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Adenosine diphosphate

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) is a fundamental nucleoside diphosphate in cellular biology, consisting of the purine base adenine linked to a ribose sugar and two phosphate groups attached via a high-energy phosphoanhydride bond.^[1] Formed primarily through the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), ADP releases approximately 7.3 kcal/mol of free energy, which powers essential cellular processes such as muscle contraction, active transport, and biosynthesis.^[2] In energy metabolism, ADP acts as both a product of ATP breakdown and a substrate for ATP resynthesis via oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria or substrate-level phosphorylation in glycolysis and the citric acid cycle, maintaining the cell's energy homeostasis through the ATP-ADP cycle.^[2] Beyond energy transfer, ADP functions as a critical signaling molecule, particularly in hemostasis, where it is released from activated platelets' dense granules to amplify platelet aggregation.^[3] Binding to G-protein-coupled P2Y1 and P2Y12 receptors on the platelet surface, ADP induces shape change, calcium mobilization, and expression of the glycoprotein IIb/IIIa integrin, enabling fibrinogen-mediated platelet clumping and formation of a stable hemostatic plug at sites of vascular injury.^[3] This role underscores ADP's involvement in thrombosis, where dysregulated signaling can contribute to pathological clot formation, making P2Y12 antagonists like clopidogrel key therapeutics in cardiovascular disease management.^[3] Additionally, as a human metabolite, ADP participates in broader purinergic signaling pathways, influencing processes from neurotransmission to inflammation, though its primary physiological impact centers on energy dynamics and coagulation.^[1]

Structure and properties

Chemical structure

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) has the molecular formula C₁₀H₁₅N₅O₁₀P₂ and a molar mass of 427.20 g/mol.^[4] Structurally, ADP comprises an adenine base—a purine derivative with an amino group at the 6-position—attached via an N-glycosidic bond to the anomeric C1' carbon of a β-D-ribofuranose sugar moiety, forming the nucleoside adenosine.^[4] The ribose exists in a cyclic furanose form, characterized by a five-membered ring with hydroxyl groups at the 2' and 3' positions.^[4] At the 5' carbon of the ribose, a chain of two phosphate groups is esterified, connected by a high-energy phosphoanhydride bond between the α- and β-phosphates, resulting in a linear diphosphate extension.^[4] In standard representations, the chemical structure of ADP is depicted with the adenine base oriented above the ribose ring, the sugar shown in its cyclic form with the 5'-OH replaced by the -O-PO₂-OPO₃²⁻ diphosphate chain extending outward; this linear phosphate arrangement contrasts with the cyclic ribose, highlighting the molecule's nucleoside-diphosphate architecture.^[4] ADP differs structurally from related nucleotides by the number of phosphate groups in its chain: adenosine monophosphate (AMP) possesses a single phosphate esterified to the 5' carbon of ribose (formula C₁₀H₁₄N₅O₇P), while adenosine triphosphate (ATP) features three phosphates linked by two phosphoanhydride bonds (formula C₁₀H₁₆N₅O₁₃P₃).

Physical and chemical properties

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) appears as a white to off-white crystalline powder at room temperature.^[5] It exhibits solubility in water up to approximately 50 mg/mL at room temperature for salt forms such as the lithium salt, with the disodium salt showing higher solubility around 100 mg/mL under certain conditions; solubility in organic solvents such as DMSO and methanol is limited unless heated.^[6]^[7] The phosphate groups of ADP have pKa values of approximately 0.9 (first phosphate ionization), 6.5 (α-phosphate), and 7.5 (β-phosphate), influencing its ionization states and reactivity in aqueous environments.^[8] Chemically, ADP shows characteristic UV absorption at 259 nm with a molar extinction coefficient of 15,400 M⁻¹ cm⁻¹, attributable to the adenine nucleobase.^[5] The phosphoanhydride linkage between the two phosphate groups confers reactivity, enabling hydrolysis to adenosine monophosphate (AMP) and inorganic phosphate under acidic conditions or catalysis by phosphatases, though the molecule remains stable at neutral pH.^[6] ADP's stability is compromised by enzymatic hydrolysis via phosphatases, which cleave the terminal phosphate; it is not typically degraded by nucleases due to its monomeric nature.^[6] To prevent degradation, ADP is stored as a dry powder at -20°C or in neutral pH aqueous solutions at low temperatures, where it maintains integrity for months under frozen conditions but only days at 4°C.^[6]

