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Knesset

The Knesset is the unicameral legislature and house of representatives of the State of Israel, serving as the sole body vested with legislative authority.^[1]^[2] It consists of 120 members, known as Members of the Knesset (MKs), elected through general, national, direct, equal, secret, and proportional representation for terms of up to four years, though early dissolution by vote or no-confidence motions often shortens these periods.^[3]^[4] Located in Jerusalem, its permanent seat since 1966, the Knesset derives its name from the ancient Knesset HaGedolah, a rabbinic assembly of 120 sages.^[4]^[5] Established as the successor to the Provisional State Council following Israel's Declaration of Independence in 1948, the Knesset held its first session on 14 February 1949 after elections on 25 January 1949, marking the formal start of parliamentary democracy in the new state.^[4] Its core functions include enacting and amending laws—particularly Basic Laws that outline governmental structure and rights, functioning in lieu of a single codified constitution—electing the president and state comptroller, approving the budget and cabinet, and supervising executive actions through committees and plenary debates.^[2]^[6] The multi-party system, with a 3.25% electoral threshold since 2015, fosters coalition governments, contributing to Israel's record of 36 governments in 25 Knesset terms as of 2025, reflecting both dynamism and political fragmentation.^[4]^[6] Beyond legislation, the Knesset embodies Israel's parliamentary sovereignty, where no formal separation of powers exists in the constitutional sense, allowing it to oversee and potentially remove the government while Basic Laws provide partial checks.^[2] Notable characteristics include the absence of a vice-prime minister role and reliance on confidence votes for governmental stability, often leading to high turnover amid ideological diversity spanning religious, secular, left, right, and Arab-representative parties.^[6] This structure has enabled passage of landmark legislation, such as Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty in 1992, while also hosting intense debates on security, economy, and identity issues central to Israel's causal realities as a nation-state under persistent external threats.^[4]

Name and Etymology

Origins and Meaning

The term Knesset derives from the Hebrew word כְּנֶסֶת (knesset), meaning "assembly" or "gathering," rooted in the consonantal root כ-נ-ס (k-n-s), which denotes the act of collecting or convening people.^[7]^[8] This linguistic origin reflects a concept of communal deliberation central to Jewish tradition, distinct from terms implying hierarchy or foreign imposition.^[4] The name draws symbolic inspiration from the Knesset HaGedolah (Great Assembly), a historical body of 120 sages referenced in Jewish texts such as the Talmud and associated with the post-exilic period under Ezra and Nehemiah around the 5th century BCE.^[9] This assembly is credited with restoring Jewish religious and communal structures after the Babylonian exile, canonizing prophetic writings, and establishing ordinances for self-governance, thereby linking modern legislative continuity to ancient precedents of sovereignty in the Land of Israel.^[10] The choice evoked revival of indigenous Jewish authority rather than transient or externally influenced nomenclature.^[11] Upon Israel's establishment, the Provisional State Council—formed from the pre-state People's Council—transitioned into the framework for the elected Knesset in early 1949, adopting the name to affirm national renewal and historical legitimacy over neutral or critical international framings, such as the Arabic al-Kanīset, which transliterates without conveying the biblical resonance.^[4]^[12] This intentional nomenclature underscored a break from mandate-era bodies, prioritizing endogenous symbolism of gathered sovereignty.^[4]

Historical Development

Pre-State Legislative Bodies

The Jewish community in Mandatory Palestine, known as the Yishuv, established proto-parliamentary institutions following the San Remo Conference of 1920, which incorporated the Balfour Declaration into the British Mandate framework. The Asefat HaNivharim (Elected Assembly), the Yishuv's legislative body, was formed through the first communal elections on April 19, 1920, using proportional representation to select 314 delegates from various Zionist parties and groups, including labor Zionists who secured a plurality with 70 seats.^[13]^[14] This assembly elected the Va'ad Leumi (National Council) as its executive arm, which managed internal affairs such as education, healthcare, welfare, religious services, and local governance, operating semi-autonomously under British oversight as permitted by Article 4 of the Mandate recognizing the Jewish Agency's representative role.^[15]^[16] These bodies fostered democratic practices amid escalating Arab violence and British restrictions, including the 1920-1921 riots, 1929 disturbances, and the 1936-1939 Arab Revolt, which disrupted Jewish settlement and prompted defensive organization via the Haganah under Va'ad Leumi coordination. The Va'ad Leumi also handled security recruitment, including to British forces during World War II, demonstrating institutional resilience that enabled the Yishuv to sustain communal services for a population growing from about 85,000 Jews in 1922 to over 600,000 by 1947 despite existential threats. In response to the Peel Commission's 1937 inquiry into the revolt—triggered by Arab demands to halt Jewish immigration and land purchases—the Va'ad Leumi and Jewish Agency engaged in hearings, conditionally supporting partition as a pragmatic resolution to irreconcilable claims while rejecting Arab non-cooperation with proposed legislative councils.^[15]^[17]^[18] As British withdrawal loomed post-United Nations Partition Plan in 1947, the Va'ad Leumi transitioned into provisional state structures; on April 12, 1948, it convened with the Jewish Agency to draft the Declaration of Independence, evolving into the Provisional State Council that served as Israel's interim unicameral legislature until the first Knesset elections in January 1949. This continuity provided causal foundations for the Knesset's unicameral design, as the council's 37 members—drawn from prior Yishuv institutions—enacted emergency laws amid the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, evidencing the empirical efficacy of pre-state bodies in rapidly scaling governance under siege without reliance on external powers.^[3]^[19]^[20]

Establishment and First Assemblies

The Provisional State Council, formed on May 14, 1948, following Israel's Declaration of Independence, functioned as the interim legislative authority during the War of Independence, comprising 37 members selected from Zionist institutions rather than through popular election.^[21] This body handled essential governance amid wartime exigencies, including armistice negotiations, until the holding of nationwide elections.^[22] Elections for a Constituent Assembly, tasked with drafting a constitution, occurred on January 25, 1949, utilizing a proportional representation system with a single nationwide constituency and no electoral threshold at the time, distributing 120 seats according to vote shares.^[23] Amid the ongoing conflict's aftermath, with armistices still pending, voter turnout reached approximately 86 percent among eligible citizens aged 21 and older.^[24] Mapai, the dominant Mapai party under David Ben-Gurion, captured 46 seats with 35.7 percent of the vote, underscoring the sway of socialist-leaning Zionist labor movements among the founding cadre of immigrants and veterans.^[23] Other major blocs included Mapam (19 seats), the United Religious Front (16 seats), and Herut (14 seats), yielding a fragmented yet functional assembly reflective of pre-state ideological pluralism.^[23] The Constituent Assembly convened its inaugural session on February 14, 1949, in Jerusalem, immediately adopting the name "First Knesset" and transitioning from provisional rule to elected parliamentary sovereignty.^[25] Rather than pursuing a comprehensive constitution—deemed impractical amid demographic flux, security threats, and ideological divides—the Knesset opted for piecemeal enactment of Basic Laws as a quasi-constitutional framework.^[26] This Harari compromise, resolved in June 1950, prioritized adaptive legislation over imported rigid models, enabling responses to immediate state-building needs like absorption of mass immigration and defense mobilization.^[26] Basic Law: The Knesset, passed on February 12, 1958, by the Third Knesset, codified core elements such as the 120-member unicameral structure, four-year terms, and eligibility rules, while affirming proportional elections and barring anti-Zionist parties.^[27] This incrementalism facilitated governance continuity, with the First Knesset enacting foundational statutes on citizenship, elections, and state symbols, laying empirical groundwork for institutional resilience in a volatile regional context marked by post-colonial upheavals elsewhere.^[25]

Evolution Through Key Crises and Reforms

The Six-Day War of June 1967 prompted the Knesset to enact ordinances on June 27, 1967, enabling the extension of Israeli civil law to the newly administered territories, marking an initial procedural adaptation to wartime territorial gains without altering core parliamentary structures.^[28] This was followed by the Yom Kippur War of October 1973, which exposed intelligence and leadership failures, eroding public trust in the dominant Labor Party and fueling widespread protests that contributed to Prime Minister Golda Meir's resignation in 1974.^[29] The ensuing Agranat Commission inquiry into the war's mishandling intensified scrutiny of executive accountability, indirectly pressuring the Knesset toward greater oversight mechanisms, though no immediate structural reforms ensued.^[30] These military crises catalyzed a pivotal political realignment in the May 17, 1977, elections for the Ninth Knesset, where the Likud bloc, led by Menachem Begin, secured 43 seats to Labor's 32, ending the latter's uninterrupted control since Israel's founding and reflecting Mizrahi Jewish voters' rejection of Labor's patronage networks amid socioeconomic grievances.^[31] ^[32] This shift empirically demonstrated the multiparty system's capacity for turnover, countering assumptions of entrenched left-wing hegemony by prioritizing voter-driven realignments over institutional inertia.^[33] In response to chronic coalition fragility exacerbated by fragmented parliaments, the Knesset approved electoral reforms on March 18, 1992, introducing direct popular election of the prime minister starting in 1996 to decouple executive stability from proportional representation's volatility.^[34] Implemented in the May 29, 1996, vote where Benjamin Netanyahu narrowly defeated Shimon Peres, and again in 1999 and 2001, the system aimed to curb small parties' kingmaker role but instead amplified legislative gridlock, as evidenced by Netanyahu's 1996 coalition relying on 15 parties and subsequent no-confidence votes.^[35] Repealed by a March 7, 2001, Knesset vote (63-52) after Ariel Sharon's victory, the experiment highlighted the parliamentary model's resilience, restoring linkage between government formation and Knesset majorities to mitigate instability.^[36] The First Intifada (1987–1993) and Second Intifada (2000–2005) drove security-focused procedural enhancements, including the Knesset's 2002 passage of the Citizenship and Entry into Israel Law (temporary order, annually renewed), which barred Palestinian spouses of Israeli citizens from residency or citizenship to counter infiltration risks documented in over 200 terrorist attacks involving such individuals during the violence.^[37] This legislation prioritized empirical threat mitigation over diplomatic concessions, reflecting causal links between uprising tactics and fortified border controls. Complementing these, the Knesset raised the electoral threshold from 2% to 3.25% via the Governance Law of March 2014, reducing viable small parties from 11 in prior elections to fewer entrants and aiming to bolster coalition governability amid persistent security and economic pressures.^[38] These adaptations underscored procedural evolution toward stability, empirically curbing extremism's parliamentary leverage while preserving proportional representation's core.^[39]

