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Artificial ventilation

Artificial ventilation, commonly termed mechanical ventilation, is a therapeutic intervention employing machines to facilitate or supplant spontaneous respiration in individuals with compromised respiratory function, thereby maintaining adequate gas exchange and alleviating respiratory workload.^[1] This life-sustaining measure is indispensable in acute scenarios, including airway obstruction, acute respiratory failure, and during general anesthesia.^[1] Originating from rudimentary bellows and manual techniques described in the 16th century, it advanced significantly with negative-pressure apparatuses like the iron lung in the 1920s for polio victims, transitioning to positive-pressure systems post-World War II that enabled widespread use in intensive care.^[2] Contemporary mechanical ventilators operate via diverse modes, such as assist-control or pressure support, tailored to patient needs in settings ranging from operating rooms to prolonged weaning in chronic respiratory insufficiency.^[3] Key applications encompass support for acute lung injury, neuromuscular disorders, and trauma-induced hypoventilation, with empirical evidence underscoring its role in averting hypoxemia and hypercapnia during critical illness.^[4] However, inherent complications include ventilator-induced lung injury from volutrauma or barotrauma, alongside infections like ventilator-associated pneumonia, which elevate morbidity and prolong dependency.^[5] Ethical quandaries persist, particularly in allocating scarce ventilators amid surges in demand, as seen in pandemic planning frameworks prioritizing physiological prognosis over non-medical factors to optimize survival utility.^[6] Decisions to withhold or withdraw ventilation invoke principles of autonomy and non-maleficence, especially in irreversible conditions where prolongation may extend suffering without restorative benefit, necessitating multidisciplinary assessment of futility.^[7] Advances in non-invasive alternatives and weaning protocols continue to refine its application, mitigating over-reliance while preserving causal efficacy in reversible pathologies.^[8]

Fundamentals

Definition and Physiological Principles

Artificial ventilation refers to the mechanical delivery of gas to the lungs to support or replace spontaneous breathing when a patient's respiratory drive or muscle function is insufficient to maintain adequate alveolar ventilation and gas exchange. This intervention applies positive pressure to the airway to inflate the lungs, contrasting with the negative pressure generated by diaphragmatic contraction in normal respiration. It is typically indicated in conditions such as acute respiratory failure, where PaO2 falls below 60 mmHg or PaCO2 rises above 50 mmHg despite supplemental oxygen, ensuring oxygenation and CO2 removal to prevent hypoxemia and hypercapnic acidosis.^[1]^[9] The core physiological principle underlying artificial ventilation stems from the relationship between airway pressure, lung compliance, and resistance, governed by the equation of motion for the respiratory system: P = (V/C) + (R × flow), where P is applied pressure, V is tidal volume, C is compliance, and R is resistance. In spontaneous breathing, inspiration relies on a subatmospheric intrapleural pressure (typically -5 to -10 cmH2O at end-inspiration) created by inspiratory muscles to draw air into compliant lungs (normal compliance ~100 mL/cmH2O). Artificial ventilation inverts this by imposing positive airway pressure (e.g., 10-20 cmH2O peak inspiratory pressure in controlled modes), which overcomes elastic recoil and resistive forces to deliver a set tidal volume (typically 6-8 mL/kg ideal body weight) or pressure, recruiting alveoli for gas diffusion across the alveolar-capillary membrane.^[10]^[11]^[12] This positive pressure mechanism alters cardiopulmonary interactions: it increases intrathoracic pressure, transiently reducing venous return to the right heart (by up to 30-50% at high pressures) and thus cardiac output, while elevating pulmonary vascular resistance in West Zone 1 conditions where alveolar pressure exceeds pulmonary venous pressure. Effective ventilation maintains minute ventilation (tidal volume × respiratory rate, ~5-8 L/min in adults) to match metabolic demand, preventing atelectasis through periodic sighs or recruitment maneuvers that restore functional residual capacity. Compliance and resistance measurements (e.g., plateau pressure <30 cmH2O to avoid barotrauma) guide adjustments, as lung overdistension reduces compliance per the pressure-volume curve's upper inflection point.^[13]^[14]^[15]

Pathophysiological Indications

Artificial ventilation is indicated in pathophysiological states where spontaneous respiratory efforts fail to maintain adequate gas exchange, leading to hypoxemia, hypercapnia, or excessive respiratory muscle workload that risks fatigue and decompensation. Primary mechanisms include alveolar hypoventilation, ventilation-perfusion mismatch, intrapulmonary shunting, or diffusion impairment, often compounded by increased dead space or reduced lung compliance. These conditions necessitate external support to restore arterial oxygenation (PaO2 >60 mmHg) and normocapnia (PaCO2 35-45 mmHg) while minimizing oxygen consumption by respiratory muscles.^[1]^[16] In hypoxemic respiratory failure (Type 1), profound arterial desaturation persists despite supplemental oxygen, typically with PaO2 <60 mmHg on FiO2 >0.5, driven by shunting or V/Q mismatch from parenchymal lung injury. Common etiologies include acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), where inflammatory alveolar damage causes protein-rich edema and surfactant dysfunction, reducing compliant units and promoting collapse; pneumonia, impairing gas diffusion via consolidation; and noncardiogenic pulmonary edema from endothelial permeability. Incidence of ARDS-related failure ranges 10-80 cases per 100,000 annually, with ventilation required when refractory hypoxemia threatens organ perfusion.^[17]^[18]^[19] Hypercapnic respiratory failure (Type 2) arises from ventilatory pump inadequacy, yielding PaCO2 >50 mmHg and respiratory acidosis (pH <7.35), often with respiratory rate >30/min or muscle fatigue. Pathophysiology involves imbalance between CO2 production and elimination, as in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) exacerbations where airflow limitation and dynamic hyperinflation increase work of breathing; neuromuscular disorders like amyotrophic lateral sclerosis or myasthenia gravis, weakening diaphragm and intercostals; or central hypoventilation from opioids or brainstem injury suppressing drive. Ventilation is warranted if acute rises in PaCO2 exceed 10-15 mmHg from baseline or when impending fatigue manifests as paradoxical breathing.^[1]^[20]^[16] Airway compromise constitutes another indication, where obstruction or loss of patency—due to trauma, foreign body, anaphylaxis, or upper airway edema—precludes effective tidal volume delivery, risking complete ventilatory arrest. In apneic states from catastrophic central nervous system insults like severe stroke or trauma, absent respiratory drive demands immediate support to prevent anoxia. Additionally, in circulatory shock or perioperative settings, ventilation alleviates respiratory workload, preserving cardiac output by reducing venous return impedance and metabolic demand, though primary indication remains gas exchange failure.^[1]^[20]^[21]

Types and Methods

Manual Ventilation Techniques

Manual ventilation techniques deliver positive pressure breaths using handheld devices, primarily in emergencies, resuscitation, or when mechanical ventilators are unavailable, to support patients with inadequate spontaneous respiration.^[22] The most common method employs a bag-valve-mask (BVM) device, consisting of a self-inflating bag, one-way valve, and non-rebreather face mask, which allows a single operator or team to generate tidal volumes via manual bag compression.^[22] ^[23] These techniques prioritize rapid airway patency and oxygenation, often bridging to advanced interventions like intubation.^[24] Indications include apnea, severe hypoventilation, ineffective respiratory efforts, hypercapnic or hypoxic respiratory failure, altered mental status, cardiac arrest, or procedural sedation.^[22] Pre-oxygenation with high-flow oxygen (at least 15 L/min) via nasal cannula or the BVM reservoir enhances efficacy, particularly in apneic patients.^[22] Adjuncts such as oropharyngeal or nasopharyngeal airways may be inserted to prevent upper airway obstruction by soft tissues.^[23] The standard BVM technique begins with positioning the patient supine in the "sniffing" position, aligning the external auditory canal with the sternal notch to optimize airway alignment.^[22] Airway opening maneuvers follow: head-tilt-chin-lift for non-trauma cases or jaw thrust to minimize cervical spine movement in suspected injury.^[22] ^[23] The mask is then sealed against the face using the one-handed "E-C" grip—thumb and index finger forming a "C" to hold the mask rim while the third, fourth, and fifth fingers form an "E" to lift the mandible—or a two-handed thumbs-down approach for superior seal and jaw thrust.^[22] ^[23] The bag is squeezed firmly but controllably for 1-2 seconds to deliver a tidal volume of 6-7 mL/kg ideal body weight (approximately 500-600 mL in adults), at a rate of 10-12 breaths per minute, pausing 5-6 seconds between breaths while observing for symmetric chest rise and auscultating breath sounds to confirm placement.^[22] ^[23] Excessive force risks barotrauma, so ventilation ceases if resistance is high or chest expansion absent.^[22] Two-person BVM ventilation improves outcomes in challenging scenarios, with one provider securing the mask and airway via jaw thrust while the second compresses the bag, reducing leak and enabling precise volume control.^[23] ^[24] If an advanced airway like an endotracheal tube or supraglottic device is present, the mask is replaced by direct bag connection to the tube, eliminating seal issues but requiring confirmation of placement to avoid esophageal intubation.^[22] Less common alternatives include mouth-to-mask ventilation for resource-limited settings, though BVM supersedes it due to lower infection risk and higher efficacy.^[25] Complications arise from suboptimal technique, including mask leak leading to hypoventilation, gastric insufflation from high pressures causing distension and aspiration risk, vomiting, or hyperventilation-induced alkalosis.^[22] In prehospital environments, manual ventilation demands training to achieve consistent tidal volumes and pressures, as variability increases with fatigue or single-operator use.^[24] Effective monitoring involves capnography for end-tidal CO2 confirmation and pulse oximetry for oxygenation trends.^[22]

