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Wickes -class destroyer

The Wickes-class destroyers were a group of 111 fast destroyers constructed for the United States Navy between 1917 and 1921, primarily to counter the German U-boat threat during World War I.^[1] Characterized by their flush-deck design and four smokestacks—earning them the nicknames "flush-deckers" or "four-pipers"—these ships emphasized high speed and torpedo armament for fleet screening and offensive operations, with a standard displacement of 1,060 tons, a length of 310 feet, and a top speed of 35 knots.^[2] Their primary armament consisted of four 4-inch/50-caliber guns in single mounts, one 3-inch/23-caliber anti-aircraft gun, twelve 21-inch torpedo tubes in four triple mounts, and depth charge provisions for anti-submarine warfare.^[2] Built across multiple shipyards including Bath Iron Works, Newport News, and Mare Island Navy Yard, the class represented the U.S. Navy's first large-scale mass production of destroyers, with construction accelerated to meet wartime needs; the lead ship, USS Wickes (DD-75), was commissioned in 1918.^[3] Although few saw combat in World War I due to late completion, they played a vital role in transatlantic convoy escorts against submarines, conducting patrols and training exercises into the interwar period.^[2] By World War II, surviving vessels—many recommissioned from reserve—served extensively in anti-submarine patrols, escort duties, and amphibious operations, with 27 transferred to Britain and other allies as part of the 50-destroyer exchange under the 1940 Destroyers for Bases Agreement to bolster Atlantic defenses.^[4] Notable for their adaptability, numerous Wickes-class ships were converted into high-speed transports (APDs) starting in 1942, enhancing their utility in Pacific island-hopping campaigns, such as at Guadalcanal and Leyte Gulf, where they supported Marine landings and earned battle stars.^[2] Despite their age and limitations in seaworthiness and range, the class's rugged construction allowed many to remain in service until the late 1940s, with some sunk in action, including by kamikaze attacks, while others were scrapped or used as targets post-war.^[1] Their legacy influenced subsequent U.S. destroyer designs, underscoring the evolution from World War I torpedo boats to versatile multi-role warships.

Background and Development

Historical Context

Prior to 1916, the United States Navy's destroyer force was severely limited in both quantity and capability, consisting primarily of aging vessels from the Paulding class (built 1909–1910) and Cassin class (built 1912–1913), totaling around 50 operational destroyers that were underpowered, short-ranged, and ill-suited for emerging threats like submarine warfare.^[5] These early "flivver" destroyers, with their raised forecastles and limited endurance, struggled to provide effective escort duties or fleet screening, leaving the U.S. fleet vulnerable amid rising global tensions in the Atlantic.^[6] The Naval Act of 1916, signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson on August 29, 1916, marked a pivotal shift in U.S. naval policy, authorizing the construction of 157 warships—including 50 destroyers—over three years to build a navy "second to none" and counter the growing German U-boat threat that was disrupting Allied shipping.^[7] This expansion was driven by strategic imperatives to match British naval dominance and protect American interests, as unrestricted submarine warfare intensified following Germany's declaration of a war zone around the British Isles in February 1915.^[8] The act emphasized mass production of destroyers to enable convoy protection and antisubmarine operations, reflecting lessons from early World War I naval engagements. The Caldwell-class destroyers, authorized under the same fiscal year 1917 funding as the initial Wickes vessels, served as the immediate prototype for the Wickes design, introducing the innovative "flush-deck" configuration that eliminated the forecastle break for enhanced hull strength and seaworthiness during high-speed operations.^[9] This six-ship class, laid down in 1916 and commissioned starting in 1917, tested the flush-deck concept for mass production, influencing the Wickes-class by prioritizing simplicity in construction to meet wartime demands while achieving speeds up to 35 knots.^[10] The design's continuous weather deck and four smokestacks became hallmarks of the subsequent production run, facilitating rapid yard output.^[5] America's entry into World War I on April 6, 1917, dramatically accelerated the destroyer program, with the Naval Emergency Fund established on March 3, 1917, expanding initial authorizations from 50 to over 260 flush-deck types, including 111 Wickes-class ships, to urgently combat the escalating U-boat campaign that had sunk millions of tons of shipping.^[11] This emergency buildup shifted resources toward convoy escorts and patrol duties in European waters, transforming the U.S. Navy from a coastal defense force into a key Allied contributor by late 1917.^[6]