Legislative Powers and Procedures

Lawmaking and Basic Laws

The Knesset enacts ordinary legislation through a structured process of three readings in the plenum, supplemented by committee deliberation. Upon introduction, a bill undergoes a preliminary debate and first reading vote for initial approval, after which it is referred to a relevant standing committee for detailed examination, amendments, and preparation for further plenary consideration. The second reading features clause-by-clause discussion and voting, while the third reading consists of a final vote on the consolidated text, generally requiring only a simple majority of members present and voting.^[40]^[41] Basic Laws constitute Israel's de facto constitutional chapters, addressing foundational aspects of state structure, rights, and identity, and are passed via the identical three-reading procedure without elevated enactment thresholds beyond a simple majority. Notable examples include the Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty, enacted on March 17, 1992, which safeguards fundamental rights grounded in the recognition of human value, life's sanctity, and freedom, embedding the values of Israel as a Jewish and democratic state; and the Basic Law: Freedom of Occupation, adopted in 1994, affirming every national or resident's entitlement to pursue any profession or trade absent violations inconsistent with state values.^[42]^[5]^[43] Some Basic Laws incorporate entrenchment clauses mandating supermajorities—such as an absolute majority of 61 members—for amendments, providing greater stability against casual revision. The Basic Law: Israel as the Nation-State of the Jewish People, approved on July 19, 2018, by a 62-55 vote, declares the land of Israel as the historical homeland of the Jewish people, exercises of national self-determination therein as belonging uniquely to the Jewish people, and Hebrew as the state language, while designating Jewish settlement as a national value; this measure has elicited contention over its declarative elevation of Jewish identity potentially at the expense of minority equality claims, though it upholds prior statutory balances on rights.^[44]^[45]^[46]

Government Formation and Oversight

Following elections to the Knesset, the President of Israel consults with representatives of the parliamentary factions and tasks one Member of the Knesset—typically the leader of the largest party—with forming a government capable of securing a vote of confidence from at least 61 members.^[47]^[48] The designated candidate negotiates a coalition agreement and presents the proposed cabinet, its policy guidelines, and composition to the Knesset within 14 days (extendable to 28 days under certain conditions), after which the Knesset votes on confidence in the government as outlined in Basic Law: The Government.^[49] This process reflects the parliamentary system's reliance on majority support, often necessitating coalitions among ideologically diverse parties due to Israel's proportional representation.^[47] The Knesset exercises oversight through mechanisms enabling the removal of governments via no-confidence votes, which historically contributed to frequent cabinet turnovers as a simple majority of 61 votes sufficed to dissolve the government and trigger new elections.^[50] In 2014, an amendment to Basic Law: The Government introduced a "constructive" no-confidence vote, requiring opponents not only to pass a no-confidence motion but also to simultaneously designate an alternative prime minister and secure 61 votes for a new government, thereby aiming to prevent destabilizing votes without viable replacements.^[51]^[50] This reform addressed empirical patterns of instability in Israel's multiparty coalitions, where pre-2014 no-confidence motions had repeatedly led to early elections, though critics in outlets aligned with opposition views have portrayed such dynamics as inherent dysfunction rather than a feature of proportional systems incentivizing accountability.^[51] Beyond investiture, the Knesset holds the executive accountable via inquiry committees empowered to investigate government failures and interpellations allowing members to summon and question ministers on policy implementation.^[52] These tools have causally exposed lapses, as seen after the 1973 Yom Kippur War, where Knesset debates and demands for scrutiny prompted the government to establish the Agranat Commission, which probed intelligence and military preparedness shortcomings leading to resignations of key officials including Prime Minister Golda Meir.^[53]^[54] Such mechanisms underscore the Knesset's role in enforcing causal accountability, independent of judicial processes, by leveraging public hearings and reports to influence policy corrections and personnel changes.^[52]

Budgetary and Electoral Responsibilities

The Knesset approves the annual state budget submitted by the government, enacting it as law after review by the Finance Committee and plenary debates, with provisions requiring submission no later than 60 days before the fiscal year begins.^[55]^[56] In September 2025, amid ongoing war costs exceeding NIS 30 billion in additional defense allocations since the October 2023 Hamas attack, the Knesset raised the 2025 deficit ceiling to 5.2% of GDP from 4.9%, enabling pragmatic fiscal expansion over rigid austerity to sustain military operations and economic stability.^[57]^[58] This adjustment, part of broader budgetary reforms including expenditure cuts and tax hikes totaling NIS 37 billion, passed despite opposition concerns over long-term debt implications.^[59] The Knesset holds authority to amend electoral laws, including Basic Law: The Knesset, as seen in 2024 proposals expanding disqualification criteria for candidate lists based on support for terrorism or state negation to enhance participatory integrity.^[60] It also supervises the Central Elections Committee, established under the 1969 Knesset Elections Law, which proportionally represents Knesset factions and administers nationwide polls, verifying voter rolls and ballot processes amid Israel's proportional system.^[61] While polarized debates have included unsubstantiated fraud allegations, particularly post-2022 elections, judicial chairmanship and multi-party composition enforce verifiable safeguards against manipulation. Additionally, the Knesset elects the President and State Comptroller by secret ballot, each for a single seven-year term requiring a majority of participating members, centralizing these selections in the legislature unlike diffused federal arrangements.^[62] This process, governed by Basic Laws, underscores Israel's unitary framework where the national assembly appoints non-partisan overseers of executive accountability and ceremonial functions, with the President's role limited to formal duties and the Comptroller auditing public finances independently.^[63]

Electoral Framework

Proportional Representation System

The Knesset allocates its 120 seats through a nationwide proportional representation system, where voters cast ballots exclusively for party lists rather than individual candidates or districts.^[64] This closed-list mechanism empowers party apparatuses to determine candidate rankings internally, limiting voter influence over personal selections and reinforcing centralized control within parties.^[65] Absent any geographic constituencies, the approach fosters a unified national electoral arena, consistent with Israel's centralized state framework that prioritizes countrywide policy coherence over localized representation.^[66] Seat distribution employs the Bader-Ofer method, an iteration of the largest remainder system using the Hare quota (total valid votes divided by 120) to initially assign whole seats proportionally, with remaining seats allocated to lists holding the largest fractional remainders.^[66] Parties must exceed a 3.25% national vote threshold—equivalent to roughly 3.9 seats—to qualify, a barrier raised from 2% in 2014 to curb minor list proliferation while still permitting multiparty outcomes.^[67] In practice, this configuration yields 8 to 12 parties securing representation per Knesset term, enabling granular ideological and demographic inclusion—such as religious, ethnic minority, and peripheral voices—but systematically generating fragmented legislatures where no list attains a majority.^[64] Voter turnout consistently hovers near 70%, underscoring public engagement amid these dynamics.^[68] The design's causal structure promotes party multiplicity by lowering barriers to entry relative to majoritarian systems, yet it amplifies governance challenges through obligatory coalitions, wherein marginal lists—including those espousing outlier positions—wield veto power or extract concessions disproportionate to their vote share.^[69] Closed lists exacerbate intra-party rigidity by insulating leadership from rank-and-file or voter pressures, contrasting with open-list variants that permit preference voting and could mitigate elite entrenchment.^[65] While diversity counters majoritarian exclusion, the resultant instability—evident in recurrent coalition breakdowns—stems directly from thresholds insufficiently high to consolidate broader electoral blocs, a tension inherent to pure list PR in polarized societies.^[66]

