Fact-checked by Grok 2 weeks ago

Botfly

Botflies are obligate parasitic flies in the family Oestridae (order Diptera), whose larvae infest the skin, digestive tract, or nasal passages of mammals, causing myiasis by feeding on host tissues.^[1] These insects are distributed worldwide, with greatest diversity in tropical and temperate regions of the Americas, Europe, Asia, and Africa.^[2] The family comprises four subfamilies—Cuterebrinae (rodent and human bots), Gasterophilinae (stomach bots), Hypodermatinae (warble flies), and Oestrinae (nasal bots)—each adapted to specific host sites and species.^[1] The life cycle of botflies typically spans several months, beginning with non-feeding adult females that mate soon after emergence and deposit eggs either directly on hosts or indirectly via phoretic vectors such as mosquitoes or ticks.^[3] Hatched first-instar larvae burrow into the host's skin or orifices within minutes, progressing through three instars while secreting bacteriostatic substances to suppress immune responses and microbial competition; development lasts 4–12 weeks depending on species and conditions.^[1] Mature larvae then exit the host to pupate in soil, in most species overwintering as mature larvae within the host before exiting to pupate (except Cuterebrinae, which exit the host to pupate and overwinter as pupae) before adults emerge to repeat the cycle.^[4] Botflies primarily parasitize ungulates like cattle, sheep, goats, horses, and reindeer, as well as rodents, lagomorphs, and wildlife such as deer and primates, often resulting in irritation, inflammation, weight loss, and secondary infections that cause substantial veterinary and economic impacts in livestock industries.^[5] Human infestations, though rare and usually accidental, are most commonly caused by Dermatobia hominis (human botfly) in Central and South America, leading to painful, boil-like subcutaneous lesions that resolve spontaneously but may require extraction to prevent complications.^[3]^[4] Zoonotic cases from other species, such as Hypoderma or Cephenemyia, can involve ocular or nasopharyngeal myiasis, highlighting their occasional public health relevance.^[2]

Taxonomy and Systematics

Family Classification

Botflies are members of the family Oestridae, classified within the order Diptera (true flies) and the superfamily Oestroidea.^[6] This placement situates them among the calyptrate flies, characterized by their parasitic lifestyles and adaptations for endoparasitism in mammals.^[7] The family Oestridae is subdivided into four main subfamilies: Oestrinae, which includes nasal botflies that infest the sinuses of ungulates; Hypodermatinae, known as warble flies that develop under the skin of cattle and other hosts; Gasterophilinae, comprising horse botflies that parasitize the gastrointestinal tract of equids; and Cuterebrinae, which target rodents, rabbits, and occasionally humans.^[8] These subfamilies reflect distinct host associations and morphological specializations, with approximately 150-180 described species distributed across 25 to 30 genera worldwide.^[9]^[10]^[11] Evolutionarily, oestrids represent obligate parasites derived from free-living ancestors within the Oestroidea, forming a monophyletic clade that diverged through adaptations for internal parasitism.^[12] Their closest relatives include the flesh flies (family Sarcophagidae) and blow flies (family Calliphoridae), sharing a common ancestry in the calyptrate lineage marked by advanced myiasis-causing traits.^[7] Prominent genera within Oestridae illustrate this diversity: Oestrus (e.g., O. ovis, the sheep nasal botfly); Hypoderma (e.g., H. lineatum, the cattle warble fly); Gasterophilus (e.g., G. intestinalis, a common horse botfly); Dermatobia (e.g., D. hominis, the human botfly); and Cuterebra (New World rodent botflies).^[13]^[14]^[15]^[12]

Diversity and Distribution

Botflies (family Oestridae) encompass approximately 150-180 species worldwide, exhibiting the greatest species richness in tropical regions where environmental conditions favor their parasitic lifestyles.^[11] The family is divided into four subfamilies, with Cuterebrinae comprising around 70 species primarily in the New World, Oestrinae around 30 species mainly in the Old World, Hypodermatinae about 30 species, and Gasterophilinae roughly 20 species.^[16]^[17]^[18] Among the notable species, Dermatobia hominis, the human botfly, is restricted to the Neotropics and is unique for its specific parasitism of humans and other mammals.^[15] In the Holarctic region, Hypoderma bovis and H. lineatum are significant cattle parasites, causing economic losses through warble infestations.^[19] Gasterophilus intestinalis, a cosmopolitan horse stomach botfly, has spread globally via international livestock trade.^[13] Oestrus ovis, the sheep nasal botfly, ranges from the Mediterranean through Asia and into parts of Africa, targeting sheep and goats.^[20] Distribution patterns of botflies are centered in the Holarctic and Neotropical realms, reflecting their adaptation to mammalian hosts in temperate and tropical zones, though some species have become cosmopolitan through human-mediated transport of livestock.^[21] These flies occupy diverse altitudinal gradients, from sea level to montane habitats in the Andes, where certain Cuterebrinae species parasitize rodents. Biodiversity hotspots for botflies include Central and South America, where Cuterebrinae achieve peak diversity due to abundant rodent and lagomorph hosts, contrasting with the Old World focus for Oestrinae in regions like Eurasia and Africa supporting diverse ungulate populations. Recent taxonomic additions include Cuterebra yanayacui from Ecuador (described 2024).^[22]^[23]

Morphology and Physiology

Adult Morphology

Adult botflies belonging to the family Oestridae are robust, medium-sized flies, typically measuring 10 to 20 mm in length, with a densely haired body that imparts a distinctive bee-like or bumblebee-like appearance often likened to Beelzebub due to the prominent pilosity covering the head, thorax, and abdomen.^[4]^[24] This hairiness serves sensory and thermoregulatory functions during their brief adult phase. The body coloration varies by species, such as the metallic blue abdomen and yellow face in Dermatobia hominis, or the dark gray, hairy thorax with dull-yellow head and legs in Oestrus ovis.^[4]^[25] A defining feature of adult Oestridae is the reduction or complete absence of functional mouthparts, rendering them non-feeding insects that subsist on larval reserves for their short lifespan of up to several weeks.^[25]^[24] They possess large compound eyes for enhanced visual detection of hosts and mates, paired with short, three-segmented antennae consisting of a scape, pedicel, and flagellum bearing an arista, which are sensitive to olfactory cues.^[26] Wings are generally well-developed and transparent, though varying in venation across subfamilies; for instance, Oestrus ovis adults have membranous wings about 8 mm long.^[25] Legs are sturdy and often orange or yellow, equipped with setae for grasping during host approaches or mating.^[4] Sexual dimorphism is pronounced in many species, with females typically larger than males to facilitate egg production and carrying—females of Cuterebra species, for example, reach up to 19 mm, exceeding males by several millimeters—while males often exhibit bushier pilosity on the thorax and abdomen for display during courtship.^[27] These morphological traits support reproductive behaviors, such as the specialized oviposition in Dermatobia hominis, where females use an adapted ovipositor and cement-like secretion to affix clusters of 30–50 eggs onto blood-feeding vectors like mosquitoes in mid-flight.^[4]^[24] Overall, adult morphology prioritizes rapid reproduction over longevity, enabling the transition to the parasitic larval stage.^[24]