Design Evolution

The Wickes-class destroyer design emerged from the experimental phase involving six prototype flush-deck vessels of the Caldwell class, constructed between 1916 and 1918 and rigorously tested in 1917 to rectify stability and speed shortcomings in prior "broken-deck" destroyer configurations.^[9] These prototypes, designated DD-69 through DD-74, pioneered the continuous flush deck to bolster hull strength and maintain consistent freeboard, though they revealed persistent issues with wet forward sections and handling when lightly loaded on fuel.^[12] Drawing directly from these trials, the Wickes-class refined the layout for greater standardization, with USS Wickes (DD-75) as the inaugural production vessel incorporating modified Caldwell features to enhance overall seaworthiness.^[6] Central to the Wickes-class were deliberate compromises aimed at mass production, such as streamlined hull lines that reduced fabrication complexity, curtailed crew berthing to conserve weight and internal volume, and interchangeable standardized parts to streamline assembly across multiple yards.^[6] These adaptations allowed for the swift output of 111 ships starting in late 1917, emphasizing volume to meet urgent wartime demands over bespoke optimizations.^[13] The iterative process was guided by the Navy's Bureau of Construction and Repair, which developed baseline schemes in 1917 for larger, faster escorts, alongside contributions from Bethlehem Steel's Fore River Shipyard, which devised two principal hull variants tailored for efficient boiler and turbine integration.^[6] Admiral William S. Sims, commanding U.S. naval forces in Europe, provided critical feedback on anti-submarine requirements, advocating for reinforced stern arrangements to accommodate depth charges and supporting the push for accelerated destroyer builds to counter U-boat threats. Notable engineering advancements in the Wickes-class included paired twin smokestacks to optimize draft and ventilation from the boiler rooms, geared steam turbines engineered for sustained 35-knot performance, and the pioneering use of Yarrow boilers to deliver high-pressure steam with improved reliability under combat conditions.^[6]

Design and Specifications

Hull and Machinery

The Wickes-class destroyers featured a flush-deck hull design, characterized by a continuous main deck from stem to stern, which enhanced structural integrity and reduced overall weight compared to earlier raised-forecastle configurations. This construction utilized standard steel plating, with a level keel to minimize drag and align propeller shafts more horizontally for efficient propulsion. The hull measured 314 feet 4 inches in length overall, with a beam of 31 feet 8 inches and a draft of 9 feet 10 inches, contributing to improved stability over predecessors like the Caldwell class.^[5]^[14]^[15] Displacement was 1,090 tons standard and 1,250 tons full load, reflecting the class's compact yet robust build optimized for high-speed escort duties. Propulsion consisted of four water-tube boilers (varied by builder) supplying steam at 300 psi to two Parsons geared turbines, delivering 24,610 shaft horsepower to twin screw propellers. This arrangement enabled a maximum speed of 35.5 knots and a cruising speed of 15 knots, with fuel capacity of approximately 295 long tons of oil providing a range of 2,500 nautical miles at 20 knots. The machinery spaces were arranged for quick access and maintenance, supporting a complement of 147 officers and enlisted personnel.^[6]^[14]^[15] While the flush-deck design offered seakeeping advantages in moderate conditions through better wave penetration and reduced pitching, the ships were often criticized for wet forward decks in heavy weather, leading to frequent spray over the bow and bridge areas. Structural weaknesses emerged in prolonged rough seas, with reports of hull flexing and occasional cracking amidships due to the fine hull lines and high power output straining the frame. These traits, though improved upon from prior classes, highlighted trade-offs in the emphasis on speed and mass production.^[5]^[6]