Mechanical Positive Pressure Ventilation

Mechanical positive pressure ventilation delivers breaths by generating positive airway pressure to force gas into the lungs, contrasting with spontaneous respiration that relies on negative intrapleural pressure generated by diaphragmatic contraction to draw air in.^[26] This method overcomes respiratory failure by augmenting or replacing inadequate ventilatory drive, using mechanical devices that control inspiratory flow, pressure, or volume through endotracheal tubes, tracheostomies, or noninvasive interfaces like masks.^[1] Unlike negative pressure systems, which expand the thoracic cavity externally to mimic natural breathing, positive pressure ventilation increases intrathoracic pressure, potentially reducing venous return to the heart and altering cardiac output, though it allows precise control over delivered tidal volumes typically ranging from 6-8 mL/kg ideal body weight in adults to minimize ventilator-induced lung injury.^[27]^[26] Modern ventilators employ microprocessor-controlled pistons, blowers, or turbines to generate flow rates up to 60-120 L/min, with sensors monitoring airway pressure, flow, volume, and oxygen concentration to ensure safe delivery and trigger alarms for deviations such as peak pressures exceeding 30-40 cmH2O.^[26] The process involves an inspiratory phase where positive pressure (often 10-30 cmH2O) inflates alveoli, followed by passive expiration as pressure equilibrates to atmospheric levels, preventing carbon dioxide retention by achieving minute ventilation of 5-8 L/min adjusted for patient needs.^[1] This approach, dominant since the mid-20th century shift from iron lungs, enables both controlled mandatory breaths and patient-triggered assisted breaths, but requires sedation or paralysis in fully controlled modes to avoid dyssynchrony.^[2] Ventilation modes are categorized primarily as volume-controlled or pressure-controlled. In volume-controlled modes, a fixed tidal volume (e.g., 400-600 mL) is delivered at a set flow rate, resulting in variable peak inspiratory pressures that rise with decreased lung compliance or increased resistance, risking barotrauma if pressures exceed safe limits; this mode ensures consistent minute ventilation but may cause decelerating flow patterns mismatched to patient effort.^[28]^[29] Conversely, pressure-controlled modes target a constant inspiratory pressure, yielding variable tidal volumes that decrease in stiff lungs (compliance <30 mL/cmH2O), with advantages in protecting against overdistension but potential for hypoventilation if lung mechanics worsen; inspiratory time is often prolonged (0.8-1.2 seconds) to optimize recruitment in acute respiratory distress syndrome.^[28]^[30] Hybrid modes like pressure-regulated volume control combine elements by adjusting pressure breath-to-breath to achieve a target volume while limiting peak pressures, improving synchrony in heterogeneous lung disease.^[31] Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation, delivered via oronasal or full-face masks with pressures of 5-20 cmH2O, supports acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or cardiogenic pulmonary edema without intubation, reducing mortality by 50-60% in select cases when initiated early with pH <7.35 and PaCO2 >45 mmHg.^[26] Invasive applications predominate in intensive care for neuromuscular blockade-refractory failure, with settings optimized using low tidal volumes since the 2000 ARDSNet trial demonstrating 22% mortality reduction at 6 mL/kg versus 12 mL/kg.^[1] Complications include volutrauma from overinflation and hemodynamic instability from mean airway pressures above 15 cmH2O, necessitating PEEP (5-15 cmH2O) to maintain alveolar patency and oxygenation.^[26]

Negative Pressure and Alternative Systems

Negative pressure ventilation (NPV) applies sub-atmospheric pressure to the exterior of the thorax or body, generating a trans-thoracic pressure gradient that expands the chest wall and facilitates inspiration, with exhalation driven by passive elastic recoil of the lungs and chest.^[32] This mechanism contrasts with positive pressure ventilation by avoiding direct airway insufflation, thereby preserving upper airway patency and mimicking physiological breathing patterns.^[32] Devices generate cyclic negative pressures typically ranging from -10 to -40 cmH₂O, producing tidal volumes dependent on the surface area exposed and chest compliance.^[33] The iron lung, or tank ventilator, encloses the body from the neck down in a sealed chamber, alternating internal pressure to achieve ventilation; developed by Philip Drinker and Louis Agassiz Shaw in 1928 and first used clinically in 1929 for poliomyelitis patients.^[32] ^[2] Cuirass ventilators, employing a rigid shell fitted over the chest and abdomen, apply negative pressure to a smaller area and trace origins to von Hauke's 1874 design, though modern plastic versions improve fit and portability.^[32] ^[33] Poncho-style wraps extend coverage to the torso while allowing limb mobility, and biphasic cuirass systems combine negative inspiratory with positive expiratory pressure to enhance tidal volumes.^[33] Tank ventilators yield 34-100% higher tidal volumes than cuirasses due to greater exposure, but both support acute and chronic applications.^[32] Clinically, NPV treats respiratory failure in neuromuscular disorders such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations, and historical polio epidemics, where cuirass use achieved 15.4% survival among 827 Swedish patients.^[32] ^[33] In acute settings, it averts intubation in 77% of 258 patients with hypercapnic respiratory failure per Italian cohorts from 1994-2002, with 80% success weaning neuromuscular disease cases from invasive support.^[32] ^[33] Advantages include noninvasiveness, preserved glottic function for secretion clearance, and suitability for long-term home use, as evidenced by polio survivors ventilated over 60 years.^[32] Limitations encompass bulkiness, noise, claustrophobia, inefficient secretion management, and upper airway obstruction in 16% of users.^[32] Alternative systems to full NPV include intermittent abdominal pressure ventilation (IAPV), which inflates a bladder over the abdomen to elevate the diaphragm and augment expiration, aiding daytime support in diaphragmatic weakness from spinal cord injury or muscular dystrophy.^[34] IAPV improves gas exchange, speech, and vital capacity without airway interface, showing efficacy in case series for hypercapnia relief.^[34] Mouthpiece ventilation delivers volume- or pressure-targeted breaths via an oral interface, enabling air stacking for cough augmentation in neuromuscular patients, with centers reporting sustained improvements in PaCO₂ and quality of life across 500 long-term users by 1993.^[34] Rocking beds, tilting the body to exploit gravitational shifts in abdominal contents for diaphragmatic excursion, supported poliomyelitis ventilation since 1951 and remain adjunctive for nocturnal hypoventilation.^[32] These modalities offer interface intolerance solutions but require patient cooperation and yield variable tidal volumes compared to cuirass NPV.^[34]

Clinical Implementation

Patient Selection and Initiation

Patient selection for artificial ventilation prioritizes individuals with acute respiratory failure unable to maintain adequate gas exchange or airway protection through spontaneous breathing. Primary indications include hypoxemic respiratory failure, characterized by PaO2 below 60 mmHg despite supplemental oxygen at FiO2 greater than 0.5, and hypercapnic respiratory failure with PaCO2 exceeding 50 mmHg accompanied by respiratory acidosis (pH <7.25).^[1]^[16] Additional criteria encompass ventilatory failure evidenced by respiratory rates over 35 breaths per minute, asynchronous breathing patterns, or fatigue, as well as impaired consciousness (Glasgow Coma Scale <8) risking aspiration.^[35]^[1] In shock states with respiratory compromise, ventilation supports hemodynamics by reducing work of breathing.^[36] Selection requires integrated evaluation of mental status, airway patency, and reversible causes, avoiding ventilation in futile cases like advanced terminal illness where it prolongs suffering without benefit.^[37] For non-invasive ventilation (NIV), candidates include acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) or cardiogenic pulmonary edema with preserved consciousness and minimal secretions, as per ERS/ATS guidelines recommending NIV to avert intubation.^[38] Invasive mechanical ventilation is preferred for refractory hypoxemia, hemodynamic instability, or inability to protect the airway.^[39] Evidence from observational data underscores early initiation in acute hypoxemic failure to mitigate mortality risk, with hazard ratios favoring prompt support over delayed escalation.^[40] Initiation begins with securing the airway, typically via endotracheal intubation using rapid sequence induction (RSI) in emergent settings to minimize hypoxia and aspiration risks.^[1] Post-intubation, connect to the ventilator with initial protective settings: tidal volume 6-8 mL/kg predicted body weight, plateau pressure below 30 cmH2O, and FiO2 titrated to SpO2 88-95% to avert oxygen toxicity.^[39]^[41] Apply positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) starting at 5-10 cmH2O to improve recruitment in conditions like acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), guided by oxygenation response and avoiding barotrauma.^[42] Sedation and analgesia, such as propofol or fentanyl, facilitate synchronization while minimizing delirium; protocols emphasize daily interruption to assess readiness.^[41] For NIV initiation, fit a well-sealed mask, commence with bilevel support (e.g., IPAP 10-20 cmH2O, EPAP 5-10 cmH2O), and monitor for intolerance or deterioration warranting escalation.^[38] Multidisciplinary protocols, incorporating respiratory therapists, standardize these steps to enhance safety and outcomes.^[41]