Biosynthesis and metabolism

Synthesis pathways

De novo synthesis of adenine nucleotides occurs via the purine biosynthetic pathway. Phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate (PRPP) reacts with glutamine to initiate ring assembly, leading to inosine monophosphate (IMP) through a series of 10 enzymatic steps. IMP is aminated to adenylosuccinate by adenylosuccinate synthetase, then cleaved to AMP by adenylosuccinate lyase. AMP is then phosphorylated to ADP by adenylate kinase or nucleoside diphosphate kinase.^[9] Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) is synthesized in cells through de novo purine biosynthesis leading to AMP, salvage pathways, and interconversion of existing adenine nucleotides to maintain cellular energy homeostasis. The key enzyme adenylate kinase (AK) catalyzes the reversible transfer of a phosphoryl group from ATP to AMP, producing two molecules of ADP according to the reaction AMP + ATP ⇌ 2 ADP.^[10] This equilibrium reaction is crucial for buffering fluctuations in adenine nucleotide pools, ensuring rapid ADP availability when cellular energy demands increase.^[11] Multiple isoforms of AK exist, including cytosolic AK1 and mitochondrial AK2, each localized to specific compartments to support localized energy transfer; for instance, AK1 predominates in muscle and brain tissues, while AK2 is essential in mitochondria for oxidative phosphorylation support.^[12] AK activity is tightly regulated by the cellular energy charge, with inhibition at high ATP/AMP ratios to prevent excessive ADP accumulation, thereby linking synthesis directly to ATP levels.^[13] Nucleoside diphosphate kinase (NDPK) also contributes to ADP synthesis by catalyzing the transfer of a γ-phosphate from ATP to other nucleoside diphosphates, including ADP itself in equilibrium reactions such as ATP + GDP ⇌ ADP + GTP, though its primary role is in phosphorylating non-adenine NDPs to NTPs while generating ADP as a byproduct.^[14] NDPK isoforms, such as NDPK-A (NM23-H1) and NDPK-B (NM23-H2), are ubiquitously expressed and maintain nucleotide balance across cellular compartments, with NDPK-D localized to mitochondria to facilitate ADP regeneration near ATP synthase.^[15] This enzyme's broad substrate specificity ensures efficient phosphate shuttling, but for adenine-specific synthesis, it complements rather than supplants AK.^[16] In the salvage pathway, ADP is produced by recycling free purine bases or nucleosides, conserving cellular resources and preventing loss of adenine moieties. Adenosine is phosphorylated to AMP by adenosine kinase (ADK), followed by conversion to ADP via AK or other kinases.^[17] Similarly, free adenine is salvaged by adenine phosphoribosyltransferase (APRT), which combines it with 5-phosphoribosyl-1-pyrophosphate (PRPP) to form AMP, subsequently phosphorylated to ADP.^[18] This pathway is particularly active in tissues with high nucleotide turnover, such as erythrocytes, where ADK efficiently recaptures adenosine to sustain adenine nucleotide pools.^[19] For industrial and commercial production, ADP is manufactured enzymatically using engineered microorganisms or through chemical phosphorylation of AMP. Microbial fermentation with bacteria like Corynebacterium or Escherichia coli expressing high levels of kinases converts adenosine to ADP and ATP, yielding up to 15 g/L of ADP under optimized conditions.^[20] Chemical methods involve reacting AMP with phosphoryl chloride (POCl₃) in controlled anhydrous conditions to add the second phosphate group, followed by purification, though enzymatic routes are preferred for higher purity in biochemical applications.^[21] These processes support research and pharmaceutical needs, emphasizing scalability and cost-effectiveness.^[22]