Armament and Sensors

The primary armament of the Wickes-class destroyers consisted of four 4-inch (102 mm)/50 caliber Mark 9 guns mounted singly in a lozenge configuration, with one gun forward on the forecastle, two guns amidships on bandstands, and one gun aft on the quarterdeck to optimize fields of fire while accommodating the torpedo battery.^[2] Each gun was supplied with approximately 300 rounds of fixed ammunition, primarily common and armor-piercing shells weighing 33 pounds (15 kg) apiece, enabling a practical firing rate of 8-9 rounds per minute under optimal conditions.^[16] This arrangement provided balanced surface engagement capability, with the forward and aft guns supporting long-range fire and the amidships pair enhancing broadside volume against enemy destroyers or cruisers. The torpedo battery formed the core of the class's offensive punch, comprising twelve 21-inch (533 mm) tubes in four triple above-water mounts, arranged with two on each beam in a staggered configuration.^[6]^[2] These launchers carried Bliss-Leavitt Mark 8 Mod 1 torpedoes, each weighing 2,761 pounds (1,253 kg) with a 475-pound (215 kg) TNT warhead, capable of a maximum range of 13,500 yards (12,300 m) at 27 knots. The torpedoes employed a turbine propulsion system fueled by a mix of air, water, and alcohol, emphasizing reliability over speed in fleet actions where destroyers screened battleships by launching synchronized spreads against hostile capital ships. Anti-aircraft and anti-submarine defenses were minimal in the as-built configuration, reflecting the class's origins in surface fleet tactics rather than convoy protection. A single 3-inch (76 mm)/23 caliber gun was typically added post-commissioning amidships for low-altitude air defense, firing at 8-9 rounds per minute with a ceiling of about 4,000 yards (3,700 m).^[17] For subsurface threats, two stern depth charge racks held 12 to 24 charges each, usually Mark 2 or 3 models weighing 200 pounds (91 kg) with 50-pound (23 kg) TNT fillings, while provisions existed for a single Y-gun projector forward of the aft deckhouse to hurl pairs of charges up to 150 yards (140 m) aside—though initial installations lacked dedicated sonar for precise targeting.^[14] Sensors and fire control systems were rudimentary, relying on wireless telegraphy for communication and basic optical rangefinders atop the bridge and gun mounts for range estimation, integrated with a simple mechanical director for coordinating the main battery against surface targets.^[6] No radar was fitted until World War II refits, and early detection depended on lookouts and semaphore flags, limiting effectiveness in poor visibility but suiting the destroyers' role in clear-weather fleet maneuvers.^[2]

Construction and Variants

Production Program

The production program for the Wickes-class destroyers exemplified the United States' rapid industrial mobilization in response to World War I, transforming the nation's shipbuilding capacity to support naval expansion. Authorized initially under the Naval Appropriation Act of 1916 for 50 vessels, with additional orders in 1917 and 1918 driven by the escalating U-boat crisis, the effort resulted in 111 ships commissioned between 1918 and 1921. This output formed the core of the "flush-deck" destroyer initiative, prioritizing speed and volume over elaborate customization to bolster antisubmarine warfare capabilities.^[5] To achieve accelerated timelines, construction was assigned to a network of established shipyards along both coasts, distributing workloads to avoid overload at any single facility. Key builders included Bethlehem Steel's Fore River Shipyard in Quincy, Massachusetts (which handled 26 hulls), Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company in Virginia (11 hulls), and Union Iron Works in San Francisco (26 hulls), alongside contributions from Bath Iron Works in Maine, William Cramp & Sons in Philadelphia, New York Shipbuilding in Camden, New Jersey, and others, totaling 8 yards. This decentralized approach enabled parallel assembly lines and optimized resource allocation during peak demand.^[18]^[6]^[19] Construction commenced with the first keels laid in April 1917, aligning with U.S. entry into the conflict, and progressed swiftly under emergency priorities. The lead ship, USS Wickes (DD-75), was commissioned on 31 July 1918, marking the class's operational debut, while production reached its zenith in late 1918 with up to 17 launches in July and a completion rate approaching 10 ships per month by autumn. Although the Armistice halted further urgency, the program persisted postwar, ensuring all 111 vessels entered service by 1921 and solidifying the U.S. Navy's destroyer fleet.^[15]^[6] Wartime economics shaped the program's financial and logistical framework, with each destroyer costing roughly $1.4 million—a figure that balanced standardization for efficiency against inflation and supply constraints. Labor shortages plagued yards as workers were drawn into military service or competing munitions production, while material rationing limited access to steel, boilers, and fittings, often forcing incomplete launches to free drydocks for subsequent hulls. These pressures tested the limits of industrial coordination but underscored the program's role in wartime adaptability.^[20]^[21] The Navy's Bureau of Construction and Repair provided rigorous oversight, inspecting progress and enforcing design uniformity to mitigate variability in workmanship across dispersed yards. This supervision helped maintain high output quality, with many ships achieving near-full operational readiness by late 1918 despite the haste, contributing to the class's reputation as a cornerstone of American naval production during the era.^[6]