Ventilation Modes and Parameter Optimization

Mechanical ventilation modes dictate the timing, volume, or pressure characteristics of delivered breaths, balancing ventilator control with patient effort to maintain adequate gas exchange while minimizing lung injury. Modes are broadly classified as controlled mandatory ventilation (CMV), where the ventilator delivers all breaths; assisted modes, incorporating patient-initiated breaths; or support modes, relying primarily on spontaneous respiration with ventilator augmentation. Volume-controlled ventilation (VCV) delivers a preset tidal volume (VT), allowing airway pressure to vary based on lung compliance and resistance, making it suitable for patients with predictable mechanics but risking barotrauma if pressures exceed limits.^[1] Pressure-controlled ventilation (PCV) targets a set inspiratory pressure, resulting in variable VT that decelerates during inspiration, which may reduce peak pressures and improve distribution in heterogeneous lung disease, though it requires monitoring to avoid hypoventilation.^[1] Synchronized intermittent mandatory ventilation (SIMV) combines mandatory breaths with spontaneous efforts, often paired with pressure support (PSV) to reduce work of breathing during weaning, but evidence shows it prolongs ventilation compared to pure PSV in some cohorts.^[43] Advanced modes incorporate adaptive or proportional assist features to align with patient physiology. Proportional assist ventilation (PAV) amplifies patient-generated effort proportionally to resistance and elastance, promoting synchrony and potentially shortening weaning duration versus PSV, as supported by moderate-certainty evidence from network meta-analyses.^[44] ^[45] Adaptive support ventilation (ASV) automatically adjusts minute ventilation to target pH or CO2 while minimizing work of breathing, using closed-loop algorithms informed by Otis equation principles for optimal respiratory rate and VT.^[46] Dual-control modes, such as volume-assured pressure support, guarantee a minimum VT by transitioning from pressure to volume targeting mid-breath if needed, offering flexibility in variable compliance scenarios.^[46] Mode selection depends on patient sedation level, respiratory drive, and pathology; for instance, controlled modes suit sedated patients with high ventilatory demand, while support modes facilitate trials in recovering individuals.^[1] Parameter optimization prioritizes lung-protective strategies to mitigate ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI), emphasizing low VT of 4-8 mL/kg predicted body weight (PBW), plateau pressures below 30 cmH2O, and driving pressure (ΔP = plateau pressure - PEEP) under 15 cmH2O.^[47] ^[48] In acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), the ARDSNet protocol established 6 mL/kg PBW VT reduces mortality by 22% compared to 12 mL/kg, targeting permissive hypercapnia (pH 7.15-7.30) via respiratory rates up to 35 breaths/min while avoiding alkalosis from overventilation.^[47] Positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) is titrated using FiO2-PEEP tables or esophageal pressure-guided methods to maintain oxygenation (PaO2 55-80 mmHg or SpO2 88-95%) without excessive FiO2 (>0.60) to prevent oxygen toxicity, with higher PEEP levels (e.g., 12-24 cmH2O) in moderate-severe ARDS improving recruitment but risking hemodynamic compromise.^[49] ^[50] Inspiratory:expiratory (I:E) ratios of 1:1 to 1:2 optimize mean airway pressure and CO2 clearance, adjustable for auto-PEEP in obstructive disease.^[51] Monitoring includes arterial blood gases, end-tidal CO2, and compliance (VT/ΔP >30 mL/cmH2O ideally), with iterative adjustments based on serial assessments to personalize settings, as rigid protocols overlook inter-patient variability in recruitability and dead space.^[48] ^[50]

Weaning and Liberation Protocols

Weaning from mechanical ventilation refers to the gradual reduction of ventilatory support to assess a patient's ability to sustain independent respiration, culminating in liberation or extubation when criteria are met. Protocol-driven approaches, as opposed to physician-directed weaning, have been shown to shorten the duration of mechanical ventilation by systematically evaluating readiness and conducting spontaneous breathing trials (SBTs), with meta-analyses indicating reduced ventilator days by up to 25% in critically ill adults.^[52]^[53] These protocols typically incorporate daily screening for weaning readiness, defined by resolution of the underlying cause of respiratory failure, adequate oxygenation (PaO₂/FiO₂ ratio ≥150–200 on FiO₂ ≤0.4 and PEEP ≤5–8 cm H₂O), hemodynamic stability without high-dose vasopressors, and the ability to initiate breaths.^[54] Failure to adhere to such structured assessments often prolongs ventilation, increasing risks of complications like ventilator-associated pneumonia.^[55] Spontaneous breathing trials form the cornerstone of liberation protocols, simulating unassisted breathing to predict extubation success. Guidelines recommend conducting SBTs for 30 to 120 minutes once readiness criteria are satisfied, using methods such as T-piece trials, continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) at 5 cm H₂O, or low-level pressure support ventilation (PSV) of 5–8 cm H₂O with zero PEEP.^[56] Success during SBT is gauged by vital sign stability, including respiratory rate <35 breaths/min, heart rate <140 beats/min, SpO₂ ≥90–92% on supplemental oxygen, and absence of significant distress or hemodynamic instability; rapid shallow breathing index (RSBI, f/VT) <105 breaths/min/L further predicts favorable outcomes with high sensitivity.^[57]^[56] Evidence from randomized trials supports preferring PSV or T-piece over synchronized intermittent mandatory ventilation (SIMV) for SBTs, as SIMV delays liberation and worsens outcomes by impeding respiratory muscle recovery.^[56]^[58] Coordinated protocols integrating spontaneous awakening trials (SATs) with SBTs enhance efficiency by minimizing sedation interruptions and aligning assessments, reducing mechanical ventilation duration, ICU stays, and complications like delirium.^[59] Nurse- or respiratory therapist-driven protocols demonstrate high compliance and acceptability, particularly in resource-strained settings like during the COVID-19 pandemic, leading to faster extubation and shorter ICU lengths without increased reintubation rates.^[60]^[61] For patients failing initial SBTs, strategies include addressing reversible factors (e.g., fluid overload, electrolyte imbalances) before repeating trials daily, while difficult-to-wean cases may require tracheostomy or non-invasive ventilation post-extubation to prevent reintubation, supported by trials showing 10–20% absolute risk reduction in failure rates.^[62] Overall, evidence from guidelines and meta-analyses affirms that protocolized weaning outperforms ad-hoc methods, with successful extubation rates of 70–80% in screened populations when integrated with multidisciplinary input.^[54]^[63]

Historical Development

Early Innovations and Pre-20th Century

The earliest documented efforts to artificially ventilate the lungs trace back to the 16th century, when Flemish anatomist Andreas Vesalius described in his 1543 work De Humani Corporis Fabrica the use of fireplace bellows connected to a tracheotomy tube to inflate the lungs of recently deceased animals, thereby restoring visible signs of circulation such as heart movement and limb warmth.^[2] This experiment demonstrated the feasibility of positive-pressure ventilation via an artificial airway, though it was conducted on cadavers and animals rather than living humans for therapeutic purposes.^[2] In 1667, English scientist Robert Hooke advanced this concept by applying bellows-driven tracheal insufflation to sustain a dog's circulation for an extended period after opening its chest, confirming that mechanical inflation of the lungs could maintain vital functions independently of diaphragmatic action.^[64] These demonstrations laid foundational principles for mechanical respiration, emphasizing the causal role of lung inflation in oxygenation and circulation, but practical clinical application remained limited due to the era's anatomical knowledge and lack of sterile techniques. By the 19th century, negative-pressure devices emerged as precursors to later tank respirators. In 1832, Scottish physician John Dalziel devised a sealed box enclosing the patient's body (with the head protruding) connected to a bellows system that alternately reduced and increased internal pressure to mimic thoracic expansion and contraction, intended for resuscitating drowning victims.^[65] This apparatus represented an early attempt at noninvasive mechanical ventilation, relying on external pressure gradients rather than direct airway intervention.^[32] Further refinements included French physician Eugène Woillez's 1876 "Spirophore," a portable, barrel-shaped negative-pressure ventilator using hand-operated bellows to enclose the torso and generate respiratory cycles, tested on animals and reportedly used in human cases of respiratory failure.^[66] Concurrently, positive-pressure innovations appeared, such as John Erichsen's mid-19th-century device delivering oxygen-enriched breaths via a tracheal cannula inserted through a tracheostomy, marking one of the first mechanical aids for sustained artificial respiration in surgical contexts.^[66] These pre-20th-century developments, though sporadic and often confined to experimental or rescue scenarios, established core mechanisms—positive-pressure insufflation and negative-pressure enclosure—that influenced subsequent clinical tools, despite challenges like inconsistent efficacy and infection risks from rudimentary designs.^[67]