Election Cycles and Thresholds

The Knesset serves a term of four years, after which elections must be held unless the body is dissolved earlier.^[70] Dissolution requires the passage of a dedicated bill by a simple majority of Knesset members, typically necessitating at least 61 votes in practice to overcome opposition and procedural hurdles.^[71] Once approved, elections are scheduled within 90 days, with the exact date set by the president after consultation with party leaders; polls close at 10 p.m. on election day, a Tuesday, followed by immediate exit polls and official results within about two weeks.^[71] The most recent election, on November 1, 2022, followed the dissolution of the 24th Knesset amid the collapse of Prime Minister Naftali Bennett's coalition, triggered by the defection of a key member and failure to pass a budget extension, marking Israel's fifth election in under four years.^[72] The electoral threshold, the minimum percentage of valid votes a party list must receive to secure Knesset seats, has evolved to curb fragmentation and promote larger, more viable political entities. Initially set at 1 percent from the Knesset's founding through the 1980s, it was raised to 1.5 percent in 1988 via amendment to Basic Law: The Knesset, targeting the proliferation of small parties that complicated coalition-building.^[73] Further increased to 2 percent briefly before settling at 3.25 percent under the 2014 Governance Law, this adjustment disqualified lists falling below the bar, with their votes redistributed proportionally among qualifying parties; in the 2022 election, for instance, this excluded parties like Balad, which garnered 2.9 percent.^[38] These hikes have empirically reduced the entry of minor factions, including Arab splinter groups previously holding disproportionate veto influence in razor-thin majorities, fostering governability by compelling mergers—such as the formation of the Joint List in 2015—without broadly disenfranchising voters, as over 95 percent of votes historically align with major blocs.^[74] Campaign finance is governed by the Political Parties (Financing) Law of 1973, emphasizing state subsidies to ensure competitive equity while capping private donations and expenditures. Parties receive public funding proportional to prior electoral performance and vote share, totaling around NIS 200 million in recent cycles, supplemented by limited individual contributions (up to NIS 4,000 per donor annually, indexed for inflation) but prohibiting corporate or foreign funds.^[75] Regulations mandate transparent reporting to the State Comptroller, with violations punishable by fines or disqualification; Supreme Court rulings, such as those enforcing equal media airtime allocation during campaigns, uphold procedural fairness by prohibiting paid political ads on broadcast media and mandating balanced coverage.^[76] This framework minimizes undue influence from wealthy donors, though critics note enforcement gaps in digital advertising.^[75]

Influences on Party Dynamics

The proportional representation system with a historically low electoral threshold—initially 1% until raised to 1.5% in 1988, 2% in 2003, and 3.25% in 2014—has enabled the persistence of small parties, particularly haredi (ultra-Orthodox) lists like United Torah Judaism and Shas, as well as Arab-majority parties such as Ra'am and Balad, which typically secure 4-7 seats each in recent Knessets.^[38] This fragmentation necessitates coalitions exceeding 61 seats for government formation, positioning these minor parties as pivotal actors whose demands—ranging from religious exemptions for haredi on military service to conditional Arab support for infrastructure deals—can impose effective vetoes on security policies during conflicts, as seen in critiques of stalled operations amid coalition arithmetic constraints.^[74] Post-1977, following Likud's electoral breakthrough, right-wing and religious blocs have dominated, averaging 60-65 seats in most elections through 2022, enabling sustained governance focused on settlement expansion and deterrence but reliant on haredi leverage that prioritizes demographic growth over national service equity.^[77] Strategic mergers exemplify adaptive responses to threshold pressures, as parties consolidate to avoid vote wastage rather than ideological dilution; United Torah Judaism, formed in 1992 by uniting Agudat Yisrael and Degel HaTorah, has repeatedly split and reformed—such as a 2019 "procedural" division ahead of elections—to optimize seat allocation while preserving factional autonomy on issues like Sabbath observance.^[78]^[79] Similar tactics, including the 2019 Blue and White alliance or 2021 right-wing fusions, underscore a pragmatic realism where survival trumps purity, reducing the raw number of lists from over 30 in early elections to 10-15 today, yet perpetuating bloc-based bargaining that amplifies religious veto power in right-leaning coalitions. Israel's electoral volatility, measured by Pedersen indices averaging 20-30% per cycle—higher than most democracies—manifests in rightward shifts correlating with terror escalations, as localities exposed to rocket attacks from Gaza increased Likud support by 2-5% in affected areas during 2009-2013 elections, reflecting causal prioritization of security over economic or social agendas.^[80] This dynamic counters narratives of a fixed "left consensus," with empirical data showing left-Zionist parties (Labor-Meretz) declining from 56 seats in 1992 to under 20 by 2022, as voters realign toward hawkish platforms amid intifadas and Hamas surges, stabilizing right-religious majorities despite internal factionalism.^[81]

Internal Structure

Membership Eligibility and Terms

Eligibility for membership in the Knesset requires Israeli citizenship, attainment of 21 years of age by the date of candidate list submission, and no conviction for an offense involving moral turpitude or a sentence of five or more years imprisonment prior to that date, as stipulated in Basic Law: The Knesset.^[27] The Central Elections Committee may disqualify candidates on grounds of support for armed struggle against Israel or denial of Israel's Jewish and democratic character, per amendments addressing threats to state security.^[27] The term of the Knesset is four years from the convening of the new assembly following elections, though the body may dissolve itself early through a simple majority vote, a mechanism invoked frequently due to coalition instabilities, resulting in an average tenure shorter than the statutory period.^[82]^[70] Members of the Knesset (MKs) serve until the end of the term, resignation, death, or loss of eligibility, with vacancies filled by the next candidate on the party's list.^[27] MKs possess parliamentary immunity from criminal or civil liability for votes, speeches, or statements made in the course of their duties, shielding legislative functions from extraneous legal pressures and enabling forthright policy advocacy.^[83]^[84] This immunity, detailed in the Knesset Members (Immunity, Rights and Duties) Law, extends to non-parliamentary actions only with Knesset approval for waiver, except in cases of treason or certain security offenses where prosecution may proceed directly; such protections correlate with sustained legislative initiative amid polarized debates, countering potential prosecutorial overreach.^[85]^[86] Dual mandates are barred, requiring MKs to resign from other elected positions such as municipal councils or ministerial roles incompatible with full-time legislative service, thereby concentrating accountability on national representation.^[83] The closed-list proportional representation system fosters low turnover, with parties strategically placing incumbents in high list positions for re-election; empirical data show 20-40 new MKs per cycle on average, varying by electoral volatility, as seen in the 49 rookies of the 2019 22nd Knesset amid fragmentation contrasted with higher continuity in stable contests.^[87] This structure prioritizes party loyalty and experience over individual voter choice, yielding legislative continuity but reduced responsiveness to constituency shifts.^[88]

Committees and Deliberative Processes

The Knesset maintains 12 permanent committees tasked with scrutinizing legislation, conducting oversight, and holding hearings on government policies within specific domains, such as the Foreign Affairs and Defense Committee, Finance Committee, Constitution, Law and Justice Committee, Education, Culture and Sport Committee, and Interior and Environmental Affairs Committee. Membership in these bodies is allocated proportionally to reflect the seat distribution among parliamentary factions, with chairs typically selected from the coalition or by plenum vote.^[4]^[89] These committees form the core of the Knesset's deliberative machinery, receiving bills after their first plenum reading for detailed examination, including public consultations, expert inputs, and proposed revisions. They recommend whether bills proceed to second and third readings or are shelved, thereby filtering and refining the legislative agenda before full assembly debate. This stage resolves the bulk of substantive issues, enabling more efficient plenary sessions.^[41] Ad hoc joint committees address cross-jurisdictional topics, merging expertise from multiple permanent panels to streamline complex deliberations, as in joint efforts on public broadcasting legislation combining constitutional and economic aspects. In acute crises, committees have demonstrated accelerated efficacy; post the October 7, 2023, Hamas attacks, the National Security Committee advanced draft bills mandating death penalties for certain Palestinian detainees involved, while the Constitution, Law and Justice Committee initiated preparations for prosecuting attack participants, bypassing standard timelines to enact security measures.^[90]^[91]^[92] The Speaker of the Knesset exerts influence over these processes by setting the plenum agenda—often prioritizing government bills—which determines committee referrals and workloads. In polarized environments, such as the 25th Knesset (elected November 1, 2022), where coalition factions hold majorities in most committees, opposition lawmakers have contended that chair selection and scheduling favor ruling priorities, potentially undermining impartial vetting, as evidenced by coalition dominance in key oversight roles during judicial and security debates.^[93]^[94]