Degradation and regulation

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) is degraded primarily through hydrolysis to adenosine monophosphate (AMP), a process catalyzed by ecto-nucleotidases such as ecto-ATP diphosphohydrolases (E-NTPDases, including CD39) and ecto-5'-nucleotidase (CD73). These membrane-bound enzymes sequentially hydrolyze extracellular ADP to AMP, releasing inorganic phosphate and contributing to the termination of purinergic signaling while generating adenosine as a downstream product. Intracellularly, similar nucleotidase activities, including cytosolic 5'-nucleotidases, facilitate ADP breakdown, helping to maintain nucleotide pool balance and prevent excessive accumulation under stress conditions. This hydrolysis is energy-releasing and plays a key role in cellular homeostasis by modulating adenine nucleotide levels.^[23]^[24] ADP can also be converted back to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) through mechanisms that serve as regulatory feedback to restore energy balance, such as the ATP synthase in mitochondria during oxidative phosphorylation or the creatine kinase reaction in the phosphagen system. In the latter, phosphocreatine donates a phosphate group to ADP (PCr + ADP → Cr + ATP), buffering fluctuations in the ATP/ADP ratio and providing rapid ATP regeneration during transient energy demands. These conversions are tightly regulated to prevent futile cycling, with ADP levels acting as a signal to activate ATP production pathways when the ATP/ADP ratio falls below equilibrium thresholds.^[25]^[26] Regulatory mechanisms for ADP degradation and interconversion involve allosteric modulation of enzymes like adenylate kinase, which catalyzes the reversible reaction 2 ADP ⇌ ATP + AMP to equilibrate nucleotide pools. High ATP/ADP ratios lead to product inhibition of adenylate kinase by ATP and AMP binding, slowing the forward reaction and stabilizing high-energy states. A central concept in this regulation is the adenylate energy charge (AEC), defined as \frac{\text{ATP} + 0.5 \text{ADP}}{\text{ATP} + \text{ADP} + \text{AMP}}, which ranges from 0 to 1 and acts as a metabolic sensor; values above 0.8 promote biosynthetic pathways, while declines below 0.5 trigger catabolic responses and stress signaling. This framework, originally proposed by Atkinson, ensures that ADP levels feedback to adjust enzymatic activities and maintain cellular energy homeostasis.^[10] Pathological dysregulation of ADP degradation occurs during ischemia, where reduced oxygen supply impairs ATP synthesis, leading to ADP accumulation as ATP hydrolysis outpaces resynthesis. This elevates the ADP/ATP ratio, exacerbating mitochondrial dysfunction, calcium overload, and oxidative stress, which can culminate in cellular damage and necrosis if prolonged. In myocardial ischemia, for instance, ADP levels rise significantly within minutes, correlating with energetic collapse and contributing to reperfusion injury upon restoration of blood flow.^[27]^[28]

Role in energy transfer

ATP-ADP cycle

The ATP-ADP cycle represents the central mechanism for energy exchange in cells, where adenosine triphosphate (ATP) serves as the primary energy currency. During hydrolysis, ATP is cleaved into adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi), releasing approximately 30.5 kJ/mol of free energy under standard biochemical conditions (1 M concentrations, 25°C, pH 7). This exergonic reaction powers a wide array of endergonic cellular processes, such as muscle contraction, active transport, and biosynthesis. Conversely, the reverse phosphorylation of ADP to ATP is endergonic and requires energy input, typically from catabolic pathways, to store energy in the high-energy phosphoanhydride bond of ATP.^[29] The core reaction of the cycle is reversible and can be expressed as:

\text{ATP} + \text{H}_2\text{O} \rightleftharpoons \text{ADP} + \text{P}_\text{i} + \text{H}^+

with a standard free energy change (ΔG°') of -30.5 kJ/mol at pH 7, favoring ATP hydrolysis under physiological conditions. This equilibrium is shifted dynamically based on cellular concentrations of ATP, ADP, and Pi, maintaining a high ATP/ADP ratio essential for efficient energy transfer.^[29] In eukaryotic cells, ATP hydrolysis predominantly occurs in the cytosol, where it fuels general metabolic activities and mechanical work. Resynthesis of ATP from ADP, however, primarily takes place in the mitochondria via oxidative processes, with ADP imported into the matrix and newly formed ATP exported to the cytosol through specific carriers like the ADP/ATP translocase. This compartmentalization ensures a steady supply of ATP to cytosolic demands while coupling energy production to mitochondrial function.^[30]^[31] A key aspect of the cycle involves phosphate group transfer in coupled reactions, where ADP functions as the primary acceptor for phosphoryl groups from high-energy intermediates. This substrate-level phosphorylation directly regenerates ATP, linking exergonic reactions (e.g., oxidation of fuels) to ATP production without requiring a proton gradient, thereby enhancing the efficiency of energy conservation in cellular metabolism.^[32]