Mid-20th Century Milestones

The 1952 poliomyelitis epidemic in Copenhagen, Denmark, overwhelmed existing negative-pressure ventilation facilities, such as iron lungs, prompting anesthesiologist Bjørn Ibsen to pioneer widespread use of tracheostomy combined with manual intermittent positive pressure ventilation (IPPV). With over 5,000 polio cases reported and more than 300 patients developing acute respiratory paralysis, the Blegdam Hospital exhausted its mechanical resources, leading Ibsen to recruit medical students for round-the-clock manual bagging via cuffed endotracheal tubes. This approach reduced mortality from bulbar polio from an estimated 80-90% under prior methods to approximately 25%, demonstrating the efficacy of controlled positive airway pressure in maintaining oxygenation and secretion clearance without reliance on bulky body-enclosing devices.^[68]^[69]^[70] The Copenhagen experience accelerated the transition from negative-pressure systems to mechanical positive-pressure ventilators, with Swedish physician-engineer Carl Gunnar Engström introducing the Engström 100 in 1950-1951 as the first volume-controlled device capable of delivering precise tidal volumes independent of patient effort. Designed amid European polio outbreaks, the Engström ventilator used a piston mechanism for controlled inspiration and allowed integration with anesthesia gases, enabling sustained support for paralyzed patients and reducing the labor-intensive manual methods. Its reliability in maintaining consistent ventilation parameters contributed to its adoption across Scandinavia and beyond, marking a key engineering advancement that prioritized measurable gas delivery over empirical body enclosure.^[71]^[72]^[73] By the mid-1950s, further refinements emerged, including the 1955 Draeger Spiromat, an early intermittent positive-pressure ventilator that incorporated monitoring features for respiratory rate and volume, facilitating its use in emerging intensive care settings. These devices, building on wartime anesthesia ventilators from the 1940s, standardized IPPV in hospitals treating respiratory failure, with positive-pressure systems proving superior for airway management and reducing barotrauma risks associated with negative-pressure alternatives. The polio-driven innovations laid the groundwork for intensive care units, emphasizing multidisciplinary monitoring and mechanical precision over ad-hoc interventions.^[74]^[75]^[76]

Late 20th and 21st Century Advances

In the late 1980s, the introduction of microprocessor-controlled ventilators marked a significant technological leap, enabling precise delivery of complex ventilation modes such as pressure-regulated volume control and adaptive pressure support, which improved patient-ventilator synchrony and reduced barotrauma risks compared to earlier pneumatic systems.^[75] These devices incorporated feedback loops for real-time adjustments based on monitored parameters like tidal volume and airway pressure, facilitating safer management of diverse respiratory pathologies.^[77] Non-invasive ventilation (NIV), utilizing interfaces like nasal masks or full-face masks to deliver positive pressure without intubation, gained prominence in the late 1980s and 1990s, particularly for acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and cardiogenic pulmonary edema, reducing intubation rates by up to 50% in select populations.^[78] High-frequency oscillatory ventilation (HFOV), developed in the 1970s but refined through the 1980s, employed supraphysiologic respiratory rates (often exceeding 300 breaths per minute) with small tidal volumes to minimize volutrauma in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), though its adoption varied due to mixed clinical outcomes.^[79] Entering the 21st century, the 2000 ARDS Clinical Trials Network (ARDSNet) study demonstrated that low tidal volume ventilation (6 mL/kg predicted body weight versus 12 mL/kg) in ARDS patients reduced mortality by 22.5% (absolute risk reduction from 40% to 31%) and ventilator-free days, establishing lung-protective strategies as standard practice to mitigate ventilator-induced lung injury.^[80] Concurrently, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) advancements, including centrifugal pumps and polymethylpentene oxygenators introduced in the early 2000s, expanded its role as a rescue therapy for refractory hypoxemic respiratory failure, with survival rates improving to 50-60% in severe ARDS cases during the 2009 H1N1 pandemic.^[81] Home mechanical ventilation also proliferated post-2000, supported by portable microprocessor-driven devices, enhancing chronic management for neuromuscular diseases and reducing hospital readmissions.^[64]

Risks and Complications

Acute Adverse Effects

Mechanical ventilation exerts positive pressure on the lungs, which can lead to acute ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI) through mechanisms including barotrauma, volutrauma, atelectrauma, and biotrauma. Barotrauma arises from excessive transpulmonary pressures causing alveolar rupture and air leaks, such as pneumothorax or pneumomediastinum, with immediate impairment of gas exchange and potential cardiovascular collapse if tension pneumothorax develops.^[5] ^[82] Volutrauma results from alveolar overdistension due to high tidal volumes, damaging epithelial and endothelial cells, increasing vascular permeability, and promoting pulmonary edema within hours of initiation.^[82] Atelectrauma involves shear forces from repetitive opening and collapse of atelectatic lung units, particularly in heterogeneous lungs, leading to rapid epithelial injury and surfactant dysfunction.^[5] Biotrauma triggers an inflammatory cascade via cytokine release from mechanically stressed cells, exacerbating local and systemic inflammation acutely.^[82] Elevated respiratory rates during ventilation contribute to acute injury by promoting dynamic hyperinflation and intrinsic positive end-expiratory pressure (auto-PEEP), which shortens expiratory time and increases mean airway pressure, heightening VILI risk through cyclic overstretch.^[83] In controlled modes, rates exceeding 35 breaths per minute correlate with higher mortality in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), as observed in large cohorts like the LUNG SAFE study.^[83] Patient-ventilator asynchrony, such as ineffective triggering or double-triggering, induces additional acute muscle fatigue and uneven stress distribution, worsening lung inhomogeneity and injury shortly after commencement.^[5] Hemodynamic instability represents another immediate adverse effect, as positive pressure ventilation elevates intrathoracic pressure, impeding venous return to the right heart and reducing cardiac output, often manifesting as hypotension upon initiation or with high PEEP levels.^[5] ^[84] This effect is amplified in hypovolemic patients or those with right ventricular dysfunction, where increased pulmonary vascular resistance further strains the right ventricle, potentially leading to acute cor pulmonale.^[84] Auto-PEEP exacerbates these changes by mimicking higher mean pressures, commonly seen in obstructive lung diseases like COPD or asthma.^[5] High fractional inspired oxygen (FiO2) concentrations, often required acutely, can induce oxygen toxicity through reactive species formation, causing endothelial damage and absorption atelectasis within the first 24-48 hours, though mitigation strategies like lung-protective ventilation reduce overall VILI incidence when tidal volumes are limited to 6 mL/kg predicted body weight.^[82] These effects underscore the need for vigilant monitoring and parameter adjustment to minimize iatrogenic harm during early ventilation phases.^[5]

Chronic and Iatrogenic Harms

Prolonged mechanical ventilation frequently induces diaphragmatic atrophy, with studies demonstrating significant muscle fiber thinning and contractile dysfunction as early as 18-24 hours after initiation in both animal models and human patients.^[85] This atrophy arises from disuse and inflammatory signaling, leading to weaning difficulties and extended ventilator dependence, with one prospective study of 68 ICU patients showing that greater diaphragm atrophy correlated with prolonged mechanical ventilation duration and higher 28-day mortality rates.^[86] In survivors, persistent diaphragm weakness contributes to chronic respiratory insufficiency and reduced functional independence.^[87] Ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI) represents a primary iatrogenic mechanism, encompassing barotrauma from high pressures, volutrauma from overdistension, and biotrauma from inflammatory cytokine release, which exacerbate underlying lung pathology and promote fibrosis in extensively damaged areas.^[88] Long-term sequelae include potential respiratory disability and cor pulmonale due to fibrotic remodeling, with clinical evidence from ARDS cohorts indicating that unchecked VILI increases risks of recurrent infections and diminished lung compliance persisting beyond hospital discharge.^[88] Systematic physiological analyses confirm that these harms stem directly from ventilator settings, independent of primary disease, underscoring the need for lung-protective strategies to mitigate progression to chronic fibroproliferative states.^[89] Additional chronic complications encompass systemic muscle wasting and neuropathy, observed in patients requiring ventilation beyond 21 days, correlating with elevated post-discharge healthcare utilization and 6-12 month mortality rates exceeding 60% in non-weaned cases.^[90] Iatrogenic contributions extend to airway trauma from intubation and cuff pressures, with systematic reviews documenting tracheal stenosis and ulceration in up to 10-20% of prolonged cases, often necessitating surgical intervention.^[91] These effects compound with delirium and critical illness polyneuropathy, reported in over 30% of ventilated COVID-19 patients, further impairing long-term cognitive and physical recovery.^[92]