Sub-Classes and Modifications

The Clemson-class destroyers, numbering 156 ships built between 1919 and 1922, served as a de facto sub-class to the Wickes design, incorporating minor improvements to address shortcomings in the original flush-deck configuration.^[6] These enhancements included a 35% greater fuel capacity—adding approximately 100 tons of oil—to extend operational range from about 2,500 nautical miles to over 3,500 nautical miles at 15 knots. Both classes shared four triple 21-inch (533 mm) torpedo tube mounts (12 tubes total) and the distinctive "four-piper" profile with flush decks and four smokestacks, and they are collectively referred to as flush-deck destroyers, totaling 267 hulls authorized during World War I, though often grouped for their similar roles in fleet escort and antisubmarine warfare.^[6]^[5]^[22] Wickes-class ships underwent targeted modifications in the interwar period to adapt to emerging threats, particularly air attack. In the 1920s, many received a single 3-inch/23-caliber antiaircraft gun amidships, supplemented by two .50-caliber machine guns for close-range defense, replacing or augmenting the baseline 4-inch/50-caliber main battery while retaining much of the original torpedo armament.^[6] These changes reflected lessons from post-World War I exercises, prioritizing versatility over the original fleet torpedo focus, though endurance limitations persisted until later underway replenishment techniques were adopted.^[5] During World War II, 17 Wickes-class destroyers were converted to high-speed transports (APD designation), transforming them into specialized amphibious assault vessels.^[23] This involved removing the forward two boilers and smokestacks to create space for berthing approximately 120-144 Marines, deleting four triple torpedo tube mounts and one 4-inch gun to install davits for four Higgins landing craft, and adding secondary armament such as machine guns, a 75 mm pack howitzer, and boat-mounted weapons.^[23]^[6] The conversions reduced top speed to around 25 knots but enabled rapid troop deployment, with the original armament altered to three 3-inch/50-caliber guns for gunfire support.^[6] Other Wickes-class variants included conversions to auxiliary roles starting in the early 1920s. Fourteen ships were redesignated as light minelayers (DM), such as those renumbered DM-3 through DM-16, with modifications to accommodate up to 80 mines by removing torpedo tubes and adding mine rails, while retaining three 4-inch guns for self-defense.^[6] Key differences from the baseline Wickes design in these modifications emphasized antisubmarine warfare (ASW) capabilities during World War II refits across surviving hulls. Surviving ships received Hedgehog forward-firing projectors—launching 24 spigot mortar bombs in a pattern ahead of the vessel—along with QC-type sonar arrays and additional depth charge racks, enabling effective prosecution of submerged threats while maintaining the flush-deck hull's stability.^[6] These upgrades, applied to both unmodified destroyers and converted variants, extended the class's utility into the mid-1940s despite their aging machinery.^[22]