Bioenergetics principles

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) plays a central role in cellular bioenergetics through the hydrolysis and formation of high-energy phosphoanhydride bonds, which differ markedly from those in adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The phosphoanhydride bonds in ATP store significant chemical energy, with the terminal bond exhibiting a standard free energy change (ΔG°) of approximately -30.5 kJ/mol upon hydrolysis to ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi), whereas ADP possesses only one such bond, rendering it a lower-energy molecule that serves as a substrate for energy capture.^[33] In physiological conditions, however, the actual ΔG for ATP hydrolysis is more negative, typically ranging from -50 to -60 kJ/mol, due to non-equilibrium concentrations of ATP, ADP, and Pi in the cytosol and mitochondria, which amplify the energy available for coupled reactions.^[34]^[35]^[36] The efficiency of energy transfer involving ADP and ATP in oxidative systems, such as mitochondrial respiration, achieves approximately 40-60%, reflecting the thermodynamic coupling between electron transport and ATP synthesis. This efficiency arises from the proton motive force generated across the inner mitochondrial membrane, where ADP phosphorylation by ATP synthase harnesses the electrochemical gradient of protons (ΔμH⁺) to drive the reaction ADP + Pi → ATP, converting potential energy into chemical bond energy with minimal dissipation as heat.^[37]^[38]^[39] In this process, ADP availability modulates the proton motive force by stimulating proton influx through ATP synthase, thereby linking substrate oxidation to energy demand and preventing excessive proton accumulation that could uncouple respiration.^[40]^[41] As the universal energy currency of the cell, the ADP/ATP ratio tightly regulates metabolic flux, particularly through respiratory control, where elevated ADP levels signal energy depletion and accelerate mitochondrial respiration to restore ATP. High ADP concentrations lower the ATP/ADP ratio, allosterically activating respiratory chain complexes and enhancing oxygen consumption, while high ATP/ADP ratios exert inhibitory feedback to match energy production to utilization.^[42]^[43]^[44] This dynamic equilibrium ensures efficient energy homeostasis across cellular processes.^[45] The foundational understanding of ADP's bioenergetic role traces back to Karl Lohmann's 1929 discovery of ATP (and by extension ADP) as a key muscle energy compound, isolated from rabbit skeletal muscle extracts.^[46]^[47] Later, Peter Mitchell's 1961 chemiosmotic theory revolutionized the field by elucidating how ADP phosphorylation is powered by transmembrane proton gradients, earning him the 1978 Nobel Prize in Chemistry and establishing the mechanistic basis for energy conservation in respiration and photosynthesis.^[40]^[41]

Participation in metabolic pathways

Glycolysis

In glycolysis, the cytosolic metabolic pathway that converts glucose to pyruvate, ADP plays a central role as the phosphate acceptor in substrate-level phosphorylation, enabling the direct synthesis of ATP without the involvement of an electron transport chain. This process occurs in the payoff phase of glycolysis, where high-energy phosphate compounds transfer their phosphate groups to ADP, regenerating ATP to support cellular energy demands. The ATP-ADP cycle is thus integral to maintaining energy homeostasis during this anaerobic breakdown of glucose.^[48] Two critical reactions highlight ADP's involvement. In the seventh step, phosphoglycerate kinase catalyzes the reversible transfer of a high-energy phosphate from $1,3

-bisphosphoglycerate to ADP, producing &#36;3

-phosphoglycerate and ATP:

$1,3\text{-bisphosphoglycerate} + \text{ADP} \to 3\text{-phosphoglycerate} + \text{ATP}

This yields two ATP molecules per glucose (one per glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate). In the tenth and final step, pyruvate kinase facilitates the irreversible transfer from phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to ADP, forming pyruvate and ATP:

\text{phosphoenolpyruvate} + \text{[ADP](/page/ADP)} \to \text{pyruvate} + \text{ATP}

This produces another two ATP per glucose. Overall, these substrate-level phosphorylations generate four ATP, but after subtracting the two ATP invested in the preparatory phase, the net yield is two ATP per glucose molecule.^[49]^[48] ADP levels also contribute to the regulation of glycolysis. Elevated ADP signals a low energy charge—defined as (\text{ATP} + 0.5 \times \text{ADP}) / (\text{ATP} + \text{ADP} + \text{AMP})—which indirectly activates phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1), the pathway's primary regulatory enzyme, by favoring AMP production via adenylate kinase and counteracting ATP inhibition. This allosteric activation accelerates the committed step of fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, enhancing glycolytic flux when energy is depleted.^[50]^[51] In anaerobic conditions, such as during strenuous exercise in skeletal muscle, glycolysis serves as the sole ATP-generating pathway, with ADP phosphorylation crucial for rapid energy production through lactate fermentation. Here, pyruvate is reduced to lactate to regenerate NAD^+ for continued glycolysis, sustaining a net yield of two ATP per glucose despite oxygen limitation and preventing ADP accumulation that could otherwise halt the process.^[52]

Citric acid cycle

The citric acid cycle, occurring in the mitochondrial matrix of eukaryotic cells, represents a core aerobic pathway for the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, and it is evolutionarily conserved in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. In this cycle, adenosine diphosphate (ADP) serves as a key phosphate acceptor in substrate-level phosphorylation, directly contributing to energy conservation while the pathway generates reducing equivalents for subsequent respiratory processes. The cycle's enzymes facilitate the complete oxidation of one acetyl-CoA molecule to two molecules of carbon dioxide, producing three NADH, one FADH₂, and one high-energy phosphate bond equivalent per turn. A pivotal step involving ADP is the conversion of succinyl-CoA to succinate, catalyzed by the enzyme succinyl-CoA synthetase (also known as succinate thiokinase). This reaction proceeds as follows:

\text{[Succinyl-CoA](/page/Succinyl-CoA)} + \text{[ADP](/page/ADP)} + \text{P}_\text{i} \rightarrow \text{succinate} + \text{CoA} + \text{ATP}

This substrate-level phosphorylation directly generates ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate (P_i), harnessing the high-energy thioester bond of succinyl-CoA without requiring the electron transport chain. In some organisms, including certain prokaryotes and alternative isoforms in eukaryotes, the enzyme utilizes GDP to produce GTP instead, but this GTP is rapidly converted to ATP through the action of nucleoside diphosphate kinase (GTP + ADP ⇌ GDP + ATP), ensuring functional equivalence in energy transfer. Per complete turn of the citric acid cycle, the succinyl-CoA synthetase step yields one molecule of ATP (or GTP equivalent), representing the sole direct high-energy phosphate produced by the cycle itself. The pathway also generates NADH and FADH₂ at multiple dehydrogenation steps (isocitrate to α-ketoglutarate, α-ketoglutarate to succinyl-CoA, and succinate to fumarate), which donate electrons to the electron transport chain for oxidative phosphorylation. ADP concentrations further integrate the cycle with cellular energy status by allosterically activating isocitrate dehydrogenase, the enzyme converting isocitrate to α-ketoglutarate; elevated ADP signals low energy charge, enhancing flux through the cycle to boost ATP production. This regulatory mechanism ensures the citric acid cycle responds dynamically to metabolic demands, linking carbon oxidation to bioenergetic needs.

Oxidative phosphorylation

Oxidative phosphorylation represents the primary stage of aerobic respiration where ADP is phosphorylated to ATP using energy derived from the electron transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membrane. The process relies on reducing equivalents, such as NADH and FADH₂, generated from upstream metabolic pathways like the citric acid cycle, which donate electrons to the chain, establishing a proton gradient across the membrane. This electrochemical gradient, known as the proton motive force, drives ATP synthesis through chemiosmosis.^[53] The core of this mechanism is the F₀F₁-ATP synthase complex, a rotary molecular motor embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane. The F₀ subunit forms a proton channel that allows protons to flow back into the matrix, generating torque that rotates a central rotor within the F₁ subunit, which catalyzes the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP. Specifically, the reaction ADP + Pᵢ → ATP occurs at the catalytic sites of the F₁ β-subunits through a binding change mechanism, where conformational changes induced by rotation facilitate substrate binding, phosphorylation, and product release. This rotary catalysis enables the enzyme to synthesize up to 100-300 ATP molecules per second under optimal conditions.^[54] ADP enters the mitochondrial matrix via the adenine nucleotide translocase (ANT), an antiporter that exchanges cytosolic ADP for matrix ATP, ensuring a continuous supply of substrate for ATP synthase. The overall yield from complete glucose oxidation via oxidative phosphorylation is approximately 28-30 ATP molecules per glucose molecule, accounting for the efficiency of the proton gradient and transport costs.^[55]^[53] Respiratory control regulates the rate of electron transport and ATP synthesis based on cellular energy demand, primarily through the ADP/ATP ratio. A high ADP/ATP ratio signals energy need, stimulating state 3 respiration where electron transport accelerates to maintain the proton gradient and support rapid ATP production; conversely, a low ratio leads to state 4 respiration, where the gradient builds up and respiration slows due to backpressure. This acceptor control by ADP ensures efficient coupling of oxidation to phosphorylation.^[56] Key inhibitors highlight the mechanistic dependencies: oligomycin binds to the F₀ subunit of ATP synthase, blocking proton translocation and halting ATP synthesis while preserving the proton gradient, which inhibits electron transport. Uncouplers, such as 2,4-dinitrophenol, dissipate the proton gradient by shuttling protons across the membrane independently of ATP synthase, allowing unchecked electron transport and heat production without ADP phosphorylation.^[57]^[58]