Evidence on Ventilator-Associated Morbidity

Mechanical ventilation is linked to several forms of morbidity, including ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP), ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI), and diaphragmatic dysfunction, with incidence rates for VAP ranging from 4% to 28.8% among at-risk ICU patients.^[93] VAP contributes to prolonged mechanical ventilation duration, extended ICU stays, and an attributable mortality of approximately 10%, though rates vary by patient population and pathogen resistance.^[94] A 2021 meta-analysis reported higher 90-day mortality risk (relative risk 1.465) and 180-day mortality risk (relative risk 1.635) in VAP cases compared to ventilated patients without pneumonia.^[95] VILI arises from volutrauma, barotrauma, and biotrauma induced by positive pressure ventilation, leading to alveolar damage, inflammation, and potential multiorgan failure that exacerbates overall morbidity.^[88] In acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) patients, where VILI risk is heightened, mortality reaches 30-40%, with mechanical ventilation implicated in worsening lung heterogeneity and energy bursts that propagate injury.^[96] Studies indicate that misclassification of lung morphology in ventilation strategies can increase mortality by up to 21% due to mismatched protective settings.^[97] Prolonged mechanical ventilation (beyond 21 days) is associated with severe long-term morbidity, including profound muscle weakness, high readmission rates, and 1-year mortality of 40-70%.^[98] In a 2018 cohort study of patients weaned from prolonged ventilation, survivors exhibited persistent respiratory and physical impairments, with 46% overall mortality within 6 months post-ICU in select groups.^[99]^[100] Five-year follow-up data show elevated early mortality (within 2 years) among prolonged ventilation survivors, alongside increased healthcare utilization and reduced quality of life.^[101] Prevention bundles for VAP have shown limited efficacy in reducing incidence or long-term morbidity in systematic reviews, with one 2020 analysis finding no significant decrease in VAP rates, ICU length of stay, or mortality despite implementation.^[102] Emerging evidence highlights pathobiological heterogeneity in VAP, complicating uniform outcomes and underscoring the need for tailored diagnostics, as endotracheal aspirate testing yields only 75.7% sensitivity.^[103] Overall, ventilator-associated morbidity persists as a major driver of post-ICU debility, with causal links to iatrogenic inflammation and deconditioning supported by longitudinal cohorts rather than solely observational associations.^[90]

Controversies and Ethical Considerations

Debates on Ventilation Strategies

A central debate in mechanical ventilation strategies concerns the use of low tidal volume (protective) ventilation versus traditional higher tidal volume approaches, particularly in acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). The ARDS Clinical Trials Network's 2000 study demonstrated that ventilating with 6 mL/kg predicted body weight reduced mortality to 31% compared to 40% with traditional 12 mL/kg volumes, while also decreasing ventilator-free days and non-pulmonary organ failures.^[80] This evidence shifted practice toward lung-protective strategies to mitigate ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI) from volutrauma and biotrauma, yet controversies persist on extending low tidal volumes to non-ARDS patients, where trials like PReVENT (2018) found no significant difference between 6 mL/kg and 10 mL/kg in preventing ARDS progression among at-risk surgical patients.^[1] Critics argue that overly restrictive volumes risk atelectasis and hypercapnia in heterogeneous lung conditions, prompting ongoing research into driving pressures as a more precise limiter than tidal volume alone.^[104] Positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) optimization represents another contested area, balancing alveolar recruitment against overdistension. Higher PEEP strategies aim to prevent cyclic collapse (atelectrauma) and improve oxygenation, as supported by animal models and early human data, but randomized trials like the 2008 EXPRESS study showed no mortality benefit and potential hemodynamic compromise from excessive levels.^[105] A 2017 meta-analysis of higher versus lower PEEP in moderate-to-severe ARDS found inconsistent survival gains, with benefits confined to recruitable lungs identifiable via imaging or esophageal pressure, while lower PEEP proved noninferior for ventilator-free days in the 2020 ART trial subgroup without severe hypoxemia.^[106]^[107] Empirical selection of PEEP via decremental trials or electrical impedance tomography is advocated to tailor levels, avoiding empirical highs that risk barotrauma without proven universal superiority.^[108] High-frequency oscillatory ventilation (HFOV) has fueled debate against conventional mechanical ventilation, promoted for minimizing tidal excursions to reduce VILI. Initial trials suggested oxygenation improvements, but the 2013 OSCILLATE trial in adults with moderate-to-severe ARDS reported higher 30-day mortality (47% vs. 35%) and crossover rates with HFOV due to presumed overdistension, halting its routine use.^[109] Pediatric and neonatal meta-analyses similarly show no survival edge and potential harms like increased barotrauma risk, reinforcing conventional low-tidal-volume strategies as first-line unless in specific rescue scenarios.^[110]^[111] These findings underscore causal links between aggressive recruitment and injury, prioritizing evidence-based conventional modes over unproven alternatives.

Resource Allocation and Overuse Critiques

Critiques of overuse in artificial ventilation center on its application in scenarios where benefits are marginal or outweighed by harms, particularly evident during the COVID-19 pandemic. Physicians reported that invasive mechanical ventilation was frequently initiated prematurely for COVID-19 patients with acute respiratory distress, contributing to mortality rates exceeding 80% in some cohorts, such as 88% among 5,700 patients at a New York health system.^[112] This prompted arguments that ventilators were overused relative to less invasive options like high-flow nasal oxygen or prone positioning, which could sustain oxygenation without the risks of intubation, such as ventilator-induced lung injury or ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP), reported in up to 85% of COVID-19 cases requiring ventilation.^[113] ^[114] Studies comparing early versus delayed intubation strategies yielded mixed outcomes; while some found lower mortality with early intubation (e.g., 45.8% versus 53.5% in delayed groups), others cautioned that rushing to ventilation exacerbated harm through barotrauma or infection, advocating individualized assessment over protocol-driven escalation.^[115] ^[116] Beyond pandemics, overuse concerns extend to non-COVID contexts, including prolonged ventilation in patients with poor prognoses, such as advanced dementia, where mechanical ventilation use has risen without corresponding survival gains, potentially prolonging dying processes and increasing iatrogenic complications like VAP or muscle atrophy.^[117] Critical care experts, including figures like Cameron Kyle-Sidell, highlighted how early reliance on ventilators in COVID-19 deviated from first-principles physiology, as many patients exhibited silent hypoxia amenable to conservative management rather than positive pressure ventilation, which can impair cardiac output and venous return.^[113] Such practices not only inflate complication rates—e.g., VAP incidence doubling in COVID-19 versus non-COVID ARDS—but also strain systems by extending ICU stays, with median ventilation durations reaching 10-21 days in severe cases.^[114] ^[118] Resource allocation critiques underscore the ethical tensions arising from ventilator scarcity, as seen in COVID-19 surges where demand outstripped supply, necessitating triage protocols that prioritized patients by metrics like Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) scores or likelihood of survival to discharge.^[119] Frameworks proposed by bodies like the World Health Organization emphasize utilitarian principles—maximizing lives saved or life-years gained—while prohibiting allocation based on factors such as age, disability, or socioeconomic status alone, though implementation varied, with some U.S. states facing lawsuits over perceived discrimination in withholding ventilators from frail elderly or disabled individuals.^[120] ^[121] Critics argue these systems risk systemic biases, including over-allocation to younger patients at the expense of equity, and overlook futility in cases where pre-intubation comorbidities predict near-certain death, as evidenced by 50-97% mortality in ventilated COVID-19 cohorts.^[118] ^[119] In low-resource settings, inter-hospital ventilator distribution heuristics prioritize surge capacity over equal access, raising concerns about exacerbating global disparities, with middle-income countries facing up to 10-fold higher per-capita shortages.^[122] Overuse and allocation intersect in critiques of "ventilator hoarding" for potentially futile cases, where continued support ties up machines needed for salvageable patients; for instance, ethical guidelines stress withdrawal after 48-96 hours if no improvement, yet real-world adherence lags, prolonging resource lock-in amid shortages.^[121] These issues highlight causal trade-offs: while ventilation saves lives in reversible respiratory failure (e.g., 70-80% survival in select ARDS without COVID), reflexive deployment without rigorous prognosis evaluation—often driven by institutional pressures or liability fears—amplifies harm and inefficiency, as substantiated by retrospective analyses showing no net benefit from ventilation in high-mortality subsets.^[118] ^[113]