Operational History

U.S. Navy Service

The Wickes-class destroyers entered U.S. Navy service toward the end of World War I, with only a limited number completing construction and deployment in time for active operations. By November 1918, 26 ships had arrived in European waters, primarily at bases like Queenstown, Ireland, and Brest, France, where they conducted escort duties across the Atlantic.^[19] These vessels focused on protecting merchant convoys from German U-boat attacks, a critical but unglamorous role that contributed to the Allies' logistical superiority despite the class seeing minimal direct combat engagements.^[5] Their high speed and depth charge armament proved suitable for anti-submarine screening, though the armistice on 11 November 1918 curtailed further involvement.^[5] In the interwar period, the Wickes-class destroyers shifted to peacetime roles, including training cruises for naval reservists, fleet exercises along the U.S. coasts, and occasional diplomatic missions. The 1922 Washington Naval Treaty, with its provisions for naval arms limitation and scrapping of excess tonnage, forced the decommissioning of older vessels, resulting in about 50 ships entering reserve status by 1922. Maintenance challenges in reserve plagued the class, particularly with Yarrow boilers in early units prone to deterioration from inactivity and saltwater corrosion, leading to frequent overhauls and reduced readiness during the 1920s and 1930s.^[6] Despite these issues, select ships remained active for torpedo and gunnery drills, supporting the Navy's evolving tactics amid budget constraints.^[24] As World War II loomed, the U.S. Navy reactivated many reserve Wickes-class destroyers, with 72 in commission by December 1941 to bolster the fleet against escalating threats. In the Pacific Theater, they supported early campaigns such as the Guadalcanal operation, where USS Aaron Ward (DD-132) was sunk on 7 April 1943 by Japanese dive bombers after sustaining multiple bomb hits that ignited ammunition magazines and caused catastrophic flooding. These aging ships often operated as escorts for amphibious forces, enduring battle damage like the near-severing of propeller shafts from bomb near-misses, as reported in postwar analyses of destroyer vulnerabilities. In the Atlantic, Wickes-class vessels such as USS Butler (DD-113) screened vital supply lines; their depth charge attacks helped reduce submarine sinkings by mid-1943. They also provided fire support during the Normandy landings on D-Day, 6 June 1944, bombarding coastal defenses despite exposure to enemy artillery.^[25] A pivotal early action involved USS Ward (DD-139) at Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, when it detected and shelled a Japanese midget submarine, scoring the first U.S. shots and confirmed kill of the war—though the alert came too late to avert the broader attack.^[26] Overall, the class suffered attrition, with approximately 23 lost during World War II to enemy action or accidents, including 13 in U.S. service. Examples of damage reports highlight structural strains, such as hull buckling from underwater explosions during convoy defenses, which tested the ships' wartime modifications for enhanced anti-submarine warfare (ASW) and transport capabilities.^[1] The Wickes-class destroyers were gradually phased out postwar, with the last units decommissioned between 1946 and 1947 as newer Fletcher- and Gearing-class vessels replaced them. Their enduring contributions to U.S. victory lay in versatile ASW patrols that safeguarded transatlantic shipping and amphibious assaults that enabled Allied advances across both theaters.^[5]

Foreign Service

In 1940, under the Destroyers for Bases Agreement, the United States transferred 50 obsolete destroyers to the United Kingdom in exchange for 99-year leases on British naval and air bases in the Western Hemisphere. Of these, 27 were Wickes-class vessels designated as the Town-class and renamed after British communities by the Royal Navy, with 23 transferred directly to the RN and 4 loaned to the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN). These transfers provided critical escort vessels for convoy operations amid the growing U-boat threat, though the ships required significant refits to meet modern standards.^[4]^[6] The Royal Navy refitted the Town-class destroyers for ASW roles, removing two boilers and torpedo tube mounts to increase fuel capacity and stability, while adding British Mark IV depth charge throwers, roller racks for up to 50 depth charges, and the Type 271 surface search radar for improved detection of submerged threats. These modifications enabled the ships to participate in transatlantic convoy escorts, where they hunted U-boats and protected merchant shipping vital to Britain's war effort. Notable actions included the St. Nazaire Raid in March 1942, during which HMS Campbeltown (ex-USS Buchanan) was packed with delayed-action explosives and rammed into the Normandie dry dock gates, successfully disabling the facility for German battleship repairs despite heavy casualties. Of the 50 Town-class destroyers in Royal Navy service, nine were lost during World War II to torpedoes, mines, and aircraft attacks.^[27]^[28]^[29] The RCN's four Town-class destroyers, including HMCS St. Clair (ex-USS Williams), served primarily in convoy escort duties off Newfoundland and in the North Atlantic, contributing to the protection of vital supply lines. These vessels underwent similar ASW enhancements, emphasizing depth charge armament over their original torpedo focus. On 27 May 1941, HMCS St. Clair was attacked by German aircraft while rescuing survivors from the destroyer HMS Mashona during operations related to the Battle of the Denmark Strait but was not sunk. The RCN returned its Town-class ships to the Royal Navy by 1945, with no losses among the Wickes-class vessels in service.^[30]^[31] Several Town-class destroyers, including Wickes-class examples, were further transferred from the Royal Navy to the Soviet Union in 1944 under Lend-Lease, serving as the Zhivuchy-class with limited wartime operations in the Arctic and Baltic theaters. These ships saw minimal combat due to the late transfer and harsh conditions but aided Soviet coastal defense efforts. Post-World War II, surviving foreign Wickes-class vessels were decommissioned through the 1950s, with the last examples scrapped or sunk as targets; their service underscored the value of international cooperation in Allied ASW operations, helping secure the Atlantic sea lanes. Overall, foreign-operated Wickes-class destroyers suffered at least 10 losses during the war, primarily in British service.^[4]^[32]

