bloodstream infections and catheter-associated urinary tract infections.^[2] Recent global surveillance highlights ongoing prevalence, particularly of vancomycin-resistant E. faecium (VREfm), which accounts for up to 21% of bloodstream isolates in regions like the United Kingdom and contributed to an estimated over 54,000 hospital-acquired infections in the United States in 2017, though underreporting in low- and middle-income countries may underestimate the true burden; as of 2018-2021, the proportion of vancomycin-resistant E. faecium in central line-associated bloodstream infections and catheter-associated urinary tract infections had decreased to 22% and 38%, respectively.^[5]^[6] Key risk factors include prior exposure to broad-spectrum antibiotics (e.g., vancomycin or carbapenems), invasive procedures, indwelling devices, prolonged hospitalization, and underlying conditions such as diabetes, renal failure, or immunosuppression.^[2]^[3] Resistance in VRE primarily involves van operons that alter cell wall precursors, while treatment relies on alternatives like linezolid, daptomycin, or tigecycline, and prevention emphasizes infection control and antibiotic stewardship.^[2]^[1]^[7]

Introduction and Background

Definition and Significance

Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) refers to strains of the genus Enterococcus that exhibit high-level resistance to the antibiotic vancomycin, typically defined by minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of ≥32 μg/mL for the VanA phenotype and 4–512 μg/mL for the VanB phenotype.^[8] These bacteria are primarily opportunistic pathogens that colonize the human gastrointestinal tract as normal flora but can cause serious infections in vulnerable patients.^[2] The most commonly implicated species are E. faecium, which accounts for 80–90% of VRE cases, and E. faecalis, responsible for 10–20%.^[9] VRE is a major nosocomial pathogen, predominantly affecting hospitalized patients and contributing significantly to healthcare-associated infections such as bacteremia, urinary tract infections, and wound infections. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), VRE caused an estimated 54,500 infections leading to hospitalization and 5,400 deaths annually in the United States based on 2017 data from the CDC's 2019 Antibiotic Resistance Threats Report, with surveillance indicating increased incidence during the COVID-19 pandemic, peaking in 2021 and remaining elevated in 2022 compared to pre-pandemic levels. Incidence rates increased by approximately 20% during the COVID-19 pandemic compared to pre-pandemic levels, attributed to factors like prolonged hospitalizations and broad-spectrum antibiotic use.^[10]^[11] The economic burden is substantial, with attributable healthcare costs estimated at $539 million in 2017.^[12] As a key contributor to the global antimicrobial resistance crisis, VRE is classified as a "serious threat" by the CDC and a high-priority pathogen by the World Health Organization (WHO), underscoring the urgent need for enhanced surveillance and stewardship efforts.^[10]^[13] Infections caused by VRE are often associated with higher crude mortality rates compared to those from vancomycin-susceptible Enterococcus strains, though adjusted analyses show mixed results due to patient factors.^[14]^[15]

Microbiology of Enterococcus Species

Enterococcus species are Gram-positive, facultative anaerobic cocci that typically arrange in pairs or short chains.^[16] Belonging to the phylum Firmicutes and family Enterococcaceae, the genus encompasses over 60 recognized species, with Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium being the predominant isolates associated with human infections.^[17] These bacteria are non-spore-forming, catalase-negative, and capable of fermenting carbohydrates to produce lactic acid, enabling growth across a broad temperature range (10–45°C) and pH spectrum (4.6–9.9).^[18] They hydrolyze esculin in the presence of 40% bile salts and exhibit PYR (pyrrolidonyl arylamidase) activity, characteristics that facilitate their identification in clinical microbiology.^[16] As normal commensals of the human gastrointestinal tract, enterococci colonize the intestines of nearly all individuals, reaching concentrations of up to 10^8 colony-forming units (CFU) per gram of stool, though they constitute less than 1% of the total fecal microbiota.^[19] They are also found in the oral cavity, vagina, skin, and environmental sources such as soil, water, and vegetation.^[16] Their physiological robustness allows survival in harsh conditions, including tolerance to 6.5% sodium chloride, low pH (as low as 4.6), and bile salts, which aids persistence during gastrointestinal transit and contributes to biofilm formation on surfaces like medical devices.^[18] This adaptability underscores their role as opportunistic pathogens, particularly in immunocompromised hosts where disruptions in the gut barrier—often due to antibiotic exposure, surgery, or prolonged hospitalization—enable translocation and subsequent infections such as bacteremia or urinary tract infections.^[19] Enterococci exhibit intrinsic low-level resistance to several antibiotics, including virtually all cephalosporins (due to low-affinity penicillin-binding proteins and reduced permeability), aminoglycosides (owing to the absence of an aerobic electron transport chain required for drug uptake), and clindamycin (mediated by the lsa gene product).^[20] These traits, combined with their ability to form biofilms, enhance persistence in healthcare settings.^[16] Notable differences exist between the two primary human-associated species. E. faecalis accounts for approximately 80–90% of clinical enterococcal isolates and demonstrates higher virulence potential through factors such as adhesins (e.g., Ace and Esp proteins) that promote biofilm formation and tissue adhesion, as well as cytolysins that lyse host cells and other microbes.^[18] In contrast, E. faecium comprises 10–20% of isolates but is more frequently linked to hospital-acquired infections and exhibits greater intrinsic and acquired resistance to antibiotics like ampicillin and nitrofurantoin, with lower prevalence of virulence genes but higher biofilm-forming capacity in some strains.^[21] These distinctions influence their clinical behavior, with E. faecalis often causing community- and hospital-onset infections, while E. faecium predominates in nosocomial settings.^[19]