Other biological functions

Platelet activation

Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) plays a pivotal role in platelet activation as an extracellular signaling molecule released from dense granules within platelets. These granules store ADP along with ATP and serotonin, and upon platelet activation by strong agonists such as thrombin or collagen, ADP is rapidly secreted in an autocrine and paracrine manner to amplify the hemostatic response.^[59] This release occurs through exocytosis of dense granules triggered by calcium-dependent mechanisms initiated by the primary agonists.^[59] ADP exerts its effects on platelets primarily through two G-protein-coupled receptors: P2Y1 and P2Y12. The P2Y1 receptor, coupled to Gαq, activates phospholipase C, leading to the production of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) and subsequent mobilization of intracellular calcium stores, which induces platelet shape change from discoid to spherical and initiates reversible aggregation.^[60] In contrast, the P2Y12 receptor, coupled to Gαi2, inhibits adenylyl cyclase to reduce cyclic AMP levels, thereby disinhibiting platelet activation pathways; it also activates phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), promoting granule secretion and stabilizing aggregation by enhancing fibrinogen binding to the αIIbβ3 integrin.^[61] Together, these receptors coordinate ADP-induced calcium release, further dense granule secretion, and potentiation of thromboxane A2 (TXA2) effects, where ADP amplifies TXA2-mediated signaling to sustain irreversible platelet aggregation and thrombus formation.^[62] In clinical contexts, ADP signaling via P2Y12 is a key target for antiplatelet therapy to prevent pathological thrombosis, such as in stroke and myocardial infarction. Drugs like clopidogrel act as irreversible antagonists of the P2Y12 receptor by binding to its extracellular loops, thereby inhibiting ADP-induced platelet aggregation and reducing the risk of thrombotic events in patients with cardiovascular disease.^[61] Dysregulated ADP-mediated platelet activation contributes to excessive clotting in conditions like arterial thrombosis, where P2Y12 blockade has demonstrated efficacy in stabilizing plaques and limiting thrombus growth.^[63]

Extracellular signaling

Extracellular adenosine diphosphate (ADP) functions as a key signaling molecule in purinergic pathways, primarily activating P2Y receptors on the surface of various cell types. Purinergic receptors are divided into P2X (ionotropic, ligand-gated ion channels mediating rapid calcium influx and fast cellular responses) and P2Y (metabotropic, G protein-coupled receptors eliciting slower, second-messenger-dependent effects). ADP predominantly targets P2Y subtypes, including P2Y1 (Gq-coupled, promoting phospholipase C activation and calcium mobilization), P2Y12 (Gi-coupled, inhibiting adenylyl cyclase), and P2Y13 (Gi-coupled, similarly modulating cAMP levels), with affinities varying from nanomolar to micromolar (e.g., EC50 ≈ 8 μM for P2Y1, ≈ 60 nM for P2Y12). These interactions enable ADP to coordinate intercellular communication in diverse tissues, distinct from its well-known role in platelet activation.^[64] In non-hematopoietic cells, ADP drives vasodilation through endothelial P2Y1 receptors, where it stimulates nitric oxide and prostacyclin release, enhancing vascular relaxation and blood flow regulation. For instance, ADP-induced endothelial calcium signaling via P2Y1 supports hyperemia in response to neural activity, as seen in somatosensory cortex models. In the nervous system, extracellular ADP modulates neurotransmission by acting on P2Y receptors in neurons and glia; it inhibits N-type calcium channels in dorsal root ganglia for analgesic effects and influences sodium currents and synaptic vesicle dynamics in central synapses, contributing to mechanosensory transduction and neuroprotection. Additionally, ADP promotes microglial chemotaxis and astrocyte-neuron interactions via P2Y12 and P2Y13, aiding synaptic plasticity and response to injury. In immune contexts, ADP activates P2Y12 on neutrophils and microglia, facilitating chemotaxis and cytokine release to amplify inflammatory responses without directly triggering platelet aggregation.^[65]^[66]^[67]^[64]^[68] Physiologically, ADP signaling supports wound healing by recruiting inflammatory cells through P2Y-mediated neutrophil and macrophage activation at injury sites, balancing hemostasis and tissue repair. In nociception, Gi-coupled P2Y receptors (e.g., P2Y12) dampen inflammatory pain by opposing Gq-coupled P2Y1 effects on sensory neurons, integrating pro- and anti-nociceptive signals to fine-tune pain sensitivity. These effects are concentration-dependent: nanomolar levels (10-100 nM) elicit precise signaling via P2Y receptors, while micromolar concentrations (≥1 μM) may lead to cytotoxicity through secondary calcium overload or crosstalk with P2X channels, though ADP is less toxic than ATP. Recent 2020s research highlights ADP's role in non-platelet inflammation, such as P2Y12-driven microglial migration in neuroinflammatory disorders, and emerging links to endothelial migration in tumor angiogenesis, though microbiome-host interactions remain underexplored for ADP specifically.^[69]^[70]^[71]^[72]^[68]^[73]