Legacy and Impact

Losses and Survivors

Of the 111 Wickes-class destroyers constructed for the U.S. Navy, 13 were lost during World War II while in American service, with the majority succumbing to enemy action in the Atlantic and Pacific theaters.^[6] These combat losses included sinkings by German U-boats, Japanese aircraft, and surface vessels, such as USS Little (DD-79), sunk by Japanese destroyers off Guadalcanal on 5 September 1942 during the Guadalcanal campaign.^[33] Another notable example was USS Colhoun (DD-85, later APD-2), which was sunk by Japanese dive bombers on 30 August 1942 while supporting Marine landings near Guadalcanal.^[34] In the Atlantic, examples include USS Gypsum (DD-109, later APD-1), though specific Atlantic combat losses for Wickes-class were fewer. Non-combat attrition accounted for additional losses within the total of 13, including collisions, groundings, and scuttlings during the war. For instance, USS Dickerson (DD-157) was damaged beyond repair by a German bomb near Omaha Beach on 6 June 1944 and scuttled.^[35] In foreign service, 23 Wickes-class destroyers were transferred to the Royal Navy and 4 to the Royal Canadian Navy under the 1940 Destroyers for Bases agreement, contributing to further losses totaling at least two from enemy action in Royal Navy service.^[4] HMS Bath (ex-USS Hopewell, DD-181) was torpedoed and sunk by U-204 on 19 August 1941 while escorting a convoy in the North Atlantic.^[36] Similarly, HMS Campbeltown (ex-USS Buchanan, DD-131) was packed with explosives and rammed into the Normandie dry dock at St. Nazaire, France, on 28 March 1942, successfully disabling the facility but detonating two days later, destroying the ship.^[4] Across all operators, Wickes-class losses exemplified the class's role in high-risk escort and amphibious duties, with broader flush-deck destroyer attrition (including Clemson-class ships) reaching around 45 vessels sunk or destroyed during the war from combat, accidents, and post-war disposals.^[37] No Wickes-class destroyers survive intact today, as the remaining vessels were decommissioned and scrapped between 1945 and 1947 due to their obsolescence after the war.^[6] Partial remains persist as underwater wrecks, some explored in recent decades; for example, wrecks in Iron Bottom Sound near Guadalcanal, including USS Little, have been mapped using multibeam sonar, aiding preservation efforts amid natural decay and illegal salvaging.^[38] Ongoing expeditions continue to document these sites as of 2025. Memorials to the class include plaques, artifacts, and scale models displayed in institutions such as the National Museum of the Pacific War and the Destroyer History Foundation's archives, honoring the crews without any floating museum ships due to the vessels' extensive postwar scrapping.^[39]

Influence on Successor Classes

The Wickes-class destroyers, through their refinements in the Clemson-class, directly influenced the design of the Farragut-class destroyers of the 1930s, which incorporated a raised forecastle to mitigate the wetness and handling issues inherent in the flush-deck configuration, along with enhanced anti-aircraft capabilities to address evolving threats.^[5] Lessons from the geared turbine propulsion systems in the Wickes and Clemson classes, which provided reliable high-speed performance, shaped the engineering standards for all post-World War I U.S. destroyer designs, emphasizing efficiency and power output.^[5] The mass-production techniques pioneered during the Wickes-class program—building 111 ships across multiple yards in a compressed timeframe—were adapted for World War II destroyer classes, including the Benson and Fletcher classes, facilitating the rapid construction of 175 Fletcher-class vessels by 1945 to meet wartime demands.^[24] This approach demonstrated the feasibility of standardized, high-volume shipbuilding, setting a precedent for industrial mobilization in naval architecture.^[1] Tactically, the Wickes-class emphasis on high speed (35 knots) and numerical superiority informed U.S. Navy destroyer doctrine, particularly in convoy escorts and fleet screening roles that evolved into carrier task force protections during the interwar period and World War II.^[24] Design flaws, such as limited endurance and poor crew habitability due to the flush-deck layout, were systematically addressed in 1930s successors like the Farragut class, which prioritized seaworthiness and living conditions for extended operations.^[5] Internationally, the flush-deck concept and mass-production model of the Wickes class influenced adaptations in Allied navies, with 50 destroyers (27 Wickes-class and 23 Clemson-class) transferred to the Royal Navy in 1940 under the Destroyers-for-Bases Agreement, where they served as the Town class and contributed to anti-submarine warfare efforts.^[40] While direct design borrowings are less evident, the proven oil-fired boiler systems in the Wickes class helped establish oil as the standard fuel for destroyers in the U.S. Navy and influenced similar transitions in foreign fleets post-World War I. Across variants and transfers, Wickes-class hulls provided over a century of cumulative service, from World War I through World War II and into the Cold War era in secondary roles with navies like the Brazilian and Mexican forces, underscoring their durability and adaptability.^[22]