Larval Characteristics

Botfly larvae, belonging to the family Oestridae, exhibit a distinctive cylindrical, maggot-like morphology adapted for their obligate parasitic lifestyle within host tissues. These larvae typically measure 1 to 30 mm in length, depending on the species and instar, with a robust, tapered body that facilitates penetration and residence in host subcutaneous or internal sites. Their integument features a tough, sclerotized cuticle composed of a thick procuticle and epicuticle, providing protection against the host's immune responses and mechanical damage during migration and feeding. Respiration occurs primarily through posterior spiracles located at the caudal end, which are often equipped with slits or peritremes allowing gas exchange even when partially embedded in host tissue.^[8]^[28]^[29] The larval development proceeds through three instars, each marked by progressive morphological changes that enhance parasitism efficiency. First-instar larvae are generally small, mobile, and equipped with simple mouth hooks for burrowing into the host shortly after hatching, enabling rapid invasion of skin or mucous membranes. Subsequent molts lead to second- and third-instar larvae, which become more sedentary, enlarging in size and developing reinforced structures such as rows of spines and robust mouth hooks for anchorage within the host's tissues or cavities. These later instars prioritize nutrient absorption over mobility, with the cuticle thickening further to resist expulsion.^[3]^[30]^[31] Specialized adaptations in botfly larvae reflect their diverse host interactions and microhabitats. In warble flies of the genus Hypoderma, such as H. bovis and H. lineatum, third-instar larvae form subcutaneous warbles and possess modified posterior spiracles with elongated peritremal structures—often termed respiratory trumpets—that protrude through the host's skin pore for aerial respiration while the body remains protected beneath the dermis. Stomach bot flies in the genus Gasterophilus, including G. intestinalis, feature anal and oral hooks along with backward-facing spines on body segments, allowing secure attachment to the host's gastric mucosa despite peristaltic movements and digestive enzymes. These genera demonstrate immune evasion through integumental barriers that inhibit antibody penetration and enzymatic degradation of host tissues.^[32]^[33]^[34] Larval morphology varies across botfly genera, underscoring their host-specific evolutions. In Cuterebra species (subfamily Cuterebrinae, family Oestridae), larvae are covered in prominent black spines arranged in transverse bands, aiding in anchorage within subcutaneous cavities of rodents and lagomorphs; third instars can reach 3-4.5 cm with a dark coloration. Conversely, Dermatobia hominis larvae induce boil-like furuncular nodules in mammalian hosts, where the larva's barrel-shaped body, armed with spicules, resides within a dermal cyst connected to a central breathing pore, often evading detection until maturity.^[35]^[36]^[17]

Life Cycle and Reproduction

Egg Deposition

Female bot flies of the family Oestridae exhibit diverse reproductive strategies for egg deposition, which vary by subfamily and are adapted to ensure successful parasitization of mammalian hosts. Typically, gravid females produce between 500 and 1,000 eggs over their short adult lifespan of several days to a week, though this number can range from 150 to over 800 depending on the species.^[37]^[19]^[38] In most Cuterebrinae, such as Cuterebra species, females deposit eggs on vegetation, rocks, or near rodent burrows and runways, where heat from a passing host stimulates hatching and larval attachment.^[39] In the genus Dermatobia (subfamily Cuterebrinae), exemplified by Dermatobia hominis, females utilize a vector-mediated strategy where they glue clusters of 10 to 50 eggs onto the body of an intermediate arthropod vector, such as a mosquito or tick, using an adhesive secretion from the egg shell. The eggs remain dormant until the vector contacts a warm-blooded host, triggering temperature-sensitive hatching and larval penetration into the skin.^[40]^[41]^[42] In the subfamily Oestrinae, such as Oestrus ovis, females are larviparous and employ direct deposition by ejecting live first-instar larvae directly onto or into the host's nostrils during flight or close approach, bypassing egg-laying altogether. This larviposition behavior allows immediate host entry, with larvae migrating into the nasal passages upon contact.^[25]^[43]^[44] In the Hypodermatinae, species like Hypoderma bovis and H. lineatum attach eggs directly to host hairs, typically on the lower legs, with H. bovis depositing them singly and H. lineatum in rows of 3 to 10 per hair using a specialized adhesive basal structure on the egg. Similarly, Gasterophilinae such as Gasterophilus intestinalis lay eggs on the hairs of the host's forelegs, shoulders, or around the mouth, where they adhere firmly and hatch in response to host licking or friction.^[19]^[45]^[46]^[47] Across oviparous species, eggs embryonate and hatch within 3 to 10 days, with the exact timing influenced by environmental temperature and humidity; warmer conditions accelerate development, enabling first-instar larvae to emerge and initiate infestation.^[19]^[48]^[49]