Factions, Caucuses, and Voting Practices

In the Knesset, parliamentary factions, also known as groups, are formed from the election lists that secure seats, with members functioning within these frameworks or as independents.^[95] Factions may split or merge during a term, but establishing a new faction or splitting from an existing one historically required a minimum of three members of Knesset (MKs) to qualify for allocated resources such as office space, staff, and budgetary support, incentivizing cohesion to avoid dilution of influence.^[95] In December 2022, legislation raised these thresholds—for instance, requiring at least 11 MKs to split from Likud without financial penalties—to curb opportunistic defections and bolster internal discipline, reflecting causal links between faction stability and governmental longevity in Israel's fragmented politics.^[96] Party leaders enforce voting discipline through informal whip systems, leveraging threats of deselection in primaries, reduced faction perks, or expulsion proceedings—initiated by 70 MKs including opposition voices—to align MKs with coalition priorities, though conscience votes occur at personal political cost.^[97] Defections, while infrequent post-1991 anti-defection laws that imposed electoral penalties for switching, have historically destabilized governments; in 1990, two key abstentions and shifts reduced Labor's support from 61 to 59 seats, collapsing Shimon Peres's coalition attempt and enabling Likud's return to power.^[98] Such events, rarer today due to legal deterrents, underscore factions' role in maintaining razor-thin majorities, as seen in the 25th Knesset's coalition of 64 seats prone to internal revolts.^[99] Cross-party caucuses, or lobbies, comprise informal MK groupings advocating for specific causes, enlisting colleagues and officials to promote issues ranging from youth movements to the Land of Israel Caucus, which in 2024 counted 51 members focused on settlement advocacy.^[100] Hundreds exist, including diaspora-relations forums that facilitate ties but occasionally prioritize international alliances over domestic sovereignty, as critiqued in analyses of supranational influences diluting national policy autonomy amid left-leaning institutional pressures.^[101] These caucuses exert soft power by shaping debates and amendments, though their efficacy depends on overlapping faction interests rather than binding votes. Voting in the Knesset plenum typically occurs electronically, with MKs registering yes, no, or abstain via devices at their seats for efficiency in routine proceedings.^[102] Roll-call votes, conducted verbally or by standing, are reserved for contentious matters or upon request, ensuring transparency but prolonging sessions; abstentions neither affirm nor oppose, critically swaying outcomes in tight divisions, as evidenced by coalition bills passing 61-59 or failing amid boycotts in 2023-2025 over issues like military exemptions.^[103] ^[104] In the 25th Knesset, such practices have amplified factional tensions, with abstentions or absences tipping scales in coalition-maintenance votes against dissolution motions rejected 61-0 in June 2025.^[105]

Composition and Representation

Current 25th Knesset (2022–Present)

The 25th Knesset convened following elections held on November 1, 2022, in which Likud secured 32 seats and formed a governing coalition with Religious Zionism (14 seats, encompassing Otzma Yehudit, Religious Zionism, and Noam), Shas (11 seats), and United Torah Judaism (7 seats), totaling 64 seats out of 120. This right-religious alignment facilitated legislation prioritizing national security and settlement policies, while Arab-majority parties such as Hadash-Ta'al and Ra'am remained in opposition.^[106] Significant shifts occurred in 2025 amid disputes over haredi conscription exemptions. United Torah Judaism withdrew from the coalition in July 2025, citing dissatisfaction with the government's handling of draft enforcement.^[107] Shas followed by resigning from all coalition positions on October 23, 2025, in protest over delays in advancing exemption legislation, effectively reducing the coalition's reliable voting bloc to around 46 seats comprising Likud and the Religious Zionism alliance.^[108] Notable personnel changes included Afef Abed, a Druze representative, being sworn in as a Likud MK on January 6, 2025, replacing Yoav Gallant following his resignation.^[109] As of October 2025, the Knesset's presidium includes Deputy Speakers Eliyahu Revivo (Likud), Evgeny Sova and Meir Cohen (Yisrael Beitenu, opposition), and Limor Sonn Har-Melech (Otzma Yehudit).^[110] The winter session, opening on October 20, 2025, has featured contentious debates on conscription reforms, budget priorities, and national security inquiries, reflecting the fractured coalition dynamics and opposition pushes for accountability.^[111]^[112] This configuration underscores a narrowed right-wing influence, reliant on ad hoc support to maintain governance amid ongoing haredi tensions.^[107]

Historical Shifts in Seat Distribution

From the first Knesset elections on 14 January 1949, the Mapai party—predecessor to Labor—secured 46 of 120 seats, establishing dominance that persisted through party alignments and mergers, averaging approximately 45-50 seats for Labor-aligned lists until 1977.^[24] This period reflected voter priorities on state-building and socialist policies amid post-independence challenges, with Mapai-led coalitions forming every government. The 1977 elections marked a pivotal shift, as the Likud bloc, led by Menachem Begin, won 43 seats to Labor's 32, ending three decades of left-wing hegemony and ushering in parity between left and right blocs.^[31] This realignment correlated with socioeconomic grievances among Mizrahi voters and critiques of Labor's security record post-Yom Kippur War. Subsequent decades saw oscillating fortunes, but post-2009 elections exhibited a structural right-wing edge, with Likud and allies averaging majorities in the 61-seat threshold for coalition formation, as in the 2009 results where Likud (27 seats), Yisrael Beiteinu (15), and religious parties combined for over 60 mandates.^[113] This trend empirically linked to the Oslo Accords' (1993) territorial concessions, which empowered Palestinian Authority governance but preceded a surge in suicide bombings (over 150 attacks, 1994-2000) and the Second Intifada (2000-2005), causing 1,053 Israeli civilian and 459 security personnel deaths, eroding support for concession-based peace and bolstering parties emphasizing deterrence and settlement retention.^[114] Voter data from subsequent polls indicated security threats as the top issue, driving consolidation around right-leaning platforms despite occasional centrist surges. Knesset fragmentation varied, with 5-7 parties typically crossing the electoral threshold in early decades, rising to peaks like 10 in the April 2019 election amid repeated polls triggered by coalition deadlocks.^[115] High fragmentation reflected niche appeals on religion, ethnicity, and ideology, yet right-bloc cohesion often prevailed, underscoring empirical voter preference for unified defense policies over fragmented concession advocacy, as evidenced by sustained majorities for security-focused alliances even in multi-party landscapes.^[116] Women's representation grew from 11 MKs (9%) in the 1949-1951 Knesset to 25-30 (21-25%) in most post-2000 terms, driven by party quotas and legal pushes like the 1995 women's advancement framework, though stagnation occurred after 2015 despite peaks like 36 in the 20th Knesset via mid-term substitutions.^[117] Arab representation hovered at 10-15 MKs (8-12.5%), fluctuating with voter turnout dips to 44% in 2019—linked to boycott calls by factions like Balad protesting perceived inefficacy—and threshold hikes excluding smaller lists, yet Joint List formations occasionally boosted totals to 13 seats.^[118]^[119] These patterns highlight resilience in minority mandates amid broader rightward ideological consolidation.

Demographic and Ideological Trends

Over successive Knesset terms, representation of ultra-Orthodox (haredi) parties has expanded significantly, rising from approximately 5 seats combined for predecessors like Agudat Yisrael in the 1980s to 16 seats for Shas and United Torah Judaism in the 2019 election.^[120] ^[121] This growth correlates directly with haredi demographic expansion, driven by average fertility rates of about 7 children per family compared to 2 among secular Jews, projecting haredim to comprise 23% of Israel's Jewish population by 2048 from 13% currently.^[122] ^[123] Such patterns underscore a causal decline in secular voter bases, as low birth rates among left-leaning demographics erode their proportional influence, evidenced by reduced seats for parties like Labor from 56 in 1992 to 4 in 2022.^[124] Ethnic representation trends reveal a sustained pivot among Mizrahi Jews—those of Middle Eastern and North African descent—toward Likud and allied right-wing blocs since the 1977 election, when their support propelled Menachem Begin's victory by addressing historical grievances against Labor's Ashkenazi-dominated establishment.^[125] ^[126] Empirical voting data from subsequent cycles, including 2015, confirm Mizrahi majorities backing Likud (often over 50% in Mizrahi-heavy areas), countering narratives of persistent Ashkenazi elite control by demonstrating socioeconomic integration and preference for parties emphasizing cultural tradition and security over redistributive policies associated with the secular left.^[127] ^[128] Ideologically, Knesset composition has polarized along security lines, with hawkish stances—prioritizing territorial retention and deterrence—gaining majority traction post-2000, as evidenced by legislative outputs like over 100 bills since 2015 reinforcing settlement rights and military exemptions debates, reflecting public shifts after empirical failures of accommodationist policies such as the Oslo Accords and Gaza disengagement, which correlated with intensified terror (e.g., 1,000+ fatalities in the Second Intifada).^[129] ^[130] This realism-driven realignment, supported by polling showing 60-70% Israeli Jewish opposition to significant concessions by 2020, contrasts with dovish minorities advocating withdrawals, whose representational decline mirrors demographic and experiential causal factors rather than mere partisan rhetoric.^[131]