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Free Energy of ATP-hydrolysis Fails to Affect ATP-dependent ...
When the phosphorylation potential was changed from 60 to 50, to 40 and back to 60 kJ/mol at a constant ATP-concentration of 10(-4) mol/l, the ATP-channel ...
[33]
The New Unified Theory of ATP Synthesis/Hydrolysis and Muscle ...
... 60 kJ/mol for the entire cycle. Ultimately, it is imperative that this ∼55 ... However, if ∼50% of the energy to synthesize ATP comes from anion ...
[34]
ATP Consumption and Efficiency of Human Single Muscle Fibers ...
... 60 ... The rate of energy release was obtained as the product of ATP consumption rate and the free energy of ATP hydrolysis (50kJ/mol; see Materials and Methods ...
[35]
The thermodynamic efficiency of ATP synthesis in oxidative ...
The overall thermodynamic efficiency of ATP synthesis in the mitochondrial energy transduction OX PHOS process has been found to lie between 40 and 41%.
[36]
The thermodynamic efficiency of ATP synthesis in oxidative ...
As the chief energy source of eukaryotic cells, it is important to determine the thermodynamic efficiency of ATP synthesis in oxidative phosphorylation (OX PHOS) ...
[37]
Oxidative phosphorylation: regulation and role in cellular and tissue ...
A dramatic increase in the rate of ATP synthesis is observed for each [ADP] when either arginine or creatine kinases is added. This increase is significantly ...Missing: synthase | Show results with:synthase
[38]
Peter Mitchell – Facts - NobelPrize.org
When an ATP molecule emits a phosphate group and forms ADP (adenosine diphosphate), energy is released. Details about how ATP is built up and broken down were ...
[39]
Chemiosmotic coupling in oxidative and photosynthetic ...
50 years ago Peter Mitchell proposed the chemiosmotic hypothesis for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1978. His comprehensive review on ...
[40]
Mitochondrial respiratory control. Evidence against the regulation of ...
Mar 10, 1982 · Under these conditions, low rates of respiration correlated with low [ATP]/[ADP] ratios and extramitochondrial phosphorylation potentials, while ...
[41]
Mitochondrial respiratory control is lost during growth factor ... - PNAS
Many biochemical reactions in cells depend on a tightly controlled ratio of ATP to ADP for their execution (1). This ratio is preserved by regulatory mechanisms ...
[42]
ATP/ADP Ratio, the Missed Connection between Mitochondria ... - NIH
Sep 16, 2014 · Suppressed mitochondrial function leads to lower production of mitochondrial ATP and hence lower cytosolic ATP/ADP ratios that favor enhanced glycolysis.
[43]
A second mechanism of respiratory control - Kadenbach - FEBS Press
Mar 30, 1999 · The second mechanism of respiratory control is based on the intramitochondrial ATP/ADP ratio. High ATP/ADP ratios inhibit cytochrome c oxidase ...
[44]
Karl Lohmann and the discovery of ATP - PubMed
Karl Lohmann and the discovery of ATP ; Publication types. Biography; Historical Article; Portrait ; MeSH terms. Adenosine Triphosphate / history*; Biochemistry / ...
[45]
Press release: The 1997 Nobel Prize in Chemistry - NobelPrize.org
The German chemist Karl Lohmann discovered ATP in 1929. Its structure was clarified some years later and in 1948 the Scottish Nobel laureate of 1957 Alexander ...
[46]
Biochemistry, Glycolysis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
In the final step, pyruvate kinase turns PEP into pyruvate and phosphorylates ADP into ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation, thus creating two more ATP.
[47]
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1997/press-release/
[48]
Regulation of glycolysis - CHEM 245
Feb 23, 2019 · A high energy charge would likely slow glycolysis by inhibiting PFK, while a low energy charge should favor increased glycolytic flux by ...
[49]
Energy Charge - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Atkinson (33) has proposed that many pathways of intermediary metabolism may to a significant degree be regulated by the so-called “energy charge,” which is ...
[50]
Biochemistry, Anaerobic Glycolysis - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Jul 31, 2023 · Anaerobic glycolysis is the process of breaking down glucose in the absence of oxygen, converting pyruvate to lactate, and regenerating NAD+ ...
[51]
Biochemistry, Oxidative Phosphorylation - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Approximately 30 - 32 ATP molecules are generated from the electron transport chain, while the yield for glycolysis alone is only 2 ATP. ATP generation in ...Fundamentals · Cellular Level · Mechanism · Pathophysiology
[52]
Regulation of the F1F0-ATP Synthase Rotary Nanomotor in its ...
ATP synthesis occurs in the whole F1F0 when the energy derived from proton conduction through the F0 membrane channel is combined with the nucleotide (Mg-ADP) ...