Larval Development

Botfly larvae, belonging to the family Oestridae, typically progress through three instars during their parasitic development within the host, with the first instar focused on penetration and initial migration through tissues such as skin or orifices.^[50]^[51] The duration of larval development varies by species but generally spans 4-12 weeks for many subcutaneous types, influenced by host species, environmental conditions, and immune responses.^[50]^[52] In cattle grubs like Hypoderma bovis and H. lineatum, the first-instar larva penetrates the host's skin shortly after hatching and migrates subcutaneously; H. lineatum larvae travel to the esophagus, where they reside in the submucosa during the second instar, while H. bovis larvae follow nerves to the spinal canal, overwintering in epidural fat as first or second instars before returning subcutaneously to the back for the third instar.^[19]^[29]^[45] This migration can take 8-9 months overall, with third-instar larvae forming warbles along the spine.^[53] For horse botflies such as Gasterophilus intestinalis, first-instar larvae penetrate near the egg site on the host's legs and migrate to the mouth, then proceed to attach in the stomach or intestines for subsequent instars, completing development over 10-12 months.^[37]^[54] In contrast, rodent botflies like Cuterebra species develop in subcutaneous cavities after the first instar enters via natural orifices or wounds, progressing through three instars in 3-4 weeks without extensive internal migration.^[50]^[55] Upon maturation, third-instar larvae exit the host, often triggered by rising temperatures or host immune pressures, and drop to the soil to form a puparium.^[1]^[56] Pupation lasts 2-4 weeks under favorable conditions, though it can extend to 7-80 days depending on temperature; in temperate species, pupae enter diapause to overwinter.^[1]^[57] Overwintering as pupae occurs in many Oestridae, ensuring survival until spring emergence cues like warming soil.^[58]

Ecology and Host Interactions

Habitats and Range

Botflies of the family Oestridae exhibit diverse habitat preferences tied to their life cycles and host availability, primarily occupying regions with suitable climatic conditions for larval development and adult activity. Species such as Dermatobia hominis, the human botfly, thrive in tropical and subtropical environments, particularly humid rainforests and lowland forests of Central and South America, where warm temperatures and high moisture support egg deposition and larval maturation.^[4]^[59] In contrast, warble flies like Hypoderma bovis and H. lineatum favor temperate grasslands and pastures in the Northern Hemisphere, where cattle graze during warmer months, allowing females to lay eggs on host legs in open, sunny areas.^[19]^[60] Horse botflies (Gasterophilus spp.), including G. intestinalis, are adapted to similar open landscapes such as steppes and pastures worldwide, often in regions supporting equine populations, with adults active in dry, sunny conditions.^[13]^[61] Sheep nasal botflies (Oestrus ovis) prefer arid steppes and dry, hot regions, including Mediterranean climates and semi-arid zones in Africa and Asia, where low humidity aids larval survival in host nasal passages.^[62]^[63] Rodent botflies (Cuterebra spp.) inhabit deciduous forests and woodland edges in North America, near burrows of small mammals in temperate to subtropical zones.^[50] Some species, notably in the Neotropics, extend to high altitudes, with D. hominis infestations recorded up to approximately 1,500 meters in the Andes.^[64] The global distribution of botflies reflects their association with mammalian hosts and historical dispersal patterns. D. hominis is restricted to the Neotropics, ranging from southern Mexico through Central America to northern Argentina and Paraguay, excluding Chile.^[65] Warble flies (Hypoderma spp.) occur across the Holarctic region, including North America from Canada to Mexico, Europe, and parts of Asia and Africa.^[66] Gasterophilus species have a cosmopolitan range, originally from Europe but now worldwide due to equine trade, with G. intestinalis prevalent in temperate and tropical zones. O. ovis has a near-cosmopolitan Palearctic and Afrotropical distribution, spanning sheep-rearing areas in Europe, Africa, Asia, and introduced to the Americas and Australia.^[25] Cuterebra species are primarily Nearctic, distributed across most of the continental United States (except Alaska), southern Canada, and northeastern Mexico.^[67] Introductions via livestock trade have facilitated spread, such as Gasterophilus and Hypoderma species establishing in Australia through imported horses and cattle.^[54] Climate plays a pivotal role in botfly ecology, with warm, humid conditions in tropical areas promoting high infestation rates for species like D. hominis, while temperate summers trigger adult emergence and oviposition in Hypoderma and Gasterophilus.^[68] Infestations peak seasonally in summer across many regions, coinciding with elevated temperatures that accelerate larval development and host exposure in pastures.^[69] Arid climates benefit O. ovis by reducing competition and supporting synchronized fly activity during dry seasons.^[62] Recent environmental shifts have influenced botfly ranges, with climate warming enabling upward altitudinal and latitudinal expansions, as observed in oestrids reaching higher elevations in mountainous regions.^[70] Animal trade has further driven introductions, including recent post-2020 reports of Hypoderma detections in European locales such as Romania and Spain, potentially exacerbating risks in livestock areas.^[71]^[72]

Host Specificity

Botflies of the family Oestridae are obligate parasites that exclusively target mammals as hosts during their larval stage.^[8] The subfamily Oestrinae primarily infests ungulates, such as sheep and cattle, with species like Oestrus ovis developing in the nasopharyngeal cavities of these ruminants.^[25] Gasterophilinae species, including Gasterophilus intestinalis, exhibit high specificity for equids like horses and donkeys, where larvae reside in the stomach and intestines.^[61] Cuterebrinae target rodents and lagomorphs, parasitizing hosts such as mice (Peromyscus spp.), squirrels, and rabbits (Sylvilagus spp.) by forming subcutaneous warbles.^[17] In comparison, Dermatobia hominis of the Cuterebrinae is more opportunistic, infesting diverse mammals including humans, cattle, dogs, and occasionally monkeys.^[8] Host specificity in botflies is primarily mediated by olfactory cues detected by female flies to locate and select appropriate hosts from afar.^[73] Antennae equipped with specialized sensilla enable detection of host-derived volatiles, guiding oviposition behavior.^[26] While most species show strict fidelity to particular host groups, some act as generalists; for example, Oestrus ovis infests multiple ruminants, including sheep, goats, and deer.^[25] Humans occasionally serve as accidental hosts for non-Dermatobia species, typically through environmental exposure or poor hygiene in areas overlapping with primary host habitats.^[74] Cuterebrinae larvae, such as those of Cuterebra spp., can infrequently parasitize humans after contact with rodent burrows or infested vegetation.^[75] Wildlife reservoirs, including deer (Cervus elaphus), sustain populations of Hypoderma species, facilitating potential transmission to livestock ungulates.^[76] Long-term co-evolutionary relationships have shaped botfly-host dynamics, with Gasterophilinae demonstrating ancient adaptations to equids over millennia, including synchronized life cycles with horse migration patterns in steppe ecosystems.^[61] These associations reflect mutual evolutionary pressures, enhancing parasite survival while influencing host behaviors like grooming.^[69]