End-of-Life and Futility Issues

In intensive care settings, mechanical ventilation is frequently employed in patients nearing the end of life, yet determinations of futility arise when the intervention offers no reasonable prospect of achieving meaningful physiological or quality-of-life goals, such as survival with acceptable neurological function. Quantitative futility is characterized by interventions with less than a 1% likelihood of benefit, while qualitative futility pertains to outcomes deemed worse than death by societal or patient standards, including permanent unconsciousness or profound dependency.^[123] The Society of Critical Care Medicine (SCCM) Ethics Committee defines potentially inappropriate interventions as those unlikely to provide benefit aligned with patient values or that impose excessive burdens relative to gains, emphasizing that clinicians are not ethically obligated to provide such care despite requests from patients or surrogates.^[124] Withdrawal of mechanical ventilation occurs in approximately 50% of United States ICU deaths, with over one in five Americans dying in ICUs under such circumstances; post-withdrawal, 93% of patients die within 24 hours, and 54% within one hour, underscoring the intervention's role in prolonging the dying process rather than reversing it in terminal cases.^[125] ^[126] ^[127] Hospital mortality for mechanically ventilated ICU patients ranges from 30% to 50%, with direct ventilator-attributable deaths comprising only 16% of cases, the remainder often tied to underlying terminal conditions where ventilation merely delays inevitable outcomes.^[128] Ethical conflicts emerge when families demand continuation of ventilation deemed futile by clinicians, driven by emotional denial or cultural expectations, potentially leading to prolonged suffering, resource depletion, and moral distress among providers; SCCM guidelines recommend multidisciplinary discussions, ethics consultations, and institutional policies to resolve disputes, prioritizing non-maleficence by avoiding interventions that violate physiologic reality or patient-centered goals.^[129] ^[130] Legal frameworks permit unilateral clinician decisions to withhold or withdraw futile ventilation in many jurisdictions, provided due process includes family notification and appeals, as affirmed in consensus statements from SCCM and the American Thoracic Society (ATS), which caution against invoking futility unilaterally without evidence-based thresholds.^[131] Studies indicate that futile prolongation correlates with higher iatrogenic harms, such as ventilator-associated pneumonia or barotrauma, without altering mortality trajectories in advanced malignancies or multi-organ failure, where pre-ICU survival predictions below 10% warrant early goal redirection toward palliation.^[132] Overuse critiques highlight systemic incentives like liability fears or payment structures that sustain non-beneficial ventilation, contributing to 28% of ventilated patients dying in-hospital without weaning, despite evidence that timely withdrawal aligns with patient autonomy and reduces futile expenditures exceeding $20,000 per case in end-stage scenarios.^[133]^[134]

Recent Developments and Future Directions

Technological and AI-Driven Innovations

Closed-loop ventilation systems represent a significant technological advancement, enabling automated adjustment of ventilator parameters based on real-time physiological feedback to maintain targets like oxygenation (SpO2) and end-tidal CO2 (PETCO2). These systems, such as the SOLVe prototype developed in 2023, integrate sensors and control algorithms to dynamically optimize settings, reducing manual interventions and potential human error in critical care. Clinical evaluations have demonstrated their ability to sustain protective ventilation strategies, minimizing risks like ventilator-induced lung injury by adhering to low tidal volume protocols without constant clinician oversight.^[135]^[136] Artificial intelligence (AI), particularly machine learning models, has been integrated into ventilators for predictive analytics, enhancing weaning protocols and resource allocation. For instance, deep learning algorithms trained on electronic health records can forecast spontaneous breathing trial outcomes with high accuracy, as shown in a 2025 study achieving improved prediction rates for successful extubation in critically ill patients. AI-driven tools also personalize ventilation by analyzing multimodal data—including waveforms, vital signs, and historical outcomes—to recommend optimal parameter adjustments, potentially shortening mechanical ventilation duration and lowering complication rates. These models, validated in intensive care settings, outperform traditional scoring systems like the Rapid Shallow Breathing Index by incorporating nonlinear patterns in patient data.^[137]^[138]^[139] Further AI innovations include natural language processing for extracting insights from clinical notes to refine ventilation strategies and predictive maintenance for ventilators to prevent equipment failures. A 2025 review highlighted AI's role in reducing prolonged ventilation dependency through platforms that assess risk factors in real time, with models demonstrating up to 85% accuracy in identifying patients likely to require extended support. Integration of AI with portable and noninvasive devices, accelerated post-2020, supports proactive care outside traditional ICUs, though challenges persist in model generalizability across diverse populations and the need for prospective randomized trials to confirm causal benefits over observational data.^[140]^[141]^[142]

Personalized and Noninvasive Approaches

Noninvasive ventilation (NIV) encompasses techniques such as continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) and bilevel positive airway pressure (BiPAP), delivered via masks or nasal prongs to support breathing without endotracheal intubation, thereby reducing risks like ventilator-associated pneumonia.^[143] Personalization in NIV focuses on tailoring interfaces and ventilator settings to individual patient anatomy, physiology, and respiratory drive, aiming to minimize leaks, enhance synchrony, and improve adherence.^[144] Advances include phenotype-specific adjustments based on real-time responses, such as optimizing pressure levels and interface types for acute hypoxemic respiratory failure or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations.^[145] ^[146] Customized NIV masks, produced via computer-aided design (CAD), additive manufacturing, or 3D printing, address fit issues in neonates, pediatric patients, and those with craniofacial anomalies like achondroplasia or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.^[147] ^[148] These techniques enable rapid in-house fabrication, often within 12 hours, using patient-specific scans to reduce interface-related complications like skin breakdown and air leaks exceeding 20-30% in standard masks.^[148] Clinical studies demonstrate improved tolerance and gas exchange, with one feasibility trial in extremely low birth weight infants showing effective customization via 3D nasal imaging and printing.^[149] However, gaps persist in long-term efficacy data and standardization for soft-material printing.^[150] Adaptive support ventilation (ASV) in NIV represents a closed-loop system that automatically regulates respiratory rate and tidal volume to achieve a preset minute ventilation, independent of patient effort variations.^[143] In randomized trials for acute exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, ASV matched pressure support ventilation in reducing work of breathing and intubation rates, with dynamic adjustments minimizing asynchronies.^[151] ^[152] This mode's algorithm computes optimal pressure support based on lung mechanics, potentially lowering clinician workload while maintaining oxygenation targets like PaO2/FiO2 >200 mmHg.^[153] Neurally adjusted ventilatory assist (NAVA) extended to NIV (NIV-NAVA) personalizes support by proportioning ventilator assistance to the electrical activity of the diaphragm (Edi), detected via esophageal catheter, enabling breath-by-breath synchrony unaffected by mask leaks.^[154] In preterm neonates, NIV-NAVA reduced extubation failure to 6.3% compared to 37.5% with nasal CPAP (p=0.041) and lowered peak inspiratory pressures and asynchrony indices in a 2024 meta-analysis.^[155] Guidelines recommend starting NAVA levels at 2 cmH2O/μV, titrated to Edi peaks of 10-15 μV, with backup rates of 30 breaths/min to prevent apnea.^[155] Physiological studies confirm reduced work of breathing versus conventional NIV modes.^[156] Emerging integrations of artificial intelligence in NIV predict therapy success or failure via machine learning algorithms analyzing ventilator waveforms and patient data, enabling dynamic setting optimizations and asynchrony detection.^[146] Advanced monitoring tools like electrical impedance tomography further personalize positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) titration by visualizing regional lung ventilation.^[146] These approaches promise reduced intubation needs and enhanced outcomes, though prospective trials are needed to validate AI-driven predictions against clinical endpoints like 28-day mortality.^[146]