[53]
Focus on the Adenine Nucleotide Translocator - PubMed Central - NIH
The mitochondrial ADP/ATP carrier is involved in the transport of ADP into the mitochondria and of ATP out. The ADP/ATP exchange follows Michaelis–Menten ...
[54]
Mitochondrial respiratory control is lost during growth factor ... - NIH
When limiting amounts of ADP are added to mitochondria, state 3 respiration persists until the added ADP is converted to ATP. Once this conversion reaches ...
[55]
Metabolic poisons - Rice University
That is the mechanism by which oligomycin inhibits oxidative phosphorylation. Experimentally, oligomycin has no effect on state IV respiration, that is, it has ...
[56]
Effect of uncouplers and inhibitors of oxidative phosphorylation on ...
Inhibitors of oxidative phosphorylation (oligomycin, azide and amytal) had a more potent inhibitory effect on the hydrolytic activity of ATPase in its ...
[57]
ADP and platelets: the end of the beginning - JCI
Platelet responses to ADP require the coordinate activation of two G protein–coupled receptors, P2Y1 and P2Y12, whose actions are described in the text. Drugs ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[58]
Reciprocal cross-talk between P2Y1 and P2Y12 receptors at the ...
ADP activates platelets through 2 purinergic G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs): P2Y1 and P2Y12. P2Y1 couples to Gαq, subsequent activation of phospholipase C ...
[59]
Central role of the P2Y 12 receptor in platelet activation - JCI
ADP elicits its effects on the platelet through the P2Y1 and P2Y12 receptors (2), whereas thromboxane A2 activates the thromboxane-prostanoid (TP) receptor on ...
[60]
Central role of the P2Y12 receptor in platelet activation - PMC
ADP elicits its effects on the platelet through the P2Y1 and P2Y12 receptors (2), whereas thromboxane A2 activates the thromboxane-prostanoid (TP) receptor on ...
[61]
Role of ADP Receptor P2Y12 in Platelet Adhesion and Thrombus ...
ADP plays a central role in regulating platelet function. It induces platelet aggregation via the activation of 2 major ADP receptors, P2Y1 and P2Y12.
[62]
Update of P2Y receptor pharmacology: IUPHAR Review 27 - PMC
Eight G protein‐coupled P2Y receptor subtypes respond to extracellular adenine and uracil mononucleotides and dinucleotides.
[63]
Purinergic Receptors in Thrombosis and Inflammation
The receptors for nucleotides belong to the P2 receptor family, whereas P1 receptors are activated by adenosine and comprise 4 subtypes A1, A2A, A2B, and A3. P2 ...
[64]
The Interplay of Endothelial P2Y Receptors in Cardiovascular Health
Although the contribution of endothelial P2Y1-R is well established in endothelium-dependent vasodilatation, its role in vascular inflammation and ...
[65]
Physiology and Pathophysiology of Purinergic Neurotransmission | Physiological Reviews | American Physiological Society
Below is a merged summary of ADP in purinergic neurotransmission, synaptic modulation, and nervous system signaling, consolidating all information from the provided segments into a single, comprehensive response. To maximize detail and clarity, I’ve organized the information into a table in CSV format, followed by a narrative summary that ties it all together. The table captures specific details (e.g., receptor subtypes, mechanisms, tissues, and references), while the narrative provides an overarching synthesis.
[66]
The Signaling Pathway of the ADP Receptor P2Y 12 in the Immune ...
Activation of the P2Y12-mediated signaling pathway leads to platelet aggregation and potentiation of degranulation [2] as well as migration of microglia [3].
[67]
Purinergic Signaling in Early Inflammatory Events of the Foreign ...
The early events of wound healing, hemostasis, and inflammation are highly regulated by these signals through activation of purinergic receptors on platelets ...Missing: vasodilation | Show results with:vasodilation
[68]
Gi- and Gq-coupled ADP (P2Y) receptors act in opposition to ...
Apr 15, 2010 · Gi- and Gq-coupled ADP (P2Y) receptors act in opposition to modulate nociceptive signaling and inflammatory pain behavior. Sacha A Malin ...Missing: wound healing
[69]
Purinergic Signaling during Inflammation - PMC - PubMed Central
Release of ATP or ADP from inflammatory cells, platelets, or epithelial cells results in the activation of P2 receptors such as the P2X7 receptor, expressed on ...
[70]
Altered responsiveness to extracellular ATP enhances ...
Feb 5, 2013 · Binding of extracellular ATP to purinergic receptors increases intracellular Ca2+ and pulses, which accounted to additional cell necrosis, ...
[71]
ADP stimulates human endothelial cell migration via P2Y1 ...
Feb 29, 2008 · Here, we show that ADP stimulates migration of cultured human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) in both Boyden chamber and in vitro ...Missing: vasodilation | Show results with:vasodilation