Infestation and Pathology

Infestation Mechanisms

Botfly larvae employ diverse strategies to infest hosts, primarily through direct penetration or ingestion, depending on the species within the Oestridae family. In species like Dermatobia hominis, the human botfly, adult females capture day-biting arthropods such as mosquitoes or ticks as vectors and glue clusters of up to 30 eggs onto their abdomens. When the vector lands on a mammalian host to feed, the warmth of the host's skin (around 37°C) triggers the eggs to hatch within minutes, allowing the first-instar larvae to burrow directly into the skin via the vector's bite wound, hair follicles, or minor abrasions.^[3]^[4] Similarly, Cuterebra species, which primarily target rodents and lagomorphs, deposit eggs near host burrows or on vegetation; upon hatching, the mobile larvae actively seek out nearby hosts and enter through natural orifices such as the mouth, nostrils, or conjunctiva during grooming or feeding activities, occasionally penetrating open wounds.^[39]^[36] In contrast, Gasterophilus species, known as horse botflies, lay eggs directly on the host's hair, particularly on the legs, shoulders, or flanks, where the adhesive eggs are stimulated to hatch by host perspiration or mechanical irritation. The larvae then attach to surrounding hairs and are ingested when the host grooms itself by licking, allowing them to reach the gastrointestinal tract without skin penetration.^[77]^[78] Once inside the host, larvae establish themselves by migrating through tissues or lumens; for cutaneous infestations like those of Dermatobia and Cuterebra, they secrete proteolytic enzymes that dissolve surrounding subcutaneous tissues, creating a protective cavity or warble lined with host-derived fibrous material. This burrow provides nourishment from serous fluids, blood, and necrotic debris while the larva's posterior spiracles protrude to the skin surface through a small punctum for respiration, minimizing exposure to the host's immune system.^[3]^[65] In gastrointestinal cases such as Gasterophilus, larvae embed into the stomach or duodenal mucosa using mouth hooks, resisting peristalsis and enzymatic digestion through their tough cuticle.^[78] Infestation success is modulated by host behaviors and environmental cues. Effective host grooming, such as licking or scratching, can dislodge eggs or young larvae before entry, particularly in species reliant on self-ingestion like Gasterophilus, thereby reducing parasitization rates.^[13] Seasonal synchrony plays a key role, with adult botflies emerging and ovipositing in alignment with host breeding cycles to maximize larval access to vulnerable juveniles, often peaking in warmer months when vector activity is high.^[79] In humans, infestations are accidental and rare, typically occurring in tropical regions of Central and South America via Dermatobia hominis; eggs may transfer from vectors to exposed skin or clothing during outdoor activities, or larvae enter through contaminated wounds, with fewer than 65 documented U.S. cases over seven decades linked to travel.^[3]^[15]

Clinical Effects

Botfly infestations in livestock, particularly cattle affected by species such as Hypoderma lineatum and H. bovis, result in significant physiological stress, leading to weight loss and reduced productivity. Infested animals exhibit decreased weight gain due to irritation from migrating larvae and behavioral avoidance of adult flies, which disrupts feeding. Milk production in dairy cattle can decline by 10–30% during infestation periods.^[80] In sheep and goats, nasal botflies like Oestrus ovis cause intense irritation through larval spines, mouth hooks, and proteolytic enzymes, manifesting as sneezing, nasal discharge, and dyspnea; this can lead to secondary bacterial infections, especially if larvae die within the sinuses, and production losses including 1.1–4.6 kg of meat, 200–500 g of wool, up to 10% reduction in milk production, and up to 10% mortality per animal.^[81]^[25] In humans, botfly myiasis, most commonly from Dermatobia hominis, presents as furuncular lesions resembling boils, characterized by painful, pruritic swellings with a central punctum, serosanguinous discharge, and a sensation of subcutaneous movement. These lesions typically develop on exposed skin and persist for 5–10 weeks as larvae feed subdermally.^[15]^[82] Nasal or ocular involvement by O. ovis can cause conjunctivitis and ophthalmomyiasis, with larvae irritating the eye surface; rare systemic migrations include cerebral myiasis, which has proven fatal in infants due to larval penetration through the fontanelles.^[15]^[83] Complications from botfly infestations include allergic reactions and secondary infections. Hypersensitive individuals may develop urticarial responses or, rarely, anaphylaxis, particularly if larval rupture occurs during manipulation, triggering IgE-mediated systemic effects.^[84]^[83] Bacterial superinfections are uncommon, as larvae secrete substances that inhibit bacterial growth, but they can arise in prolonged cases, leading to purulent discharge and increased pain.^[83] Long-term effects in humans often involve scarring at the site of furuncular lesions due to chronic inflammation and tissue damage.^[82] In agriculture, botfly infestations historically caused substantial economic losses, estimated at $600 million annually in North America during the 1980s from reduced livestock yields, hide damage, and control efforts, prior to widespread ivermectin use.^[80]

Management and Prevention

Veterinary Approaches

Veterinary approaches to botfly infestations in livestock primarily focus on integrated pest management strategies that target the larval stages of Oestridae species, such as Hypoderma bovis and H. lineatum in cattle, to prevent migration and development while minimizing economic losses. Systemic insecticides, particularly macrocyclic lactones like ivermectin and moxidectin administered via pour-on or injectable formulations, are highly effective for prevention when applied strategically in the fall after adult fly activity ceases but before first-instar larvae reach critical internal migration sites, such as the esophagus or spinal canal. These treatments disrupt larval development by killing early-stage grubs, with efficacy rates often exceeding 99% against migrating and mature larvae, and also provide broad-spectrum control against other parasites.^[85]^[86] Cultural methods complement chemical controls by reducing environmental contamination with botfly eggs and adults. Pasture rotation and sanitation practices, such as timely removal of manure and avoidance of overgrazing in fly-prone areas, help break the life cycle by limiting adult fly breeding sites and host exposure to eggs, though these are more effective when integrated with insecticide use. For equines affected by Gasterophilus species, host grooming aids like bot knives or abrasive blocks are used to mechanically remove eggs from the coat during regular currying, preventing ingestion and subsequent gastric infestation. Pilot trials of the sterile insect technique (SIT), involving the release of radiation-sterilized male Hypoderma flies to suppress wild populations, demonstrated feasibility in integrated programs during the late 20th century, but have not been widely adopted due to challenges in mass-rearing and cost-effectiveness.^[45]^[87]^[88] Monitoring and eradication efforts have achieved significant successes in livestock regions. In Europe, coordinated national programs using systemic insecticides combined with serological surveillance eradicated Hypoderma species from countries including the United Kingdom by the early 1990s, reducing prevalence to zero through sustained treatment and movement controls. Vaccine research against Hypoderma has been ongoing since the 1950s, focusing on antigens like hypodermin A to induce protective immunity, but no commercial vaccines are available due to the high efficacy of existing chemical controls. Ongoing studies explore recombinant proteins for potential immunization, though practical application remains limited.^[85]^[89]^[90] In wildlife, interventions for botfly control are constrained by ecological and logistical challenges, with emphasis on habitat management rather than direct treatment. Species like H. tarandi in reindeer and H. actaeon in deer experience natural population dynamics where reduced host densities indirectly lower infestation rates, but active measures such as culling or habitat alteration are rarely implemented due to impracticality and conservation concerns.^[85]^[91]