Physical and Operational Aspects

Knesset Building in Jerusalem

The Knesset Building is situated in the Givat Ram neighborhood of western Jerusalem, serving as the permanent home of Israel's unicameral parliament since its completion in 1966.^[132] Construction commenced with the laying of the cornerstone on October 14, 1958, funded primarily through a bequest from philanthropist James de Rothschild, and the structure was officially dedicated on August 31, 1966, during the tenure of Prime Minister Levi Eshkol.^[133] Designed by Polish-born architect Ossip Klarwein in a modernist style characterized by clean lines and functional forms, the building embodies democratic continuity and national resilience, reflecting Israel's emphasis on pragmatic governance amid post-independence challenges.^[4] Prior to occupying the permanent facility, the Knesset held sessions in temporary venues in Jerusalem, including the Jewish Agency building and Frumin House, following its inaugural meeting on February 14, 1949.^[4] The choice of Jerusalem as the site, despite pre-1967 armistice line divisions, affirmed the city's status as the undivided capital after the Six-Day War, solidifying the institution's physical and symbolic anchorage in the national center.^[134] The six-story edifice prioritizes utility over grandeur, housing a dedicated Plenum Hall for plenary sessions, individual offices for the 120 members of Knesset, committee rooms, and administrative spaces, all tailored to support legislative efficiency under fiscal restraint.^[135]^[136] Symbolic features integrate historical and Zionist motifs into the design, reinforcing themes of revival and endurance. Prominent among these is the exterior eternal flame monument, centered with inscriptions evoking dawn and renewal—"The morning will come"—alluding to the reestablishment of Jewish sovereignty after millennia of exile.^[137] Adjacent stands the Knesset Menorah, a bronze sculpture depicting key episodes in Jewish history from ancient trials to modern state-building, symbolizing the unbroken chain of national continuity central to Zionist ideology.^[138] Interior elements, such as tapestries by Marc Chagall in ancillary halls, further embed cultural memory, though the core architecture maintains a restrained focus on democratic functionality.^[139]

Security Protocols and Incidents

The Knesset employs a multi-layered security apparatus, primarily managed by the Knesset Guard in coordination with the Israel Police, to address persistent threats from terrorism and potential civil disturbances. This structure reflects the causal imperative for fortified defenses in a nation facing repeated attacks, as evidenced by historical precedents and ongoing intelligence assessments. The Guard, a specialized unit of about 35 personnel, handles internal protection and rapid response, while external perimeters integrate police and military elements during heightened alerts.^[140]^[141] Evacuation and continuity protocols are regularly tested through drills simulating scenarios such as missile strikes, structural collapses from earthquakes, or rubble extractions, ensuring the prioritization of lawmakers' safety and parliamentary operations. In a 2019 exercise, Guard members practiced evacuating wounded MKs under simulated attack conditions, emphasizing communication and teamwork. A 2017 earthquake preparedness drill involved Knesset Guard units alongside Magen David Adom and fire services, validating response timelines and shelter access. These measures underscore the empirical rationale for vigilance, countering arguments for reduced defenses by demonstrating the tangible risks of complacency in a volatile geopolitical context.^[140]^[142] Notable incidents highlight the system's challenges and adaptations. On October 29, 1957, an assailant entered the then-downtown Jerusalem Knesset session and detonated a grenade in the assembly hall, injuring several without fatalities due to quick security actions. During 2023 judicial reform protests, demonstrators breached outer barriers and attempted to access the building, prompting forceful ejections by guards to maintain order. In March 2025, physical altercations erupted between Knesset security and families of October 7 victims and hostages seeking entry to a session on the attacks, resulting in injuries and a postponed debate, illustrating tensions between access rights and threat mitigation. Post-October 7, 2023, enhanced protocols have foiled unspecified infiltration attempts, though details remain classified amid broader national security escalations.^[143]^[144]^[145]

Public Engagement and Tourism

The Knesset promotes public engagement by offering free guided tours of its Jerusalem building to individuals and small groups, with larger delegations requiring advance coordination through the Visitor Center. These tours, available Sunday through Thursday, cover key areas including the plenum hall, corridors adorned with national symbols, and educational exhibits on Israel's legislative history. Conducted in multiple languages such as Hebrew, English, Arabic, French, Spanish, Russian, and German, the tours emphasize the institution's role in democratic governance and typically accommodate up to 25 participants per session.^[146]^[147] Visitors can observe live plenary sessions from the dedicated public gallery during sittings, which occur on Mondays, Tuesdays, and Wednesdays, fostering direct exposure to parliamentary debates and proceedings. This access underscores efforts toward transparency, allowing citizens and tourists to witness the deliberative process firsthand without security disruptions.^[148] Following the COVID-19 pandemic, the Knesset expanded virtual engagement options, including an interactive online tour featuring 360-degree panoramic views of the building's interior, from the entrance halls to the main chambers. This digital platform enables global users to explore the premises remotely, maintaining continuity in public outreach amid travel restrictions.^[149] The Special Committee for Public Petitions serves as a primary channel for citizen input, receiving and reviewing submissions from individuals and organizations on matters of public concern, with mandates to provide responses and, where appropriate, refer issues to other committees or authorities for action. This mechanism allows direct influence on legislative agendas, though operational data from official reports highlight its role in addressing specific grievances rather than broad policy shifts.^[150] All Knesset plenum sessions, committee meetings, and faction deliberations are broadcast live on the Knesset Channel (Channel 99), accessible via major Israeli television providers, ensuring widespread availability of unedited parliamentary content to the public. This dedicated broadcasting service, operational since the channel's inception, supports informed civic participation by disseminating real-time legislative activities without intermediary filtering.^[151] As a prominent landmark in Jerusalem, the Knesset draws international tourists interested in Israel's political institutions, integrating into broader heritage itineraries that highlight the nation's democratic foundations. Guided visits contribute to educational tourism, with the site's architectural design by Joseph Klarwein—featuring minimalist concrete structures and symbolic elements like seven stone steps representing the menorah—enhancing its appeal as a modern emblem of sovereignty.^[146]

Controversies and Debates

Judicial Reform Efforts and Backlash

In early 2023, Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu's coalition government, holding 64 seats in the Knesset, advanced a series of legislative proposals aimed at curtailing the Israeli Supreme Court's interpretive powers over Basic Laws and administrative decisions, arguing that the judiciary's expansive review authority undermined democratic accountability.^[152] A central component targeted the "reasonableness" standard, a judicial doctrine enabling the court to invalidate government actions deemed extremely unreasonable, which reformers contended allowed unelected judges to override elected officials without constitutional grounding.^[153] On July 24, 2023, the Knesset passed an amendment to Basic Law: The Judiciary by a 64-0 vote—opposition members having walked out—abolishing the reasonableness clause entirely and prohibiting its future use, even in extreme cases.^[154] The reform triggered widespread protests, with hundreds of thousands demonstrating weekly from January through July 2023, including reservist refusals to serve and a general strike on July 25 that halted much of the economy, framed by opponents as a defense against authoritarianism but by supporters as resistance from entrenched elites protecting judicial supremacy.^[155] Public opinion polls reflected division: a February 2023 Israel Democracy Institute survey found 66% opposed limiting the court's power to strike down laws, including nearly half of Likud voters, though support for reforming judicial appointments was higher at around 50%.^[156] On January 1, 2024, the Supreme Court struck down the reasonableness amendment in an 8-7 decision, invoking its own authority to review Basic Law changes for alignment with Israel's democratic character, thereby restoring the doctrine and escalating tensions over the judiciary's self-empowerment.^[157]^[158] Efforts resumed in 2025 amid the ongoing Gaza war, with the Knesset prioritizing structural changes to judicial selection to enhance elected branches' influence. On March 27, 2025, lawmakers approved an amendment altering the Judicial Selection Committee's composition, increasing political appointees from four to six by replacing two Israel Bar Association representatives with coalition-nominated members, allowing a simple majority to appoint judges and presidents—a shift from the prior supermajority requirement that had favored judicial incumbents.^[159]^[160] The bill passed 67-1 after opposition boycotts, reflecting reformers' view that it restores balance by curbing the judiciary's self-perpetuation, where judges historically controlled a majority of appointments.^[161] Critics, including opposition parties and civil society groups, decried it as politicizing the bench and eroding checks on executive power, prompting immediate legal challenges to the High Court.^[162] A January 2025 Israel Democracy Institute poll indicated 55% overall opposition to the broader reform package, though confidence in the judiciary had declined to 43% per Gallup data, signaling public fatigue with institutional deadlock.^[163]^[164] Proponents emphasized that the changes align with majoritarian principles, enabling the electorate's representatives to counter unelected vetoes, a position bolstered by the reforms' passage despite wartime constraints.^[165]