Resistance Mechanisms

Types of Vancomycin Resistance

Vancomycin resistance in Enterococcus species is primarily classified into phenotypes based on the level of resistance to vancomycin and teicoplanin, as well as the underlying biochemical modifications to the peptidoglycan precursors that reduce antibiotic binding. These phenotypes are inducible in most cases, except for intrinsic types, and are distinguished by their minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) and susceptibility patterns.^[22] The VanA phenotype confers high-level resistance to both vancomycin (MIC ≥64–1,000 μg/mL) and teicoplanin (MIC ≥16 μg/mL). It results from the incorporation of D-Ala-D-Lac instead of the normal D-Ala-D-Ala terminus in cell wall precursors, which reduces vancomycin's binding affinity by approximately 1,000-fold due to the loss of a critical hydrogen bond and steric hindrance.^[22]^[23] This phenotype is the most prevalent form of acquired vancomycin resistance in Enterococcus faecium and E. faecalis, accounting for 70–90% of vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) isolates in clinical settings worldwide, depending on geographic region.^[22]^[24] In contrast, the VanB phenotype produces moderate resistance to vancomycin (MIC 4–512 μg/mL) while maintaining susceptibility to teicoplanin (MIC ≤8 μg/mL). This is achieved through the inducible synthesis of D-Ala-D-Lac-terminated precursors (similar to VanA), which reduce vancomycin binding affinity by approximately 1,000-fold. However, due to the lower activity of the VanB ligase, a mixture of D-Ala-D-Lac and residual D-Ala-D-Ala precursors (10–50%) is produced, resulting in heterogeneous and moderate resistance levels.^[22]^[25] VanB-type resistance represents 10–30% of VRE cases and exhibits variable expression levels, which can lead to heterogeneous susceptibility in laboratory testing.^[24]^[26] Other phenotypes include VanC, which is intrinsic to E. gallinarum and E. casseliflavus/E. flavescens, providing constitutive low-level resistance to vancomycin (MIC 4–32 μg/mL) with teicoplanin susceptibility; it is not considered true VRE as it does not confer high-level resistance or spread horizontally.^[22]^[26] Less common acquired types, such as VanD and VanE, are rare and associated with low- to moderate-level resistance to vancomycin (MIC 16–64 μg/mL for VanD; 4–16 μg/mL for VanE), often with variable teicoplanin effects, and comprise less than 5% of VRE isolates globally.^[26]^[27] Other emerging acquired phenotypes include VanM, which confers high-level resistance to vancomycin (MIC ≥64 μg/mL) via D-Ala-D-Lac precursors akin to VanA, with variable teicoplanin resistance, and has been increasingly reported in clinical isolates from China and other regions since the 2010s, though global prevalence remains low (<5%). VanL provides low-level vancomycin resistance (MIC 4–8 μg/mL) through D-Ala-D-Ser and is rare.^[28]^[29]