Human Treatments

Diagnosis of botfly myiasis in humans typically relies on a detailed clinical history, including recent travel to endemic regions in Central and South America, combined with the observation of a characteristic furuncular lesion featuring a central breathing pore from which the larva may periodically protrude.^[3]^[92] The presence of a painful, boil-like swelling with serosanguinous discharge further supports the diagnosis, often confirmed by direct visualization of the moving larva within the lesion.^[15] For cases involving deeper larval migration or atypical presentations, ultrasound imaging can effectively detect the live larva as a hypoechoic structure with internal motion, aiding in differentiation from abscesses or other dermatological conditions and guiding precise extraction.^[93]^[94] Treatment primarily involves safe removal of the larva to prevent complications, beginning with a non-invasive suffocation method where petroleum jelly or another occlusive substance, such as liquid paraffin or beeswax, is applied over the breathing pore to deprive the larva of oxygen and compel it to emerge.^[95]^[83] Once the larva surfaces, gentle surgical extraction using forceps under local anesthesia follows, ensuring complete removal without rupture, as squeezing the lesion can lead to larval fragmentation, allergic reactions, or secondary bacterial infections.^[96]^[97] Recent guidelines from 2023 emphasize these minimally invasive techniques to minimize tissue trauma and promote faster healing.^[98] Following extraction, post-treatment care focuses on managing potential complications, including the administration of oral antibiotics such as amoxicillin-clavulanate if signs of secondary bacterial infection arise, and anti-inflammatory agents like corticosteroids to reduce localized swelling and discomfort.^[99]^[100] Wound cleaning with antiseptic solutions and monitoring for foreign body reactions are essential, with most patients experiencing resolution within days to weeks without further intervention.^[97] Prevention of human botfly infestation centers on personal protective measures in endemic areas, such as applying EPA-registered insect repellents containing DEET to exposed skin and treating clothing with permethrin to deter the vector mosquitoes that facilitate egg attachment.^[101] Wearing loose-fitting, long-sleeved shirts, long pants tucked into boots, and hats during outdoor activities in tropical regions further reduces exposure risk. Currently, no vaccines are available for botfly myiasis prevention.^[3]

Cultural and Economic Aspects

Use as Human Food

In certain Arctic indigenous cultures, particularly among the Inuit of northern Canada, the larvae of the reindeer warble fly (Hypoderma tarandi) are harvested from caribou or reindeer hides and consumed as a traditional food. These plump, high-fat larvae are typically eaten raw to provide essential calories during periods of food scarcity in cold environments.^[102] Preparation methods include consuming the larvae fresh and uncooked, though they may also be cooked to enhance palatability; nutritionally, they are valued for their richness in proteins and lipids, which complement the high-fat components of traditional diets like seal and fish.^[102] This practice serves as a cultural survival food rooted in caribou hunting traditions, but its use has largely declined in modern times with shifts away from subsistence lifestyles. It has appeared in media depictions of Arctic survival, such as episodes of Les Stroud's Beyond Survival series in the 2000s, highlighting its historical role.^[102] Safety concerns are minimal when larvae are correctly identified and sourced from known hosts, with studies showing no identified zoonotic risks from consumption, though general potential for bacterial pathogens exists if hygiene is not maintained.^[102]

Economic Impacts

Botfly infestations impose substantial economic burdens on global livestock production, primarily through diminished animal productivity, hide damage, and associated treatment expenses. In cattle, warble flies (Hypoderma spp.) cause hide lesions that can reduce the skin's value by up to 10% of the animal's total worth, while also leading to weight loss and lower milk yields.^[80] These impacts underscore botflies' role as a key parasitic threat to ruminant farming. Control measures against botflies further elevate costs, often comprising a notable portion of operational budgets in affected regions. Systemic insecticides like ivermectin are commonly used, but emerging resistance in botfly populations—particularly to macrocyclic lactones—has driven up expenses by necessitating higher doses or alternative treatments.^[103] Trade regulations exacerbate these economic pressures by imposing quarantines on infested livestock, disrupting international markets. Successful eradication programs, however, have yielded substantial trade benefits; for instance, the United Kingdom's warble fly control initiative in the 1970s and 1980s eliminated the pest nationwide by 1990, enhancing hide quality and boosting leather exports by preventing infestation-related devaluation.^[104] Post-2020, resistance challenges and resurgence risks have spurred increased research investments into sustainable controls, including biopesticides and integrated pest management. While botflies offer no direct economic positives, their ecological role in stressing hosts—such as impairing aerobic performance in wild mammals—can indirectly mitigate overgrazing by reducing herbivore foraging rates, thereby protecting vegetation in rangeland ecosystems.