References

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The Wickes Class Destroyer USS Kimberly DD-80 (foreground), next to USS Caldwell DD-69 and USS Allen DD-66 at Queenstown, Ireland showing their different stern.
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Nov 3, 2004 · ~Norman Friedman – U.S. Destroyers, An Illustrated Design History~ ... to use the existing Wickes class destroyer design and attempt to ...
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FOLLOW-ON CONVERSIONS. Seventeen Wickes-class and fourteen Clemson-class destroyers were converted as APDs. Of the latter, six had previously been converted as ...
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Jan 12, 2017 · The Wickes class destroyers were ordered in four batches. The 1916 act authorized 50 destroyers (DD-75 to DD-124), of which twenty were to be ...
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Jan 14, 2016 · The absence of the forecastle seen in previous destroyers constituted the signature "flush deck" design of the Wickes class destroyers, allowing ...
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[29]
A Bold Strategy: The British Raid on St. Nazaire | New Orleans
Apr 2, 2021 · Critical to achieving the objective of disabling the gates that formed the entrance to the dry dock would be the HMS Campbeltown, an obsolete ...
[30]
U. S. Destroyers for British Bases - November 1962 Vol. 88/11/717
The final score was nearly even in one sense: nine Town-class destroyers lost to torpedoes, mines, and bombs, including one that went down while serving in the ...Missing: Total | Show results with:Total
[31]
HMCS St. Clair - Canada.ca
Jan 14, 2021 · Bombs capsized the Tribal Class destroyer HMS Mashona and HMCS St. Clair sank the hulk after picking up survivors. Assigned to Newfoundland ...Missing: Wickes- | Show results with:Wickes-
[32]
USS Williams (DD-108)/ HMCS St. Clair
USS Williams (DD-108) was a Wickes class destroyer that was completed too late for service in the First World War, but that saw extensive use as a convoy ...
[33]
Table I: Royal Navy Town-Class Destroyers, by Commissioning Group
These were one Clemson-class and eight Wickes-class destroyers, being the best of the ships still available in Great Britain. They had been intended for the ...Missing: commission | Show results with:commission
[34]
The Strange Odyssey of USS Stewart - Warfare History Network
The destroyer was captured with the fall of the port of Surabaya on the island of Java in 1942 and refitted as a patrol boat with the Imperial Japanese Navy. In ...
[35]
British Destroyer Losses of World War II - NavWeaps
Dec 9, 2024 · This listing includes all RN, RAN and RCN destroyers that were either sunk or declared as a Constructive Total Loss (CTL).
[36]
https://www.naval-history.net/xGM-Chrono-11US-HMS_Bath.htm
[37]
Wreck of 'Ghost Ship of the Pacific' Found off California Coast
Oct 11, 2024 · The Stewart was damaged in combat in February 1942, and a “freak accident” trapped it in a repair drydock on Java. The crew abandoned the ship ...
[38]
Expedition Reveals Thirteen Shipwrecks from WWII Battles off ...
Aug 12, 2025 · Iron Bottom Sound, situated between Guadalcanal, Savo, and Nggela Islands, was the site of five major naval battles between August and December ...Missing: Sloat 2020s
[39]
Flush Decker Home Page - Destroyer History Foundation
More than a century of US Navy destroyer history in historical research, photos and first person accounts.Missing: prototypes stability issues
[40]
Destroyers at Normandy - Naval History and Heritage Command
Sep 7, 2017 · Thirty-three American and three British destroyers were engaged at the Normandy beaches, backed up by six destroyer escorts (DE) and high-speed ...