Genetic and Molecular Basis

The genetic basis of vancomycin resistance in Enterococcus species primarily involves clusters of van genes that encode enzymes for synthesizing modified peptidoglycan precursors, reducing vancomycin affinity. The VanA cluster, the most prevalent for high-level resistance, consists of the operon vanHAXYZ, where vanH encodes a dehydrogenase producing D-lactate, vanA a ligase forming D-Ala-D-Lac dipeptides, vanX a dipeptidase cleaving normal D-Ala-D-Ala, vanY a carboxypeptidase removing D-Ala, and vanZ a protein of uncertain function potentially aiding membrane modification.^[30] This cluster is regulated by the upstream two-component system vanRS, with vanS as the sensor kinase and vanR the response regulator. Similarly, the VanB cluster features the operon vanHBBXY, with vanHB encoding a dehydrogenase, vanB a ligase producing D-Ala-D-Lac (but with lower teicoplanin resistance), vanXB a dipeptidase, and vanYB a carboxypeptidase, also under vanRSB control.^[31] These van clusters are typically carried on mobile genetic elements that facilitate horizontal gene transfer (HGT). In VanA-type VRE, the cluster resides on Tn1546, a 10.8-kb Tn3-family transposon often integrated into conjugative plasmids such as the ~50-kb pBRG1 in E. faecium, which transfers via pheromone-responsive mechanisms in E. faecalis. Tn1546 insertions are commonly flanked by insertion sequences like IS1216V, enhancing mobility. For VanB, the cluster is associated with Tn1547 or Tn5382-like elements on large plasmids, promoting dissemination among enterococci. Conjugative transfer is mediated by broad-host-range Inc18 plasmids or narrow-host-range pheromone-responsive plasmids (e.g., pAD1, pCF10), where sex pheromones induce donor-recipient mating.^[32]^[33] The van genes originated from glycopeptide-producing soil bacteria, such as actinomycetes, and were acquired by enterococci through HGT, likely from environmental reservoirs or other enterococcal strains. Integrons and insertion sequences (e.g., IS elements surrounding Tn1546) further promote cassette exchange and transposition, accelerating spread within bacterial communities.^[34]^[35] Regulation of van clusters is predominantly inducible: vancomycin exposure activates VanS, leading to phosphorylation and activation of VanR, which binds promoters to upregulate the operon, producing resistance precursors only when needed. Constitutive expression, resulting in constant resistance without induction, is rare and typically arises from mutations impairing VanS phosphatase activity, as seen in some VanD or VanC variants.^[36]

Epidemiology

Prevalence and Distribution

Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) has emerged as a significant global health concern, with prevalence rates showing a marked increase over recent decades. Initially rare in the 1980s at approximately 0.05% among human and animal isolates, VRE prevalence has risen dramatically, reaching up to 99% in certain high-risk settings worldwide by the 2020s.^[12] This escalation is driven by selective pressure from widespread antibiotic use, particularly vancomycin, in healthcare and agricultural environments. Globally, VRE now accounts for a substantial proportion of enterococcal infections, with pooled colonization rates in humans ranging from 8% in hospital-associated cases to higher levels in specific reservoirs like poultry (16%).^[37]^[38] In the United States, VRE constitutes around 30% of healthcare-associated enterococcal infections, predominantly involving E. faecium where resistance rates exceed 80% in many isolates. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimated 54,500 VRE infections among hospitalized patients in 2017, with cases fluctuating but showing an uptick to approximately 50,300 by 2020 amid the COVID-19 pandemic. Recent data indicate resistance in 17.5% of clinical E. faecium isolates from 2020–2022, up from 13.3% in prior decades. In Europe, prevalence varies by country, with 2021 surveillance data from the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) reporting vancomycin resistance in E. faecium invasive isolates at 25% or higher in 39% of reporting nations and over 50% in 11%, averaging 10–40% across the region. Asia exhibits some of the highest rates, particularly in India where VRE prevalence among clinical samples reached up to 45.6% by 2021, with overall rates at 12.4%.^[39]^[40]^[41] Trends up to 2022 continue to show increasing VRE occurrence, attributed to ongoing antibiotic pressure and dissemination from animal reservoirs such as livestock via the food chain, with meta-analyses confirming a 0.75% annual increase in human colonization linked to antimicrobial exposure (as of 2022).^[42] Prevalence remains low in community settings (1–5%), but around 8–14% in hospitals, with higher rates (up to 20–30%) in high-risk units such as ICUs and oncology wards; colonization in long-term care facilities typically ranges from 1–8% among residents. Geographic hotspots include high rates of VRE in hematology and oncology patients in Australia and elevated hospital-associated cases in Brazil amid regional surveillance challenges.^[37]^[43]

Risk Factors and Transmission

Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) is primarily transmitted in healthcare settings, where the majority of cases are nosocomial in origin.^[40] Transmission occurs predominantly through person-to-person contact via contaminated hands of healthcare workers, as well as via medical equipment and environmental surfaces.^[44] VRE can persist on dry inanimate surfaces for extended periods, surviving more than 7 days and up to several months in some cases, facilitating indirect spread. Key risk factors for VRE colonization and infection include prolonged hospitalization, exposure to intensive care units, and prior use of broad-spectrum antibiotics such as vancomycin or cephalosporins.^[45] Immunosuppressed patients, particularly those undergoing organ transplantation or chemotherapy, face elevated risks due to underlying severe disease.^[46] Additional vulnerabilities arise from invasive procedures like central venous catheter placement and gastrointestinal surgery, which can disrupt normal flora and promote colonization.^[47]^[48] Community-acquired VRE remains rare but has shown signs of increase, often linked to environmental sources such as contaminated food (e.g., undercooked meat) and water.^[49] In healthy adults, VRE colonization rates are generally low, varying from 0% to approximately 15% depending on the population studied.^[50] Outbreaks of VRE are frequently driven by clonal dissemination, with sequence type 17 (E. faecium) representing a dominant epidemic lineage responsible for widespread nosocomial spread.^[51] The emergence of vancomycin resistance in human Enterococcus has been partly attributed to selective pressure from glycopeptide antibiotics used in agriculture, notably avoparcin, which was banned as a growth promoter in the European Union in 1997 but was never approved for use in the United States.^[52]^[53] Underreporting in low- and middle-income countries may underestimate the global burden, as highlighted by recent One Health surveillance efforts.^[54]