References

[1]
Oestridae - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Botflies (Oestridae) are obligate parasites that are harboured and feed for several weeks/months in the host's nasopharyngeal tract.
[2]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123984579000020
[3]
Botfly - StatPearls - NCBI Bookshelf - NIH
Botfly refers to flies of the Oestridae family that cause myiasis, infesting skin for larvae nutrition. The female uses a vector to carry eggs.Missing: life | Show results with:life
[4]
Human Bot Fly, Torsalo (Central America), Moyocuil (Mexico), Berne ...
The fly is not known to transmit disease-causing pathogens, but the larvae of Dermatobia hominis will infest the skin of mammals and live out the larval stage ...
[5]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780323357753000096
[6]
Bot Flies - Family Oestridae - BugGuide.Net
Large, stout bodied flies that resemble bees. Range. worldwide; the Hypodermatinae (30 spp. in 8 genera) are primarily restricted to Eurasia, but a few ...
[7]
Molecular phylogenetics of Oestroidea (Diptera: Calyptratae) with ...
Oestridae was recovered as sister group of the remaining Oestroidea in the MP trees while it was placed closer to the (Rhiniinae + Sarcophagidae + Calliphoridae ...
[8]
Botfly - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Bot flies are the most highly evolved group of obligate myiasis–causing parasites of mammals. They are treated as four distinct subfamilies in the Oestridae.Missing: taxonomic classification
[9]
[PDF] A Checklist of the Bot Flies (Diptera: Oestridae) of British Columbia
The Family Oestridae (Bot Flies) consists of about 150 species of parasitic flies living across much of the world; it is most diverse in Africa and central ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[10]
Phylogeny of Oestridae (Insecta: Diptera) - Pape - 2001
Dec 21, 2001 · Monophyly of Oestridae The concept of the bot flies as a monophyletic taxon within the Tachinidae family group (or Oestroidea) has been ...
[11]
[PDF] 3 Phylogeny and Evolution of Bot Flies - CABI Digital Library
With only some 150 extant species, the bot flies can hardly be considered successful in terms of sheer numbers. Animal parasitism may in itself contribute ...
[12]
Bot Flies - Livestock Veterinary Entomology
The Hypoderma spp. are referred to as Cattle Grubs (discussed on their own), Oestrus ovis is the sheep nose bot and the Gasterophilus intestinalis attack horses ...Missing: key Dermatobia Cuterebra
[13]
Bot Flies - Missouri Department of Conservation
It does not visit humans directly; instead, the female human botfly sticks her eggs to the body of a mosquito or a tick, and the eggs or newly hatched young are ...
[14]
DPDx - Myiasis - CDC
Flies in the genera Cuterebra, Oestrus and Wohlfahrtia are animal parasites that also occasionally infect humans. Lifecycle. Adults of Dermatobia hominis are ...Missing: key Hypoderma Gasterophilus
[15]
Botfly - Entomologists' glossary
Botfly is the common name given to true flies within the family Oestridae. There are around 150 species of botfly. The larvae of these flies are parasitic ...Missing: diversity | Show results with:diversity
[16]
Bot Flies and Warble Flies (Order Diptera: Family Oestridae)
The family Oestridae embraces about 170 dipteran species belonging to 29 genera grouped into four subfamilies: Cuterebrinae, Gasterophilinae, Hypodermatinae ...
[17]
Cuterebra - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
New World Skin Bot Flies (Cuterebrinae) There are two genera and 58 species in this subfamily of bot flies, all restricted to the Western Hemisphere. The ...
[18]
[PDF] Study of the characteristics of the Oestridae family (Muscoidea ...
Taxonomy. Class: Insecta, Order: Diptera, Superfamily: Oestroidea, Family: Oestridae, Subfamilies: Cuterebrinae, Gasterophilinae,. Hypodermatinae and ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[19]
Hypoderma spp - Integumentary System - Merck Veterinary Manual
Two species—Hypoderma bovis and Hypoderma lineatum—are economically important and primary parasites affecting cattle and water buffalo.Missing: Hypodermatinae | Show results with:Hypodermatinae
[20]
The family Oestridae in Egypt and Saudi Arabia (Diptera, Oestroidea)
Flies in the subfamily Oestrinae are known as nasopharyngeal bot flies; they are host specific and cause obligatory myiasis in many animal species.
[21]
[PDF] 1 Introduction - CABI Digital Library
The Oestridae is a family of true flies in the superfamily Oestroidea (Diptera). It is a relatively small family, with only some 151 species in 28 genera ...
[22]
Tree Squirrel Bot Fly, Cuterebra emasculator Fitch (Insecta: Diptera
The tree squirrel bot fly is one of some 30 species of Cuterebra native to the Americas, five of which are found in Florida.
[23]
Genus Cuterebra - Rodent and Lagomorph Bot Flies - BugGuide.Net
... Numbers · Size · Identification · Range · Habitat · Life ... North American Species of Cuterebra, the Rabbit and Rodent Bot Flies (Diptera: Cuterebridae)
[24]
Morphology of adult Oestridae. | The oestrid flies - CABI Digital Library
Publication: The oestrid flies: biology, host-parasite relationships, impact and management ... This chapter provides a morphological description of adult ...
[25]
Sheep Bot Fly Oestrus ovis Linnaeus (1761) (Insecta: Diptera
Apr 2, 2020 · Sheep bot fly adults have a dark gray hairy body with dull-yellow head and legs (Figures 1 and 6). The wings are transparent and membranous, ...Missing: morphology | Show results with:morphology
[26]
The antenna of horse stomach bot flies: morphology and ... - Nature
Oct 5, 2016 · Gasterophilus Leach (horse stomach bot flies) is a relatively small genus that contains eight species worldwide. These species are obligate ...
[27]
Cuterebra fontinella | INFORMATION - Animal Diversity Web
Sexual Dimorphism; female larger; sexes colored or patterned differently. Range length: 15.5 to 19 mm: 0.61 to 0.75 in. Average wingspan: 13 mm: 0.51 in ...
[28]
Evaluation of physiological strategy - OSU Wordpress
The integumentary system of the bot fly larvae acts as a primary defense against the host immune system. Development of a thick pro- and epicuticle, insoluble ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[29]
Hypoderma bovis and H. lineatum - Learn About Parasites
Third-stage larvae of Hypoderma located beneath the skin of the backs of cattle are also robust, measure up to approximately 30 mm in length, and have ...Missing: botfly trumpets
[30]