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The Mechanical Ventilator: Past, Present, and Future
Negative-pressure ventilation became a much greater clinical reality with the development of the iron lung, originally designed and built by Drinker and Shaw, ...Missing: pre- | Show results with:pre-
[76]
The Story of Artificial Ventilation | Anesthesia Key
Mar 21, 2017 · From the 1850s to the 1940s, more than 70 different manual methods of artificial ventilation were described. These expanded the lungs by ...
[77]
A microprocessor based feedback controller for mechanical ventilation
A microcomputer feedback system has been developed which adjusts the inspired minute volume of a ventilator based on the patient's end-tidal CO2 concentration.
[78]
Modern Non-Invasive Mechanical Ventilation Turns 25
It has been 25 years since the use of positive pressure ventilation with non-invasive interfaces became standardized.<|separator|>
[79]
The history of high-frequency ventilation - PubMed
High-frequency ventilation was first introduced 30 years ago as a method for reducing intrathoracic pressure during thoracic and laryngeal surgery.
[80]
Ventilation with Lower Tidal Volumes as Compared with Traditional ...
May 4, 2000 · Mechanical ventilation with a lower tidal volume than is traditionally used results in decreased mortality and increases the number of days without ventilator ...
[81]
Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation in Acute Respiratory Failure
Jan 21, 2023 · ECMO is a form of mechanical life support that provides full respiratory bypass in patients with severe respiratory failure as a bridge to recovery or lung ...
[82]
Ventilator-Induced Lung Injury - PMC - PubMed Central
Ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI) was proven definitively to contribute to mortality in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).
[83]
The Injurious Effects of Elevated or Nonelevated Respiratory Rate ...
Apr 20, 2018 · This review thoroughly presents the multiple mechanisms by which respiratory rate may induce injury during mechanical ventilation, drawing the ...
[84]
Heart-lung interactions during mechanical ventilation: the basics - NIH
The hemodynamic effects of mechanical ventilation can be grouped into three clinically relevant concepts. First, since spontaneous ventilation is exercise.
[85]
Prolonged mechanical ventilation alters diaphragmatic structure and ...
As few as 18 hrs of mechanical ventilation results in diaphragmatic atrophy in both laboratory animals and humans. Prolonged mechanical ventilation is also ...
[86]
Mechanical Ventilation–induced Diaphragm Atrophy Strongly ...
Mar 13, 2017 · Multiple studies have shown that diaphragm weakness predicts prolonged ventilator dependence and poor clinical outcomes (7–9, 21, 22). However, ...Methods · Results · Discussion
[87]
Mechanical Ventilation-induced Diaphragm Atrophy ... - PubMed
Jan 15, 2018 · Conclusions: Diaphragm atrophy developing during mechanical ventilation strongly impacts clinical outcomes. Targeting an inspiratory effort ...
[88]
Ventilator-Induced Lung Injury (VILI) - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf
Apr 27, 2023 · If extensively inflamed & injured areas get fibrosed, there is a potential for long-term respiratory disability and cor-pulmonale in survivors.Introduction · Etiology · Evaluation · Treatment / Management
[89]
The physiological underpinnings of life-saving respiratory support
Jun 12, 2022 · Iatrogenic consequences of mechanical ventilation. General principles. The possible direct harm of mechanical ventilation on the lungs arises ...
[90]
Long-Term Outcomes and Health Care Utilization after Prolonged ...
Oct 18, 2016 · Critically ill patients who undergo mechanical ventilation in an ICU for longer than 21 days have high in-hospital mortality and greater postdischarge ...
[91]
[PDF] Iatrogenic airway trauma: A systematic review
This systematic review paves the way for the same by emphasizing a routine examination of the airway following intervention so as to minimize the sequelae of ...
[92]
Complications of invasive mechanical ventilation in critically Ill Covid ...
The most frequent complication was delirium (36.70%), followed by coma, critical illness neuropathy, ischemic stroke, stupor, encephalopathy, seizures, ...
[93]
Systematic review of studies investigating ventilator associated ... - NIH
Jun 9, 2021 · Existing literature reports that the incidence of VAP varies widely between 4.0% and 28.8% of the at-risk population [8, 18–24], with an event ...
[94]
Ventilator-associated pneumonia in adults: a narrative review - PMC
VAP is associated with prolonged duration of mechanical ventilation and ICU stay. The estimated attributable mortality of VAP is around 10%, with higher ...<|separator|>
[95]
The effect of ventilator-associated pneumonia on the prognosis of ...
Jul 15, 2021 · The 90-day mortality risk of VAP patients was 1.465 times, and the 180-day mortality risk of VAP patients was 1.635 times than those in patients ...
[96]
Study links intense energy bursts to ventilator-induced lung injury
Mar 3, 2025 · ARDS is a severe lung condition that affects roughly 10% of intensive care unit patients and carries a mortality rate of 30-40%, even with ...
[97]
Ventilator-Induced Lung Injury: The Unseen Challenge in Acute ...
Jun 2, 2025 · Misclassification of lung morphology occurred in 21% of patients, leading to higher mortality rates. However, a per-protocol analysis of ...
[98]
The impact of mechanical ventilation on long-term survival ... - NIH
Jul 15, 2025 · Follow-up studies that evaluated patients from the moment of admission report one-year mortality rates ranging from 40% to 70%. Although ...
[99]
Long-Term Outcome after Prolonged Mechanical Ventilation. A Long ...
Jun 19, 2018 · Objectives: To investigate effects of prolonged ventilation on survival, muscle function, and its impact on quality of life at 6 and 12 months ...Missing: peer- | Show results with:peer-
[100]
Prolonged Mechanical Ventilation in Critically Ill Patients - CHEST
Jan 27, 2025 · Among patients who could not be weaned from mechanical ventilation, 65% (11 of 17 patients) died within 6 months after ICU discharge, compared ...
[101]
Five years follow up of patient receiving prolonged mechanical ...
Nov 17, 2022 · However, patients treated with prolonged mechanical ventilation had higher mortality rates within the first 2 years after weaning. More ...
[102]
The ongoing challenge of ventilator-associated pneumonia
A 2020 systematic review found that VAP bundles did not significantly decrease VAP incidence, length of ICU stay, or mortality [20]. Another meta-analysis in ...
[103]
Ventilator-associated pneumonia: pathobiological heterogeneity ...
Jul 31, 2024 · A recent systematic review and meta-analysis concluded that ETA had a sensitivity of 75.7% (95% CI 51.5–90.1) and specificity of 67.9% (95% CI ...
[104]
Debate will argue pros and cons of low tidal volumes and driving ...
Oct 21, 2020 · Low tidal volume ventilation and low driving pressure are key components of managing acute respiratory disease syndrome.
[105]
Setting the optimal positive end-expiratory pressure: a narrative review
Jul 19, 2023 · The primary goals of positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) are to restore functional residual capacity through recruitment and prevention ...
[106]
Higher PEEP versus Lower PEEP Strategies for Patients with Acute ...
Apr 26, 2017 · We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials investigating mechanical ventilation strategies using higher versus lower PEEP levels.
[107]
Effect of Lower vs Higher PEEP Strategy on Ventilator-Free Days in ...
Dec 9, 2020 · In this 2020 noninferiority trial, a lower PEEP ventilation strategy was noninferior to a higher PEEP strategy for ventilator-free days at day 28.
[108]
The High vs. Low PEEP Debate in Mechanical Ventilation
Aug 26, 2024 · They argue that higher PEEP levels keep the alveoli open, improve oxygenation, and prevent the dreaded atelectasis from rearing its ugly head.
[109]
Is high-frequency oscillatory ventilation more effective and safer than ...
Although HFOV seems not to increase the risk of barotrauma or hypotension, and reduces the risk of oxygenation failure, it does not improve survival.
[110]
Comparison of High-Frequency Oscillatory Ventilation and ...
Jan 20, 2014 · Application of HFOV and early HFOV compared with CMV in children with acute respiratory failure is associated with worse outcomes.
[111]
Cumulative Metaanalysis of High-frequency Versus Conventional ...
Jun 2, 2003 · High-frequency ventilation allows higher end-expiratory pressures with lower peak inspiratory pressures and higher mean airway pressures and is ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[112]
Are ventilators overused for Covid-19 patients? - Advisory Board
Apr 24, 2020 · Are ventilators overused for Covid-19 patients? · Vast majority of Covid-19 patients placed on ventilators at NY health system died, study finds.
[113]
Ventilators are overused for Covid-19 patients, doctors say | STAT
Apr 8, 2020 · With ventilators running out, doctors say the machines are overused for Covid-19 ... In particular, more and more are concerned about the use of ...
[114]
How common is ventilator-associated pneumonia after coronavirus ...
The reported incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) in COVID-19 ARDS, ranges from 25 to almost 85%, and represents twice as many complications ...Missing: critiques | Show results with:critiques
[115]
Association between timing of intubation and clinical outcomes of ...
... early intubation (45.8% versus 53.5%). This suggests the potential utility of ... Emulating Target Trials Comparing Early and Delayed Intubation Strategies.
[116]