Clinical Aspects

Types of Infections

Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) primarily causes healthcare-associated infections, with bacteremia being one of the most common and lethal manifestations.^[2] These bloodstream infections often originate from indwelling catheters or other invasive devices and are associated with high mortality rates of 20-40%, which can rise to 50% in intensive care unit settings due to complications such as septic shock.^[55]^[2] Urinary tract infections represent another frequent VRE presentation, comprising about 30-50% of cases and often linked to catheter use, though many remain asymptomatic.^[56] Intra-abdominal infections, including peritonitis following surgery, occur in roughly 30% of VRE episodes and are typically polymicrobial, involving other gram-negative or anaerobic bacteria in 20-30% of instances.^[2]^[56] Severe forms of VRE infection include endocarditis, predominantly involving E. faecalis, as well as wound and skin infections arising from surgical sites or pressure ulcers.^[57] Meningitis is a rare complication, observed mainly in neonates or post-neurosurgical patients.^[2] VRE infections disproportionately affect at-risk populations such as the elderly, patients undergoing dialysis, and those with prolonged hospital stays or immunosuppression, where polymicrobial involvement exacerbates outcomes.^[2]

Pathogenesis and Virulence Factors

Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) primarily originates as a commensal in the human gastrointestinal tract, where it resides asymptomatically as part of the normal microbiota.^[58] Antibiotic-induced dysbiosis disrupts the gut microbial balance, promoting enterococcal overgrowth and facilitating translocation across the intestinal barrier into the bloodstream or other sterile sites.^[59] This translocation is exacerbated by factors such as severe inflammation or barrier compromise, enabling systemic dissemination and infection establishment.^[60] Biofilm formation further contributes to pathogenesis by allowing VRE to adhere to and persist on indwelling medical devices like urinary catheters, shielding bacteria from host defenses and antimicrobials.^[61] Key virulence factors in VRE enhance colonization, invasion, and tissue damage. In Enterococcus faecium, the enterococcal surface protein (Esp) adhesin promotes adherence to host cells and biofilm formation, aiding persistence in clinical settings.^[62] In Enterococcus faecalis, gelatinase (GelE), a zinc metalloproteinase, and serine protease facilitate tissue degradation and nutrient acquisition during invasion.^[63] Enterococcus faecalis strains often express cytolysin (also known as hemolysin), a toxin encoded by the cyl operon that exhibits bactericidal and cytolytic activity against host cells, contributing to cytotoxicity and inflammation.^[62] VRE interacts with host factors to evade immunity and exploit polymicrobial environments. A polysaccharide capsule in E. faecalis confers resistance to phagocytosis and complement-mediated killing, promoting survival within the host.^[64] In polymicrobial infections, VRE synergizes with other pathogens, such as in catheter-associated biofilms, where interspecies interactions enhance overall persistence and virulence.^[65] Disease progression in VRE typically begins with asymptomatic gastrointestinal colonization, progressing to invasive infection upon translocation, often leading to bacteremia or device-related foci.^[66] E. faecalis generally exhibits higher virulence potential than E. faecium due to a broader array of adhesins, toxins, and invasins, correlating with more frequent severe outcomes in infections.^[67]