Bot flies (Diptera: Ostridae) - OSU Wordpress
After feeding on the host's tissue and completing three instars of development, the larva emerges from the warble, wanders to a suitable pupation site, and ...
[31]
Three-dimensional characterization of first instar ... - Oxford Academic
Dec 29, 2020 · They possess diversified morphological adaptations, providing remarkable examples to further our understanding of larval evolution.<|separator|>
[32]
Overview of Cattle Grubs - Integumentary System
Life Cycle of Hypoderma spp · Hypoderma flies are ~15 mm long, hairy, and bee-like in appearance. · H lineatum deposits eggs in rows of 3–10; · H bovis deposits ...Missing: botfly trumpets morphology
[33]
Botfly - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
First-stage Hypoderma larvae have been found migrating aberrantly through the brain of horses, and Cuterebra larvae, normally parasites of rodents and ...
[34]
Horse Bot Fly - Field Guide to Common Texas Insects
They are blunt at one (the back) end, and taper to the other (front) end which bears a pair of strong, hook-like mouthparts. Each body segment is ringed with ...Missing: adaptations | Show results with:adaptations<|separator|>
[35]
Cuterebra species — rabbit bot - Learn About Parasites
Adult Cuterebra are free living, and the larvae occur in a wide range of mammals, including occasionally people, in many parts of the world, including Canada.
[36]
Cuterebriasis - Companion Animal Parasite Council
Jul 28, 2020 · There are some 34 accepted species of Cuterebra in North America. · These flies undergo a period of obligatory parasitic larval development in ...
[37]
ENY-284/IG136: Horse Bots
Female bot flies lay from 150–1,000 yellowish eggs. The common bot fly glues eggs to the hairs of the forelegs. The throat bot lays eggs under the chin and ...
[38]
Hypoderma bovis - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Females do not feed and a single female may lay as many as 300–600 eggs during its life of only a few days. Eggs are deposited, most commonly on the lower ...
[39]
Sheep Nasal Bot Myiasis - Respiratory System
Larvae of the sheep nasal botfly (Oestrus ovis) develop in the nasal sinuses of sheep. Signs of infestation include nasal discharge and sneezing.
[40]
Oestridae): the bot fly parasitizing the Iberian ibex, Capra pyrenaica
Apr 11, 2025 · Oestrids (Oestridae), also known as nasal/pharyngeal bots, are obligate parasites of mammals in the larval stage. Females of the subfamily ...Larvae Collection And... · Results And Discussion · Mitogenome Of Oestrus Sp
[41]
Dermatobia - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Dermatobia hominis glues its eggs to a mosquito, which serves as an intermediate vector. Cordylobia anthropophaga, the mango fly, tumbu fly, putzi fly, or skin ...Missing: mechanism | Show results with:mechanism
[42]
Dermatobia hominis 'the human botfly' presenting as a scalp lesion
Mar 8, 2019 · It causes a localised, itchy, erythematous raised skin lesion. The larva may occasionally be visualised protruding through a central punctum. A ...
[43]
Furuncular myiasis caused by Dermatobia hominis, the human botfly
Aug 5, 2025 · Blood-suckling arthropods, usually mosquitoes, transmit the larvae of the botfly via phoresis, a unique mechanism of egg deposition. In ...
[44]
Common Cattle Grub, Hypoderma lineatum (Villers) (Insecta: Diptera
Females deposit a row of six or more eggs per hair. The flies are very persistent in approaching the host animals, and one female may lay 800 eggs on one ...
[45]
Gasterophilus intestinalis - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Eggs produced in the cysts are extruded through a pore in the brood pouch to the gastric lumen. The eggs pass out with the feces and are consumed by fly larvae ...Missing: deposition | Show results with:deposition
[46]
Stomach Bots (Gasterophilus species) - Equiimed
Stomach bots are bot fly larvae, not worms, that lay eggs on horse hairs. They migrate to the stomach and are typically benign, with minimal impact.
[47]
Cattle Grub (Heel Fly) - Livestock Veterinary Entomology
Hypoderma bovis prefers active cattle while H. lineatum prefer to find standing or resting hosts. The eggs will incubate for 3-7 days before the larvae emerge.
[48]
https://livestockvetento.tamu.edu/insectspests/cattle-grub-heel-fly/
[49]
Taxonomic review of Gasterophilus (Oestridae ... - ZooKeys
Nov 21, 2019 · A taxonomic review of Gasterophilus is presented, with nine valid species, 51 synonyms and misspellings for the genus and the species, ...Genus Gasterophilus · Gasterophilus Intestinalis... · Gasterophilus Nasalis...
[50]
Warble development by the rodent bot Cuterebra fontinella (diptera
Warbles induced by the rodent bot fly larvae, Cuterebra fontinella, developed over a period of 3.5–4 weeks in the deer mouse Peromyscus maniculatus.
[51]
[PDF] Biology and Control of Cattle Grubs - UNL Digital Commons
The structure and function of Hypoderma spp. eggs have been described (51) with emphasis on the specialized basal attachment organ. LARVAE. In-depth ...
[52]
Gasterophilus - Learn About Parasites
Morphology. Adult Gasterophilus species are large flies, measuring up to approximately 2 cm in length, and are bee-like, brown with a hairy head and thorax.Missing: flightless | Show results with:flightless
[53]
Cuterebra (Botfly) or Warbles in Cats - VCA Animal Hospitals
After about a month of living in the host's skin, the larvae crawl out to pupate (develop into a pupa, or immobile cocoon-like stage) in loose soil, debris, or ...
[54]
Ecobiology of the sheep nose bot fly (Oestrus ovis L.): A review
Aug 6, 2025 · Temperature is the main environmental factor regulating the life cycle of this organism during both the parasitic and free phases. First-stage ...
[55]
Cuterebra buccata | INFORMATION - Animal Diversity Web
Larvae then metamorphose into pupae and remain underground for several months before emerging as adult flies. Rabbit bot flies can be found on the edges of ...
[56]
Oestridae | Beetles In The Bush
Feb 10, 2012 · The larvae spend roughly one month in the host. Upon completion of the third instar, the larva exits the host, digs into the soil, and pupates.Missing: cylindrical sclerotized posterior spiracles
[57]
Cutaneous myiasis caused by Dermatobia hominis (Diptera
Mar 29, 2024 · The species is mainly distributed throughout warmer, lowland areas covered with forest [4, 5], and it is the most common cause of myiasis among ...
[58]
Whatever happened to cattle grubs? - MWI Animal Health