Sovereignty Applications in Disputed Territories

In October 2025, the Knesset approved preliminary readings for two bills aimed at extending Israeli sovereignty to portions of Judea and Samaria. The first, proposed by MK Avi Maoz of the Noam party, seeks to apply Israeli law to settlement blocs in the region and passed by a narrow 25-24 margin, with several coalition members defying Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu's opposition to advance it. A second bill specifically targeting the Ma'ale Adumim settlement, home to approximately 40,000 residents east of Jerusalem, garnered broader support, passing 32-9 in preliminary reading. These votes, occurring amid ongoing security challenges following the October 7, 2023, Hamas attacks, signal momentum from right-wing factions within the coalition to formalize control over strategic areas, though both bills require three additional readings to become law.^[166]^[167]^[168] Historically, following Israel's capture of Judea, Samaria, and Gaza in the 1967 Six-Day War, the territories were placed under military administration rather than full annexation, with Israeli law extended only to East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights. The 1993-1995 Oslo Accords established an interim framework dividing Judea and Samaria into Areas A (Palestinian civil and security control), B (Palestinian civil, joint security), and C (full Israeli control, comprising 61% of the land including settlements), deferring final status issues like sovereignty to future negotiations that have yet to materialize. Proponents of sovereignty legislation argue this interim status has perpetuated uncertainty, contrasting with post-1967 security arrangements that maintained Israeli presence to ensure defensible borders, as evidenced by a 2025 poll finding 58% of Israeli Jews view Jewish communities in the region as contributing to national security.^[169]^[170]^[171] Empirical outcomes from territorial withdrawals underscore the security rationale for sovereignty applications, challenging narratives framing settlements as inherent obstacles to peace. Israel's 2005 unilateral disengagement from Gaza, involving the evacuation of 21 settlements and 8,000 residents, initially reduced direct friction but enabled Hamas's 2006 electoral victory and violent seizure of control in 2007, resulting in over 20,000 rockets fired at Israel by 2023 and the October 7 massacre killing 1,200. This sequence demonstrates a causal pattern where withdrawal facilitated militant entrenchment rather than moderation, with Gaza's governance devolving into a launchpad for attacks absent Israeli presence. Advocates for applying sovereignty in Judea and Samaria cite similar risks, emphasizing strategic depth for defense against threats from Jordan Valley heights, while critics, including some international observers, warn of heightened Palestinian unrest and diplomatic isolation, though data on Palestinian Authority governance—marked by corruption and failure to reform security forces—suggests low viability for an independent state without fundamental changes.^[172]^[173]^[174]

Handling of National Security Challenges

Following the Hamas-led attack on October 7, 2023, which killed 1,200 Israelis and took 251 hostages, the Knesset convened emergency sessions to address the immediate security crisis and authorized military operations in Gaza aimed at dismantling Hamas infrastructure and rescuing captives.^[175]^[176] The plenum supported the government's expansion into a unity framework, incorporating opposition leaders like Benny Gantz into a war cabinet to coordinate the response, reflecting initial cross-aisle consensus on prioritizing hostage recovery and threat neutralization over partisan disputes.^[177] This enabled rapid legislative backing for reserve mobilizations exceeding 360,000 troops and sustained IDF campaigns targeting Hamas command structures.^[176] On October 22, 2025, the Knesset State Control Committee rejected a proposal for a state commission of inquiry into the October 7 intelligence and response failures, voting 4-6 against it amid ongoing hostilities.^[175]^[176] Coalition members argued that such a probe would politicize the military effort, divert resources from active operations, and embolden adversaries like Hamas, which had demonstrated intransigence through repeated ceasefire violations and hostage withholdings.^[176]^[178] In June 2025, the Knesset passed legislation mandating a formalized national security policy, underscoring a legislative push for structured long-term defense strategies post-October 7.^[179] Historically, the Knesset has influenced post-conflict accountability through oversight of government-appointed commissions rather than mid-war disruptions. After the 1973 Yom Kippur War's surprise assaults by Egypt and Syria, which caught Israel off-guard despite warnings, the Agranat Commission—established by the cabinet in November 1973—probed IDF preparedness lapses, resulting in senior military resignations and doctrinal reforms enacted via Knesset-backed basic laws clarifying civilian-military roles.^[53]^[180] Similarly, following the 2006 Second Lebanon War's inconclusive outcomes against Hezbollah, the Winograd Commission's 2008 final report, submitted to the prime minister, highlighted flaws in political oversight and operational planning, prompting Knesset debates that led to enhanced cabinet protocols for future engagements.^[181]^[182] These inquiries, conducted after ceasefires, avoided compromising ongoing combat effectiveness, a pattern coalition lawmakers invoked to justify delaying October 7 probes until Hamas threats were fully addressed. Debates within the Knesset reveal divides on balancing resolve with restraint: the coalition emphasized empirical necessities like Hamas's refusal to release all hostages or disarm, as evidenced by post-ceasefire incidents in October 2025, while opposition voices, including Yair Lapid and Yair Golan, advocated earlier de-escalation to mitigate humanitarian costs and secure partial deals.^[178]^[183]^[184] Prime Minister Netanyahu contended that yielding to such ceasefire pressures risked catastrophic escalation, citing intelligence on Hamas's fortified intransigence.^[178] Critics from bereaved families and opposition accused delays in inquiries of evasion, though coalition responses highlighted prior commissions' post-victory timing as causally linked to stronger national outcomes.^[176]^[185]

Polarization and Legitimacy Critiques

Public trust in the Knesset remains low amid ongoing political divisions, with a March 2025 survey reporting an 11% trust level, the lowest among major institutions.^[186] This distrust is unevenly distributed, exhibiting stark sectoral disparities: trust in key leadership figures like Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu reached 46% among Jewish Israelis but only 10% among Arab Israelis in July 2025, reflecting broader cleavages between right-leaning Jewish majorities and left-leaning or Arab minorities.^[187] Such patterns align with heightened polarization, where ideological camps—particularly over constitutional balances—intensify scrutiny of legislative outputs, often prioritizing perceived failures in governance over demonstrated institutional endurance, such as maintaining economic growth rates above 3% annually despite protracted security challenges from 2023 onward.^[188] Critiques of Knesset legitimacy frequently emanate from left-leaning sources framing right-wing coalitions as veering toward illiberalism, citing measures that allegedly undermine democratic norms; however, Freedom House assessments affirm that Israel sustains a multiparty system with independent institutions guaranteeing political rights and civil liberties for most citizens, including minorities comprising about 21% of the population.^[189]^[190] Right-wing counterarguments highlight judicial interventions as the primary erosive force, asserting that unelected courts have repeatedly overridden Knesset majorities on policy matters, thereby subverting electoral legitimacy and fostering public cynicism toward representative institutions.^[191] This tension underscores a causal dynamic where judicial assertions of authority, rather than legislative actions alone, contribute to perceptions of systemic imbalance, as evidenced by Knesset members' varied definitions of democracy tied to their ideological affiliations.^[192] International commentary on Knesset proceedings, such as U.S. officials' October 2025 rebukes of bills advancing sovereignty over West Bank areas—termed an "insult" by Vice President JD Vance—illustrates external biases toward influencing Israeli domestic processes, yet these overlook Israel's imperative for autonomous security-driven decisions amid persistent threats.^[193]^[194] Prioritizing empirical sovereignty, Israeli discourse emphasizes that such legislative initiatives respond to verifiable demographic and strategic realities, rather than yielding to foreign pressures that undervalue the Knesset's role in national survival.^[195]