Timing of intubation and ICU mortality in COVID-19 patients
Apr 27, 2023 · We hypothesized that delayed intubation is associated with higher mortality in COVID-19 ... Caution about early intubation and mechanical ...
[117]
Ventilators May Be Overused Among Dementia Patients in ICUs
Ventilators May Be Overused Among Dementia Patients in ICUs ... There has been an increase in the use of mechanical ventilation over time without substantial ...
[118]
ICU and ventilator mortality among critically ill adults with COVID-19
While experience with COVID-19 continues to grow, reported mortality rates range from 50–97% in those requiring mechanical ventilation. These are significantly ...Missing: critiques | Show results with:critiques
[119]
A Framework for Rationing Ventilators and Critical Care Beds ...
Mar 27, 2020 · It should be made explicit that ventilators will not be allocated on the basis of morally irrelevant considerations, such as sex, race, religion ...
[120]
[PDF] Ethics and COVID-19: resource allocation and priority-setting
This policy brief answers a number of questions about the ethics of setting priorities for the allocation of resources during times of scarcity. Such decisions ...
[121]
Who gets the ventilator? Important legal rights in a pandemic
This article identifies ten ways in which the withholding or withdrawal of a clinically indicated ventilator might violate a patient's rights.<|control11|><|separator|>
[122]
Ethical heuristics for pandemic allocation of ventilators across ... - NIH
In this paper, we identify a set of principles for allocating newly obtained ventilators across hospitals. We focus particularly on low and middle income ...
[123]
Addressing Futility: A Practical Approach - PMC - NIH
Jul 1, 2022 · “Quantitative futility” refers to physiologic ineffectiveness; a proposed intervention is futile in the quantitative sense if it has an ...
[124]
Defining Futile and Potentially Inappropriate Interventions | SCCM
Sep 16, 2016 · This statement was developed to provide a clear definition of inappropriate interventions in the ICU environment.Missing: artificial | Show results with:artificial
[125]
Withdrawal of Mechanical Ventilation in the Intensive Care Unit
Aug 23, 2025 · Over 1 in 5 Americans die in intensive care units (ICUs), among whom 50% undergo palliative withdrawal of mechanical ventilation (WMV).
[126]
Predictors of Time to Death After Terminal Withdrawal of Mechanical ...
The proportion of patients who died within 24 hours of terminal withdrawal of mechanical ventilation was 93.2% (95% CI, 92% to 94%). A minority (9.3%) of ...
[127]
Prediction of survival time after terminal extubation
Jan 11, 2023 · Seventy-six patients (54.3%) died within 1 h, and 35 patients (25%) survived beyond 24 h. After extubation, most patients died in the ICU (72.1 ...<|separator|>
[128]
Delirium as a Predictor of Mortality in Mechanically Ventilated ...
Apr 14, 2004 · Although hospital mortality for such patients ranges from 30% to 50%, only 16% of patients receiving mechanical ventilation die directly of ...Missing: terminal | Show results with:terminal
[129]
Ethical considerations at the end-of-life care - PMC - NIH
Medical futility is defined as a clinical action serving no useful purpose in attaining a specified goal for a given patient. Futile medical care is care ...
[130]
[PDF] Responding to Requests for Potentially Inappropriate Treatment
May 15, 2015 · Consensus statement of the Society of Critical Care Medicine's Ethics. Committee regarding futile and other possibly inadvisable treatments.Missing: artificial | Show results with:artificial
[131]
Legal Aspects of Withholding and Withdrawing Life Support from ...
Physicians may base their recommendations to limit treatment on futility, but this concept should not be invoked to remove support without patients' or ...<|separator|>
[132]
Withdrawal of Mechanical Ventilation in Anticipation of Death in the ...
Of 851 patients who were receiving mechanical ventilation, 539 (63.3 percent) were successfully weaned, 146 (17.2 percent) died while receiving mechanical ...
[133]
Another Look at Outcomes from Mechanical Ventilation - ATS Journals
Key observations were that 67% of all mechanically ventilated patients are ultimately liberated from MV during their hospital stay whereas 28% die and 5% remain ...
[134]
Medical Futility: Legal and Ethical Analysis - AMA Journal of Ethics
A futile treatment is not necessarily ineffective, but it is worthless, either because the medical action itself is futile (no matter what the patient's ...
[135]
a closed-loop system focused on protective mechanical ventilation
May 16, 2023 · The SOLVe system is a closed-loop control system which automatically adapts all relevant ventilator settings to achieve the SpO 2 , PETCO 2 , ...
[136]
The dawn of physiological closed-loop ventilation—a review
Mar 29, 2020 · Leonhardt S, Böhm S. Control methods for artificial ventilation of ARDS patients. In: European Medical & Biological Engineering Conference.Missing: peer- | Show results with:peer-
[137]
Prediction of Spontaneous Breathing Trial Outcome in Critically Ill ...
May 21, 2025 · Respiratory therapists must perform complex and time-consuming ventilator weaning assessments, which typically take 48-72 hours. Traditional ...Missing: guidelines | Show results with:guidelines
[138]
Using Artificial Intelligence to Predict Mechanical Ventilation ...
Mar 5, 2024 · AI and ML models can assist the physician in weaning patients from MV by providing predictive tools based on big data.
[139]
Artificial Intelligence for Mechanical Ventilation - NIH
Nov 11, 2024 · Artificial Intelligence (AI) could help the management of patients treated with mechanical ventilation in critical care practice.
[140]
Role of artificial intelligence in enhancing mechanical ventilation
Artificial intelligence technologies such as machine learning, natural language processing and predictive analytics are transforming mechanical ventilation by ...
[141]
An artificial intelligence application to predict prolonged ...
Dec 30, 2024 · The purpose of the study was to establish and validate an artificial intelligence (AI) platform to assess the prolonged dependence on mechanical ventilation.Database And Study Design · Ai Platform And Prediction · Discussion
[142]
Role of artificial intelligence in enhancing mechanical ventilation
Artificial intelligence technologies such as machine learning, natural language processing and predictive analytics are transforming mechanical ventilation by ...
[143]
Adaptive Support Ventilation - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Apr 6, 2023 · Adaptive support ventilation (ASV) is a type of mechanical ventilation which is a relatively newer mode of closed-loop ventilation.
[144]
Development of personalized non-invasive ventilation masks ... - NIH
Mar 1, 2024 · More novel, state-of-the-art techniques, such as 3D printing of soft materials may be promising to provide a more rapid, personalized NIV mask ...
[145]
Personalized noninvasive respiratory support for acute hypoxemic ...
Apr 28, 2023 · Noninvasive support may help avoid endotracheal intubation and reduce the detrimental effects of sedation and invasive mechanical ventilation.<|separator|>
[146]
current controversies and emerging trends in non-invasive ...
Oct 5, 2025 · The traditional approach for titration includes patient comfort assessment and breathing rate reduction and work of breathing improvement and ...<|separator|>
[147]
Development of an individualized and functional CPAP ventilation ...
Advances in Computer-Aided Design and Manufacturing (CAD/CAM) enable rapid in-house production of customized NIV masks.
[148]
Development of personalized non-invasive ventilation masks for ...
Mar 1, 2024 · In our current production process, we were able to develop personalized NIV masks within a 12-h time window (the SPR mask). Considering that ...
[149]
Current Advances and Gaps in Knowledge on Personalizing Masks ...
Feasibility of three-dimensional nasal imaging and printing in producing customized nasal masks for non-invasive ventilation in extremely low birth weight ...
[150]
Current Advances and Gaps in Knowledge on Personalizing Masks ...
Aug 24, 2024 · Noninvasive respiratory support delivered through a face mask has become a cornerstone treatment for adults and children with acute or chronic ...
[151]
A Randomized Controlled Trial of Noninvasive Ventilation ... - PubMed
The use of adaptive support ventilation (ASV) during noninvasive ventilation (NIV) is as effective as pressure support ventilation (PSV) remains unknown.
[152]
Full article: Adaptive Support Ventilation During Non-Invasive ...
Aug 19, 2019 · ASV by modulating the tidal volume delivered and the respiratory rate meets the patients' requirements and reduces the work of breathing ( ...
[153]
Adaptive Support Ventilation - LITFL
Jul 5, 2024 · Adaptive support ventilation (ASV) is a positive pressure mode of mechanical ventilation that is closed-loop controlled, and automatically ...
[154]
Neurally Adjusted Ventilatory Assist (NAVA) - StatPearls - NCBI - NIH
Dec 11, 2024 · Neurally adjusted ventilatory assist (NAVA) is a relatively newer mode of ventilation in which a ventilator utilizes the electrical activity of the diaphragm ...Continuing Education Activity · Introduction · Indications · Technique or Treatment
[155]
Clinical management guidelines for non-invasive neurally adjusted ...
Conclusion. NIV NAVA represents a significant advancement in personalized ventilation for neonates, offering breath-by-breath support tailored to each ...
[156]
Non-invasive neurally adjusted ventilatory assist (NIV-NAVA) in the ...
Aug 9, 2024 · NIV-NAVA is an emerging technology that allows infants to breathe spontaneously while receiving support breaths proportional to their effort.