Diagnosis

Screening Protocols

Screening for vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) colonization is a key component of active surveillance strategies in healthcare settings to identify asymptomatic carriers and prevent transmission, particularly among high-risk populations. Active surveillance screening for VRE colonization may be considered for high-risk patients (e.g., those in ICUs or transplant units) in facilities with endemic VRE or ongoing transmission, according to current CDC MDRO management guidelines.^[68] These protocols align with broader multidrug-resistant organism (MDRO) prevention strategies, emphasizing targeted active surveillance over universal screening to optimize resource use.^[68] Rectal or perianal swabs represent the gold standard for VRE screening due to their feasibility and ability to detect gastrointestinal colonization, the primary reservoir for Enterococcus species.^[8] Stool specimens are also acceptable, particularly when available, though rectal swabs are preferred in most protocols for their ease of collection in hospitalized patients.^[46] Studies report the sensitivity of rectal swabs for VRE detection ranging from 70% to 99%, depending on colonization density and laboratory methods, with higher sensitivities achieved using enrichment broths or chromogenic media.^[69]^[70] Specificity is generally high, often exceeding 95%, but false negatives can occur at low bacterial loads.^[71] Laboratory protocols for VRE screening typically involve plating samples onto selective media supplemented with vancomycin (e.g., 6-64 µg/mL) to inhibit non-resistant flora, followed by incubation for 24-48 hours to identify presumptive VRE colonies.^[46] Chromogenic agars, such as CHROMagar VRE, enhance detection by differentiating Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis based on colony color, improving turnaround time to as little as 24 hours.^[72] In outbreak settings, screening frequency may increase to weekly for at-risk patients until clearance is confirmed by three consecutive negative cultures spaced at least one week apart.^[68] Confirmatory testing, such as broth microdilution for minimum inhibitory concentration or molecular assays for van genes, is performed on presumptive isolates to verify resistance.^[73] Cost-effectiveness analyses support VRE screening in endemic environments where prevalence exceeds 10-20%, as it reduces transmission and associated infection costs through early isolation, with incremental cost-effectiveness ratios often below $50,000 per quality-adjusted life year gained.^[70] However, challenges include the lower sensitivity of swabs in low-prevalence settings (<5%), where false negatives may miss carriers and undermine control efforts.^[74] Over-screening in low-risk populations can lead to excessive contact precautions, increasing healthcare worker burden and patient psychological stress without proportional benefits.^[75] In outbreak settings or per facility policy, screening close contacts of identified VRE cases may be considered, as suggested in historical and current MDRO guidelines.^[68]^[46]

Laboratory Confirmation

Laboratory confirmation of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) in clinical infections typically begins with the isolation of enterococci from patient specimens such as blood or stool, followed by species identification and antimicrobial susceptibility testing to verify resistance. Phenotypic methods remain the gold standard for definitive diagnosis, while genotypic approaches provide rapid detection of resistance genes and support outbreak investigations. These techniques ensure accurate identification of VRE, which is critical for guiding appropriate antimicrobial therapy and infection control measures. Culture-based methods start with inoculation of clinical samples onto selective media, such as chromogenic agars like Spectra VRE agar, which inhibit non-enterococcal flora and allow presumptive identification of VRE within 24-48 hours based on colony morphology and color. ^[76] Confirmation of Enterococcus species and subspecies (E. faecium or E. faecalis) is achieved through biochemical tests or matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS), which offers rapid and accurate identification with results in minutes after culture growth. ^[77] Overall, traditional culture protocols require 48-72 hours for complete results, including subculture if needed. ^[78] Antimicrobial susceptibility testing follows isolation to quantify vancomycin resistance via determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). Broth microdilution is the reference method, adhering to Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) breakpoints where MIC ≤4 μg/mL indicates susceptibility, 8-16 μg/mL intermediate resistance, and ≥32 μg/mL resistance for Enterococcus spp. ^[79] The European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) uses breakpoints of ≤4 mg/L for susceptible and >4 mg/L for resistant strains of E. faecalis and E. faecium. ^[80] Gradient diffusion methods like Etest strips can also measure MIC and help differentiate VanA phenotypes (high-level resistance, MIC ≥64 μg/mL) from VanB (moderate, inducible resistance, MIC 4-1,024 μg/mL). ^[81] Genotypic methods complement phenotypic testing by directly detecting vancomycin resistance genes. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays target the vanA and vanB genes, with reported specificity of 95-100% and sensitivity up to 98% when performed on cultured isolates. ^[82] These assays provide results in 4-6 hours, significantly faster than culture, enabling prompt confirmation. ^[83] For outbreak investigations, whole-genome sequencing (WGS) identifies resistance determinants and performs multilocus sequence typing (MLST), often revealing clonal complexes like ST17 in epidemic E. faecium VRE strains. ^[84] WGS supports epidemiological typing but requires 24-48 hours for analysis. ^[85] Rapid genotypic confirmation is essential, as delays in identifying VRE can worsen patient outcomes in severe infections. ^[78]