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Dec 17, 2024 · Budgetary adjustments of about NIS 37 billion have been approved, including expenditure cuts and tax increases
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New Bill Proposed Expands the Criteria for Disqualification of ...
Nov 28, 2024 · A new bill proposes to amend Basic Law: The Knesset, by expanding the criteria that would disqualify candidates and lists from participating ...
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[PDF] KNESSET ELECTIONS LAW (CONSOLIDATED VERSION) - Gov.il
1. In this Law-. 110. "voter" means a person entitled to vote in elections to the Knesset;. "the Central Committee" means the Central Election Committee.
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Central Elections Committee - Wikipedia
The Israeli Central Elections Committee is the body charged under the Knesset Elections Law of 1969 to carry out the elections for the upcoming Knesset.
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Election of state functionaries
The Knesset elects the President of the State and State Comptroller by secret ballot, each for a single seven-year term.
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Basic Law: The President of the State - Codices
(d) When a Government has been formed, it shall present itself to the Knesset, shall announce the basic lines of its policy, its composition and the ...
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The Electoral System in Israel - Gov.il
Israel has an electoral system based on nation-wide proportional representation, and the number of seats which every list receives in the Knesset is ...
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The electoral system in Israel - Gov.il
In other words, a party must receive at least 2% of the votes in order to be elected. According to this system, the voters vote for a list of candidates, and ...
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Elections for the Knesset
The Electoral System in Israel · The Distribution of Knesset Seats (Bader-Ofer Method) · Proposals for Electoral Reform in the Knesset · Central Elections ...
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Electoral Threshold
Votes for a party which did not pass the electoral threshold are not counted. The current electoral threshold during Knesset elections is 3.25%. Thus, a ...Missing: changes | Show results with:changes
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Country Profile: Israel - IFES Election Guide
9,756,600. Population (as of Jan. 1, 2023) ; 6,788,804. Registered Voters (as of None) ; 68.80% Average Turnout ; 12. Elections in our database ; V-Dem* Score: ...
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Disadvantages of PR systems - ACE Electoral Knowledge Network
Most of the criticisms of PR in general are based around the tendency of PR systems to give rise to coalition governments and a fragmented party system.
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Dissolving the Knesset: A Historical Survey - Israel Democracy Institute
May 18, 2022 · The Knesset can vote to dissolve itself by means of a law enacted by a majority vote of its membership (34–35 of the Basic Law: The Knesset).<|control11|><|separator|>
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Everything You Need to Know About Dissolving the Knesset
Jun 8, 2025 · What is the process and timing involved in dissolving Knesset and initiating elections? What happens between a Knesset dissolution and the ...
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Israel's Government Collapses, Setting Up 5th Election in 3 Years
Jun 21, 2022 · The governing coalition decided to dissolve Parliament, plunging the country back into paralysis and throwing a political lifeline to ...
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Israel, Electoral System —
In other words, a party must receive at least 1.5% of the votes in order to be elected. According to this system, the voters vote for a party list, and not for ...
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Wasted Votes, the Electoral Threshold, and the Relationship ...
Nov 8, 2022 · The electoral threshold in Israel (3.25%) seems perfectly reasonable. In the vast majority of democracies, this figure ranges from 2% to 5%.
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Campaign Financing in Israel - The Israel Democracy Institute
Jan 20, 2016 · Political parties in Israel rely primarily on state financing for their election campaign. In the 2013 elections, for example, the state awarded about NIS 195 ...The Advantages and... · Calculating Campaign Financing
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[PDF] Foreign Law Brief Israel: Campaign Finance Regulation of Advocacy ...
The Political Parties (Financing) Law, 5733-1973 (cited above), as amended, regulates all aspects of the financing of both election expenses as well as the ...
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1923-1977: A Brief History Of Rise Of Right Wing In Israel - Swarajya
Feb 7, 2018 · Three back-to-back victories of Netanyahu's right-wing coalition, led by his own Likud party, also reveals how the majority of the country has ...<|separator|>
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Israel's Ultra-Orthodox Parties Explained
Feb 21, 2019 · United Torah Judaism: United Torah Judaism was formed in 1992 as an alliance between Degel HaTorah and Agudat Israel, two Ashkenazi Haredi ...
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Ultra-Orthodox United Torah Judaism splits into two parties, for now
Jan 9, 2019 · Degel Hatorah and Agudat Yisrael formally part ways, but say the breakup is only 'procedural' and won't prevent them running together in April elections.
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[PDF] the effect of rocket threat on voting in Israeli elections
How does the threat of becoming a victim of terrorism affect voting behavior? Localities in southern Israel have been exposed to rocket attacks from the Gaza ...
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Analysis of Voting Trends and Intentions in Israel: Review of 2024
Feb 17, 2025 · An analysis of the potential voting patterns for future elections, voter transitions between parties, and an exploration of the potential electoral power of ...
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Basic Law: The Knesset - Gov.il
Under this law, changing Sections 4, 9A, 34, 44, or 45 shall require a majority vote by the Knesset plenum for first, second, and third readings; under this ...
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The Rights and Duties of Members of Knesset
Knesset Members have the right of parliamentary immunity, which is intended to enable them to perform their tasks without fear of legal actions.
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[PDF] KNESSET MEMBERS (IMMUNITY, RIGHTS AND DUTIES) LAW ...
(a) A member of the Knesset shall bear no criminal or civil re- sponsibility, and shall be immune from any legal proceeding, in respect of a vote, an oral or ...
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May 22, 2022 · Knesset members enjoy parliamentary immunity in order to guarantee that they are free to carry out their duties without hindrance or fear.
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Israel | Parliament | Parliamentary mandate | IPU Parline
The Knesset's approval is not required to prosecute a member, but members are granted immunity from prosecution for an offense committed in the performance of ...
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21st Knesset, we hardly knew ye. Meet the (almost identical) 22nd
Sep 19, 2019 · After April's election, an all-time high of 49 new MKs were sworn into the most rookie parliament in Israel's history. The next Knesset will ...Missing: rate per
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The 2022 Elections: Results Analysis - The Israel Democracy Institute
Nov 7, 2022 · After five elections in less than four years – Israel is on its way to political stability. Although the number of voters since 2021 didn't ...
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[PDF] section h the knesset committees
(a) The Knesset shall determine the parliamentary group make-up of the Permanent Committees, and shall select the members of the Committees as mentioned in ...Missing: standing | Show results with:standing
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All Knesset Committees
The Joint Committee of the Knesset Committee and the Economics Committee to discuss the Israeli Public Broadcasting Bill, Joint Committee for the Knesset ...
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Israel's Knesset National Security Committee Approves Draft Bill ...
Oct 7, 2025 · Israel's Knesset National Security Committee Approves Draft Bill Making Death Penalty Mandatory for Palestinian Detainees. Format: News and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Justice Committee begins preparing Incarceration and Prosecution ...
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Who Presides over the Knesset? On the Role of the Speaker of the ...
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Coalition Grabs Powerful Knesset Committees, Shunting Opposition ...
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Factions (Parliamentary Groups) - The Knesset
In the course of the Knesset's term, Groups are liable to split or merge. In addition, an MK may quit his/her faction and obtain the status of a single MK, ...
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25th Knesset passes first law, making it harder for MKs to break from ...
Dec 19, 2022 · A minimum of 11 MKs would now need to leave Likud as a group if they wished to do so without suffering severe penalties. The bill is the first ...
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What is the “MK Expulsion Law?" - The Israel Democracy Institute
Jul 14, 2025 · Expulsion proceedings can begin only after a request has been submitted by 70 MKs, of whom at least 10 must be affiliated with the opposition.
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Apr 11, 1990 · The defections reduced Peres's support in the 120-member Knesset from 61 to 59 votes, making it impossible for him to win the necessary motion ...Missing: historical | Show results with:historical
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The consequences of the Israeli anti-defection law - Sage Journals
Mar 13, 2019 · This article explores the consequences of the Israeli anti-defection law for the rate and timing of party switching in the Knesset.
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A Knesset caucus is a group of Knesset members who want to enlist support amongst their colleagues and government officials for individuals, or for a group ...
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In 2024 it grew to 51 members. The current leaders of the caucus are Yuli Edelstein, Limor Son Har-Melech, and Simcha Rothman. References.
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Knesset caucuses
Caucus for the Advancement of Youth Movements and Organizations in Israel · Members of Knesset · Members of the 25th Knesset · All Past and Present MKs.
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Votes in the Knesset Plenum
1. In accordance with Article 36 of the Knesset Rules of Procedure, Members of Knesset usually vote by means of the electronic voting system, from their ...
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[PDF] SECTION C BUSINESS OF THE KNESSET
(a) Upon the termination of the debate in the Knesset Plenum on a topic on the Agenda, a vote shall take place, unless the. Chairperson of the sitting has ...
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Haredi parties to boycott government votes over failure to pass IDF ...
May 5, 2025 · Both of the coalition's ultra-Orthodox parties will boycott votes on coalition legislation on Wednesday, in protest of the government's failure to pass a law ...
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Israel Knesset rejects vote on dissolving itself | Reuters
Jun 12, 2025 · JERUSALEM, June 11 (Reuters) - Israel's parliament rejected early on Thursday a preliminary vote to dissolve itself, the Knesset said in a ...
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Members of 25th Knesset
Members of 25th Knesset ; 5.01.2025, Afef Abed, Likud ; 21.01.2025, Amichay Eliyahu, Otzma Yehudit Chaired by Itamar Ben Gvir ; 6.04.2025, Tzvi Yedidia Sukkot ...
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Likud's Afef Abed sworn in as MK to replace former defense minister ...
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Members of 25th Knesset
Deputy Speakers of the Knesset · Eliyahu Revivo. Likud · Evgeny Sova. Yisrael Beitenu · Limor Sonn Har Melech. Otzma Yehudit Chaired by Itamar Ben Gvir · Meir Cohen.
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Speaker MK Ohana opens Fourth Session of Twenty-Fifth Knesset
Knesset News. Knesset News. October 20, 2025. Speaker MK Ohana opens Fourth Session of Twenty-Fifth Knesset: "Trampling of the Knesset by the ...
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Parliament name (generic / translated), Knesset / Parliament. Structure of parliament, Unicameral. BACKGROUND. Dates of election / renewal (from/to) ...
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The Implications of the Second Intifada on Israeli Views of Oslo
Sep 8, 2023 · The second intifada is what stopped the Oslo process and reconciliation between Israelis and Palestinians.
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Israeli politics and political fragmentation, explained. - Good Authority
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Israeli society is extremely diverse, with multiple political divisions that run along ideological, ethnic and religious fault-lines.
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Women's Representation in the Knesset and the Government
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The Arab Minority in Israel and the Knesset Elections
Apr 9, 2019 · This time around, several lists are competing to represent Arabs in the Knesset, but all signs indicate that Arab representation will be limited ...
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Participation, Abstention and Boycott: Trends in Arab Voter Turnout ...