Treatment

Antimicrobial Options

The primary antimicrobial options for treating infections caused by vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) are linezolid and daptomycin, selected based on susceptibility testing, infection site, and patient factors. Linezolid, an oxazolidinone, is administered at 600 mg intravenously or orally every 12 hours and demonstrates clinical success rates of 85-90% for VRE bacteremia, particularly in skin and soft tissue infections or uncomplicated bacteremia.^[2]^[86] Daptomycin, a lipopeptide, is given at high doses of 8-12 mg/kg intravenously daily (with renal adjustment), offering bactericidal activity suitable for endocarditis or severe bacteremia, with clinical success rates around 89% in high-dose regimens.^[2]^[87] Alternative agents include tigecycline for intra-abdominal infections, dosed as 100 mg intravenously loading followed by 50 mg every 12 hours, though it is not recommended for bacteremia due to suboptimal serum levels.^[2] Quinupristin-dalfopristin, a streptogramin, is effective only against E. faecium VRE (not E. faecalis) at 7.5 mg/kg intravenously every 8 hours, with clinical success exceeding 70% in severe infections but limited by venous irritation and arthralgias.^[2]^[88] Tedizolid, a newer oxazolidinone, provides an option at 200 mg orally or intravenously daily, showing bactericidal effects against VRE in experimental models and clinical cases of prosthetic joint infections, though data remain limited compared to linezolid.^[2]^[89] Treatment duration typically ranges from 2 to 6 weeks, guided by the infection site—such as 7-14 days for uncomplicated urinary tract infections and longer for endocarditis or osteomyelitis—with emphasis on source control like drainage or device removal to improve outcomes.^[2]^[90] For persistent bacteremia, combination therapy with daptomycin plus a beta-lactam (e.g., ampicillin or ceftaroline) enhances bactericidal activity and reduces failure rates compared to daptomycin monotherapy.^[2]^[91] Antimicrobial stewardship guidelines underscore the importance of source control alongside these agents, with overall success rates of 70-80% when susceptibility is confirmed.^[86]

Therapeutic Challenges and Outcomes

Treating vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) infections presents significant challenges due to the pathogen's ability to evolve resistance to frontline therapies, complicating clinical management and increasing the risk of treatment failure.^[92] Resistance mechanisms continue to emerge, driven by selective pressure from antibiotic use in healthcare settings, leading to multidrug-resistant strains that limit therapeutic options.^[93] Key hurdles include rising resistance to linezolid, reported at rates of 0.5% to 5% in clinical isolates, often mediated by the cfr gene or mutations in the 23S rRNA, which confer ribosomal protection.^[94] Similarly, daptomycin resistance affects 10-20% of treated VRE cases, primarily through mutations in the liaFSR regulatory system that alter cell membrane composition and reduce drug binding.^[95] Oral treatment options remain scarce, restricted largely to linezolid for systemic infections or agents like fosfomycin and nitrofurantoin for uncomplicated urinary tract infections (UTIs), as most VRE-active drugs require intravenous administration.^[96] Toxicity further complicates therapy; daptomycin frequently causes creatine phosphokinase (CPK) elevation and myopathy, necessitating monitoring, while prolonged linezolid use leads to bone marrow suppression, including thrombocytopenia and anemia.^[97]^[98] Patient outcomes vary by infection site and host factors, with VRE bacteremia carrying an attributable mortality of 35-50%, influenced by delays in appropriate therapy and underlying comorbidities.^[99] In contrast, VRE UTIs achieve cure rates approaching 90-95%, reflecting better drug penetration and lower virulence in this compartment.^[100] Predictors of treatment failure include high bacterial inoculum, which promotes rapid resistance emergence, and immunosuppression, which impairs clearance and heightens relapse risk.^[101]^[79] Adjunctive interventions play a supportive role in severe cases; surgical debridement or valve replacement is often required for VRE endocarditis or abscesses to remove infected tissue and improve antibiotic efficacy.^[102] Probiotics, such as Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, show experimental promise for intestinal VRE decolonization by outcompeting the pathogen and restoring microbiota balance, though clinical trials remain limited.^[103] Emerging agents like oritavancin, a lipoglycopeptide with activity against VRE, offer potential as bacteriostatic alternatives, particularly for skin and soft tissue infections, with once-weekly dosing to simplify outpatient management.^[104]

Prevention and Control

Infection Control Measures

Contact precautions form the cornerstone of hospital-based strategies to prevent the transmission of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE). Patients identified as colonized or infected with VRE should be placed in a single-patient room whenever possible; if resources are limited, cohorting with other VRE-positive patients is an acceptable alternative, particularly during outbreaks. Healthcare personnel must don gowns and gloves upon entering the patient's room and discard them before exiting to avoid contaminating the surrounding environment. These measures significantly reduce cross-transmission rates in endemic settings.^[68] Environmental decontamination is critical, as VRE can persist on surfaces for extended periods. Daily cleaning of patient rooms and high-touch areas with EPA-registered disinfectants, such as sodium hypochlorite (bleach) or hydrogen peroxide-based solutions, effectively eliminates over 99% of VRE contaminants. Bleach-based protocols have been shown to reduce VRE acquisition by up to 57% in clinical studies. Additionally, ultraviolet (UV) disinfection robots provide supplemental terminal cleaning, inactivating 99.99% of surface pathogens including VRE through germicidal UV-C light exposure, enhancing manual efforts without chemical residues.^[105]^[106]^[107] Hand hygiene remains a fundamental intervention, but the choice of method depends on co-occurring pathogens. While alcohol-based hand sanitizers are effective against VRE, they are less so against Clostridium difficile spores, which frequently co-colonize patients with VRE; thus, washing with soap and water is preferred, especially in outbreak scenarios or high-prevalence units, to mechanically remove both vegetative cells and spores. This approach aligns with guidelines emphasizing soap and water during C. difficile outbreaks to interrupt multidrug-resistant organism transmission.^[68]^[108] Active surveillance through rectal or perianal swab screening is recommended by the CDC for high-risk patients, such as those in intensive care units or undergoing prolonged hospitalization, to detect asymptomatic colonization early and implement targeted precautions. This strategy has reduced VRE incidence in multiple facilities by identifying up to 20% of colonized cases before infection develops. Surveillance programs may be discontinued in settings with sustained low prevalence and no evidence of ongoing transmission, as determined by local epidemiology. VRE primarily transmits via contaminated hands and fomites in healthcare environments.^[68]^[109]^[68]

Antibiotic Stewardship

Antibiotic stewardship programs (ASPs) are essential for mitigating the selection pressure that promotes vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) emergence, primarily by optimizing antibiotic prescribing to minimize broad-spectrum use that favors resistant strains. These programs align with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Core Elements, which emphasize leadership commitment, accountability, pharmacy expertise, and targeted actions to improve prescribing practices. By reducing unnecessary exposure to high-risk antibiotics like vancomycin and third-generation cephalosporins, ASPs help curb VRE colonization and infection rates in healthcare settings.^[110] Core principles of ASPs for VRE prevention include selecting narrow-spectrum alternatives when possible, such as ampicillin or nitrofurantoin for susceptible Enterococcus faecalis urinary tract infections (UTIs), instead of broad-spectrum agents like vancomycin or cephalosporins that disrupt gut microbiota and select for VRE. De-escalation based on culture results is another key strategy, transitioning from empiric broad-spectrum therapy to targeted narrower agents once susceptibility is confirmed, thereby limiting duration and spectrum of exposure. Duration limits are also critical; for uncomplicated VRE UTIs, guidelines recommend 7 days of therapy to avoid prolonged selection pressure.^[96]^[110]^[111] Effective interventions encompass prospective audit and feedback, where stewardship teams review prescriptions and provide recommendations to prescribers; restricted formularies that limit access to high-risk antibiotics like cephalosporins; and targeted education on VRE risks to highlight how overuse of these agents correlates with increased colonization. For instance, formulary restrictions on cephalosporins and clindamycin have been shown to decrease VRE acquisition in controlled studies. The World Health Organization (WHO) and CDC underscore these approaches in their global and national AMR action plans, promoting ASPs as a cornerstone for resistance prevention.^[110]^[112] Studies from 2015 to 2025 demonstrate that ASPs can substantially reduce VRE-related outcomes; for example, one intervention targeting daptomycin use in VRE faecium bloodstream infections decreased within-patient resistance evolution from 14.6% to 1.9% and halved days of therapy per month. Broader ASP implementations, including antibiotic reductions of 10-25%, have lowered multidrug-resistant organism acquisition rates, including VRE, by 11-47% in modeling and observational data. These impacts align with WHO and CDC emphases on stewardship to achieve global reductions in healthcare-associated VRE incidence.^[113]^[114] Challenges in implementing ASPs for VRE include ensuring compliance in intensive care units (ICUs), where high-acuity patients often receive prolonged broad-spectrum therapy, leading to variable adherence rates. Integration with rapid diagnostic tools, such as PCR for VRE detection, remains inconsistent, hindering timely de-escalation despite evidence that such tools can shorten unnecessary antibiotic courses. Addressing these barriers requires multidisciplinary collaboration to sustain stewardship gains.^[115]^[110]

History

Early Discovery

The initial identification of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) occurred in Europe during the mid-1980s, marking the beginning of recognition for this emerging antimicrobial resistance threat. In 1986, the first clinical isolates were reported from France, where Leclercq and colleagues described low-level vancomycin resistance in Enterococcus faecium from patients with bacteremia, later classified as the VanB phenotype with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of 4–32 μg/mL.^[116] Concurrently, in the United Kingdom, Uttley et al. identified high-level resistance in E. faecium isolates from hospital patients, exhibiting MICs exceeding 256 μg/mL and cross-resistance to teicoplanin, representing the VanA phenotype.^[117] These early cases were linked to nosocomial settings, with initial outbreaks documented in French hospitals as early as 1986, prompting investigations into transmission dynamics.^[118] The spread of VRE soon reached North America, with the first reported case in the United States occurring in 1988 at a Boston hospital, involving Enterococcus faecalis carrying the VanA resistance phenotype and high-level vancomycin MICs greater than 64 μg/mL.^[119] These initial European and U.S. outbreaks were associated with heavy use of broad-spectrum antibiotics in healthcare facilities, though early studies also suggested a potential reservoir in agriculture, where glycopeptides like avoparcin were employed as growth promoters in animal feed, facilitating the selection and dissemination of resistance genes.^[120] Further characterization in the late 1980s advanced understanding of the resistance mechanisms. In 1989, Nicas et al. characterized the resistance mechanism associated with the vanA gene cluster responsible for high-level resistance, located on the Tn1546 transposon, which enables horizontal transfer among enterococci and confers inducible resistance through altered cell wall precursors.^[121] Early MIC testing across isolates consistently demonstrated high-level resistance (MIC ≥64 μg/mL for vancomycin), distinguishing VRE from intrinsically low-level resistant species like E. gallinarum. By the early 1990s, the clinical significance of VRE prompted public health responses in the United States. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued alerts highlighting VRE as an emerging nosocomial threat, with surveillance data showing a rise from 0.3% of enterococcal isolates in 1989 to 7.9% by 1993, leading to the development of infection control guidelines.^[46] This recognition underscored the need for targeted interventions to curb further spread.