Apr 21, 2009 · Ms. Karin Tamar Schafferman explains why Arab Israeli citizens choose not to vote and how this phenomenon might play out in the 2009 Israeli elections.
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Haredi parties score massive electoral success garnering 16 seats
Apr 10, 2019 · ... The haredi political parties Shas and United Torah Judaism have recorded a spectacular electoral success, having both gained eight seats ...
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Shas participated for the first time in the 1984 elections and won four seats in the Knesset. It made its strongest showing in the 1999 election when it ...
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Israel's new hard-line government has made headlines
Jan 9, 2023 · Haredi families have an average of about seven children, compared with just three in the general population and two among secular Jews.
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CMV: Israel will eventually lose its secular and educated Jewish ...
Jun 19, 2025 · by 2048, haredis will increase from 13 to 23% and non-haredi will decrease from 66 to 56%. even with them being just 13% the government has ...How is Israel going to deal with a growing proportion of its ... - RedditCould the haredi population become the majority in the future? If so ...More results from www.reddit.com
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[PDF] Annual Statistical Report on Ultra-Orthodox (Haredi) Society in Israel ...
It presents a comprehensive picture of the Haredi community in key areas, including: demographic trends, education, employment, economic situation and standard.
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How ethnic tensions helped fuel Netanyahu's victory
Apr 4, 2015 · Mizrahi, or Middle Eastern, Jews heavily backed Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu's Likud Party, while Ashkenazi, or European, Jews mostly ...
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Shrewd Likud - Brown Political Review
May 29, 2020 · Mizrahi support drove Begin to his first electoral victory in 1977, and middle-income Mizrahi towns have consistently voted Likud ever since.
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The Ascendance of Ethno-National Populism in Israel, 1977–2022
Oct 6, 2025 · Thus, Mizrahi support for populism, I have argued, is caused primarily by historical resentment over their socio-economic-cultural ...
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Yes, Mizrahim support the right. But not for the reasons you think
Feb 27, 2020 · By supporting right-wing parties, Mizrahim have found solutions to hardships that stemmed from decades of Ashkenazi supremacy in Israel.
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Doves and Hawks in Israeli Society: Stances on National Security
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The Spatial Location of "Right Parties" on the Israeli Political Map
While this perspective may align with party-line voting, coalition dynamics, and ideological camps in the Knesset, it fails to capture a deeper, more enduring ...
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[PDF] The case of Israeli-Jewish public opinion regarding peace
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The full story of the Knesset building
In December 1963, architect and interior designer Dora Gad began to work on designing the interior spaces of the Knesset building. The main problem that Gad ...
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The Knesset | The Jerusalem Post
Feb 7, 2006 · October 14, 1958: The laying of the cornerstone of the new Knesset building. August 31, 1966: The new Knesset building was dedicated during the ...
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[PDF] The Knesset Building in Giv'at Ram: Planning and Construction
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Knesset | Bein Harim Tours
The construction of the original assembly building was funded by James de Rothschild and completed in 1966. It was built on land leased from the Greek Orthodox ...<|separator|>
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The Plenum Hall
On the sides of the Plenum Hall are six cubicles for committee and faction secretaries, advisors, and parliamentary assistants. Under the upper ceiling of the ...
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Art and archeology in the Knesset
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The Knesset Menorah - Jewish Virtual Library
Upon the foundation of the State of Israel, it was chosen as its emblem, to symbolize the continuity and eternity of the Jewish People.<|separator|>
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Chagall State Hall - Art and archeology in the Knesset
The six-pointed star on the left of the mosaic represents the verse “there shall step forth a star out of Jacob, and a scepter shall rise out of Israel” ( ...
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Knesset Guard drills for missile attack on parliament, rescue of ...
Dec 20, 2019 · The 35 members of the Guard were drilled on multiple scenarios requiring evacuations from beneath rubble and practiced communication, teamwork ...Missing: protocols | Show results with:protocols
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MER's security experts conceived and implemented a holistic solution for the Knesset, customized to the unique requirements of this sensitive location.
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Knesset conducts earthquake preparedness drill; Speaker Edelstein
Jun 13, 2017 · The Knesset on Tuesday conducted a successful exercise to test its preparedness for an earthquake. Knesset Guard units, along with units ...
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When a Grenade Exploded in the Knesset, Israel's Parliament
Nov 21, 2022 · In 1957, a man walked into the Knesset, then located in downtown Jerusalem, with a grenade in his pocket. He proceeded to throw it into the assembly hall.<|separator|>
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Knesset guards violently prevent victims' families from attending ...
Mar 4, 2025 · Violence broke out in the Knesset on Monday evening as guards used force to physically prevent bereaved families and relatives of hostages ...
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Protests across Israel after parliament initially approves judicial ...
Jul 11, 2023 · There were two reported injuries caused by mounted police after protesters breached barriers on a central motorway. “I came here because this ...
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Tours of the Knesset
The Knesset Visitor Center, which runs the activities for visiting members of the general public, offers tours and activities for visitors on a variety of ...
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Visitor Center - Tour of the Knesset
Knesset by Number · Parliamentary Groups · All Governments of Israel · Elections ... Maximum number of participants: 25 participants Tour Schedule: Sunday to ...
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Viewing plenary debates - The Knesset
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Virtual tour of the Knesset
The service allows users to virtually navigate through neighborhoods and visit historic landmarks through panoramic, street-level images. The service is free.
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Special Committee for Public Petitions
The committee's powers are as follows: 1. Handling and providing an ongoing response to public petitions received by the committee from citizens and various ...Missing: uptake statistics
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The Knesset Channel
The channel broadcasts all the Knesset Plenum sittings live, as well as meetings of the Knesset committees and parliamentary group meetings. All broadcasts ...
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Israeli Judicial Reforms | Jewish Federation of Greater New Haven
On December 29, 2022, a new government was sworn in in Israel, supported by a coalition of 64 out of the Knesset's 120 members.Missing: timeline | Show results with:timeline
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What is Israel's “reasonableness” legislation and why is it so ...
Jul 23, 2023 · The Israeli Knesset (Parliament) has passed legislation that would limit the High Court of Israel's ability to review the “reasonableness” ...
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Mar 27, 2023 · Israelis have been protesting for months against PM Netanyahu's proposed judicial changes, which critics say will undermine the justice system.
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Sep 11, 2023 · In an unprecedented gathering of all its 15 judges, the Supreme Court will begin hearing on Tuesday challenges to the reasonableness law. This ...Missing: timeline | Show results with:timeline
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Majority of Israelis opposes key planks of judicial overhaul plan ...
Feb 21, 2023 · Israel Democracy Institute polls says 66% of public opposes curtailing High Court, including close to half of Likud voters. By Luke Tress.
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Israel supreme court strikes down Netanyahu's judicial overhaul law
Jan 1, 2024 · Israel supreme court strikes down ... reasonableness” clause that allows Israel's unelected supreme court to overrule government decisions.
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Reasonableness_High Court Decision Update — The Israel ...
On January 1, 2024, the Israeli Supreme Court handed down a landmark decision upholding the reasonableness doctrine, a key pillar of judicial review.
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Knesset passes law greatly boosting political control over ...
Mar 27, 2025 · Legislation changing composition of Judicial Selection Committee approved 67-1 after opposition lawmakers boycott final vote.
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Israel - March 2025 | The Global State of Democracy
Mar 27, 2025 · On 27 March, the Knesset passed a law reforming the Judicial Selection Committee (JSC), the body responsible for appointing judges, in a way ...
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Israel's parliament passes law to expand control over judge ...
Mar 27, 2025 · The law that passed on Thursday with 67 votes in the 120-seat parliament or Knesset will give politicians more power over the appointment of judges.
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Israeli parliament passes law expanding political control of judicial ...
Mar 27, 2025 · Israel's parliament Thursday passed a law expanding elected officials' power to appoint judges, defying a years-long movement against Prime ...
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IDI conference survey shows public opposition to reform
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Israeli Life in 2025 in 7 Charts - Gallup News
Sep 30, 2025 · In 2025, 43% of Israelis express confidence in their judicial system and courts, while 48% do not, the first time on record that public opinion ...Missing: reform | Show results with:reform
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Israel's Renewed Judicial Overhaul - Lawfare
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The State of Israel's Legal Right to Judea and Samaria
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Sovereignty in Judea and Samaria: Historical and legal milestones
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Majority of Israeli Jews say Judea and Samaria towns contribute to ...
Mar 12, 2025 · Fifty-eight percent of Israeli Jews believe that Jewish communities in Judea and Samaria contribute to the security of the entire country.
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Remembering Gaza Disengagement 13 Years Later
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The Disengagement from Gaza: Ideological Background
Immediately after Israel's pullout, Hamas enlarged the area under its control. In June 2007, Hamas carried out a putsch in the Gaza Strip, neutralized the ...
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Israelis ask if their Gaza exit 2 decades led to Hamas attack - NPR
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Israel and Hamas October 2023 Conflict: Frequently Asked ...
After the October 7 attacks, Knesset opposition figures and protest movement leaders suspended their criticism of the government to support national ...
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Knesset passes law requiring government to set a national security ...
Jun 11, 2025 · A law requiring the government to formulate a national security policy passed its third and final reading 19-0 in the Knesset on Tuesday.
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Summary Final Report - The Winograd Commission of Inquiry
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Israeli left-wing leader calls for immediate end to Gaza war
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[PDF] Public Trust Report1
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Less Than Half of the Israeli Public Trust Prime Minister Netanyahu ...
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Political Polarisation and the Constitutional Crisis in Israel
Nov 24, 2023 · The article aims to further the understanding of the current constitutional crisis in Israel through the lens of political polarisation.
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Israel: Freedom in the World 2025 Country Report
Israel is a parliamentary democracy with a multiparty system and independent institutions that generally guarantee political rights and civil liberties for the ...
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Israel - Minority Rights Group
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How Israel's justice system undermines democracy - opinion
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The crises of Israeli democracy: political-ideological framings by ...
Feb 25, 2025 · This study examines how members of Israel's 24th Knesset perceive and define democracy, and how their political-ideological identities influence these ...
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