Global Emergence and Evolution

The emergence of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) accelerated in the 1990s, particularly in the United States, where hospital epidemics drove a sharp rise in prevalence, reaching approximately 25% of enterococcal isolates by 2000. This spread was fueled by widespread vancomycin use and cross-transmission in healthcare settings, transforming VRE from sporadic cases—first identified in the late 1980s—into a major nosocomial threat.^[4]^[57] In Europe, the situation was compounded by agricultural practices; however, the 1997 European Union ban on the glycopeptide avoparcin as a growth promoter in livestock significantly reduced VRE reservoirs in animals, leading to declines in poultry and subsequent human colonization rates.^[120]^[122] During the 2000s and 2010s, VRE underwent clonal expansion, dominated by sequence type 17 (E. faecium) within clonal complex 17, which facilitated its adaptation to hospital environments and global dissemination. This period saw rising incidence in Asia and Africa, attributed to rapid healthcare infrastructure growth, increased antibiotic consumption, and overburdened surveillance systems, with pooled VRE prevalence in Asia climbing from 6.4% (2000–2010) to 9.1% (2010–2020). Key milestones included the World Health Organization's 2002 emphasis on antimicrobial resistance containment strategies, which highlighted VRE as part of escalating global threats, and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's 2019 designation of VRE as a "serious" antibiotic resistance threat, estimating 54,500 U.S. cases annually.^[51]^[118]^[123] From 2020 to 2025, VRE evolution intensified with the rise of multi-drug resistant strains, including linezolid-resistant variants, complicating treatment amid ongoing clonal dissemination. The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated colonization rates, with studies reporting 6.8–65.1% increases in VRE infections linked to heightened antibiotic use, disrupted infection control, and surges in vulnerable hospitalized populations. Recent advancements in 2024 genomic surveillance studies have enabled better tracking of VRE transmission dynamics, revealing persistent hospital-adapted lineages and informing targeted interventions. In 2025, ongoing genomic epidemiology studies, such as those from South African hospitals, continue to highlight the dominance of vanA-carrying E. faecium lineages in clinical settings.^[124]^[125]^[126]^[127]

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[PDF] VANCOMYCIN-RESISTANT ENTEROCOCCI (VRE) URINARY ...
Treat VRE cystitis with at least seven days of antimicrobial therapy. Treat bacteremic VRE. UTIs and pyelonephritis with 10 - 14 days of antimicrobial ...
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Infection control and prevention measures to reduce the spread of ...
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The Impact of Reducing Antibiotics on the Transmission of Multidrug ...
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Characterization of vancomycin resistance in Enterococcus faecium ...
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Use of antimicrobials in food animals and impact of transmission of ...
In 1997, the EU banned all agricultural use of avoparcin due to the prevalence of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) in patients in Europe. Later in 1999, ...
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Prevalence of vancomycin‐resistant enterococci in Asia—A ...
Feb 25, 2021 · Our review showed that the pooled prevalence of VRE from 2000 to 2010 was 6.40% which has increased to 9.10% in the years 2010 to 2020, but ...Missing: Africa growth
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Linezolid in the Focus of Antimicrobial Resistance of Enterococcus ...
Aug 24, 2025 · Additionally, LNZ is indicated for infections caused by vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium (VREFm), complicated Gram-positive skin and ...
[120]
Genomic epidemiology reveals multiple mechanisms of linezolid ...
May 4, 2024 · Linezolid has demonstrated clinical benefits in treating severe Gram-positive bacterial infections caused by VRE, multidrug-resistant ...
[121]
Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on multidrug resistant gram positive ...
Five studies (55.6%) reported a 6.8–65.1% increase in VRE infection/colonization during the pandemic. A 2.4–58.2% decrease in ESBL E. coli and a 1.8–13.3% ...