Sep 24, 2021 · It takes about a year for cattle grubs to complete their metamorphosis from eggs, larval stages, pupae, and then adult warble flies. It takes ...
[59]
Gasterophilus - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Gasterophilus is a genus of botflies whose larvae cause gasterophiliasis in horses, with larvae developing in the stomach and intestines.
[60]
Oestrus Ovis - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Oestrus ovis larvae (nasal bots) are obligatory parasites of the nasal and sinus cavities of sheep and goats. Infestation is prevalent in hot and dry regions, ...
[61]
[PDF] oestrus ovis infestation in siieep of semi-arid zone of nigeria
The sheep nasal bot fly Oestrus ovis is widely distributed in most tropical countries affecting a large number of sheep (Abul-Hab, 1970; Kettle, 1973; ...
[62]
Human myiasis in Ecuador - PMC - PubMed Central - NIH
Feb 21, 2020 · Infestation occurred in the Andes region at 2,418 m, 80 km from Quito, the capital. ... hominivorax abounds in the foothills of the western Andes ...
[63]
Dermatobia hominis | INFORMATION - Animal Diversity Web
Geographic Range. Dermatobia hominis are endemic to the highlands of Central and South America. Their range extends from southern Mexico to northern Argentina.
[64]
Hypoderma lineatum | INFORMATION - Animal Diversity Web
Hypoderma lineatum ranges throughout North America, from Northern Canada to Northern Mexico. It is also found in Asia, Europe, and Africa.
[65]
Gasterophilus - Wikipedia
Gasterophilus intestinalis (horse botfly) – ranges worldwide and primarily infects horses, mules and donkeys. Gasterophilus meridionalis – ranges Afrotropical ...
[66]
Bot Flies [fact sheet] - UNH Extension
Bot flies comprise the family Cuterebridae, and are parasites that attack mammals. Their larvae live inside living mammals. We have three species of them in ...<|separator|>
[67]
Fascinatingly Gross Botfly Facts - ThoughtCo
Aug 31, 2024 · The botfly life cycle always involves a mammalian host. Adult flies mate and then the female deposits up to 300 eggs. She might lay eggs ...
[68]
The impact of temperature on the life cycle of Gasterophilus ...
Mar 1, 2021 · Under the higher temperatures of peak II, the adults developing from the larvae had a higher survival rate, higher pupation rate, higher emergence rate and ...
[69]
Botfly infections impair the aerobic performance and survival of ...
Jan 5, 2019 · As evidence mounts that botflies and other parasites and pathogens continue to expand their range to higher elevations with increasing global ...
[70]
Epidemiological Surveillance of Hypodermosis in Cattle from Romania
Aug 24, 2023 · Hypodermosis, or warble fly, is an endemic parasitic disease, common in countries from the northern hemisphere. The use of effective ...
[71]
Assesment of Hypoderma infestation in a wild population of Cervus ...
Oct 31, 2023 · The main host of Hypoderma diana is the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) but can also parasitize a wide range of hosts, Cervus elaphus (red deer), ...
[72]
Insights into the Antennal Characteristics and Olfactory Strategy of ...
An astonishing feature of these parasitic flies is their ability to detect host-derived chemical cues [10,11,12], which allows the obligate parasitic bot flies ...
[73]
Furuncular Myiasis Caused by the Third-Instar Larva of a Bot Fly in ...
Sep 21, 2022 · Most human cases of cuterebriasis from North America have been documented in the East and the Pacific Northwest. Associated risk factors are ...
[74]
Feline cuterebrosis caused by a lagomorph-infesting Cuterebra spp ...
Native species of rodents and lagomorphs in the Americas are the typical hosts of Cuterebra spp. larvae. Although these bot flies are relatively host specific, ...
[75]
Identification of Hypoderma actaeon (Diptera: Oestridae) in red deer ...
Hypoderma actaeon is a typical parasite of red deer (Cervus elaphus) and is considered strictly host‐specific (Brauer, 1863).Missing: reservoirs | Show results with:reservoirs
[76]
Cuterebra Infestation in Small Animals - Integumentary System
In the target host, the larvae enter the body through the mouth or nares during grooming or, less commonly, through open wounds. Cuterebral larval size varies ...Missing: entry | Show results with:entry
[77]
Gastrointestinal Parasites of Minor Clinical Importance in Horses
Adult females can sometimes be observed in the horse's feces and, because of their stout appearance (length 5–10 cm), can be mistaken for ascarids. However ...Gasterophilus Spp In Horses · Habronema Spp In Horses · Oxyuris Equi In HorsesMissing: flightless | Show results with:flightless<|control11|><|separator|>
[78]
Gasterophilus nasalis - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
They are swallowed and live in the glandular stomach and duodenum. Both species attach to the mucosa via their anterior pincers. The larvae pass in the feces, ...
[79]
bot fly larvae: Topics by Science.gov
In this research, we investigated the olfactory cues routing host location behavior of P. concolor towards B. oleae larvae infesting three different olive ...
[80]
ENY-290/IN979: Cattle Grub Management
Decreases in milk yield due to the presence and infestation with cattle grubs are estimated at 10–30% of the normal yield. In the 1980s the economic loss due to ...Missing: botfly clinical
[81]
Prevalence and Associated Risk Factors of Ovine Oestrosis in Dendi ...
Feb 15, 2022 · The pathogenic effects cause a reduction in production and serious economic losses, which have been estimated at 1.1–4.6 kg of meat, 200–500 ...
[82]
Cutaneous myiasis - DermNet
The papule later becomes a furuncular-like (boil-like) nodule with a central pore through which the organism breathes. Occasionally the tail end of the larva ...
[83]
Human botfly infestation: the tip of the iceberg - PMC - PubMed Central
Dec 19, 2014 · The female human Botfly lays her eggs on the body of an intermediate host, usually a mosquito, or fly, which acts as a vector onto the human ...
[84]
Botfly Myiasis - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The larval stage of the human botfly life cycle occurs within mammalian or avian soft tissue. The vector for botfly egg implantation is usually a blood-sucking ...Skin Problems · Transient Ectoparasites · Dermatoses
[85]
Hypoderma spp - Integumentary System - MSD Veterinary Manual
Treatment and Control of Hypodermiasis. Systemic insecticides containing macrocyclic lactones (doramectin, eprinomectin, ivermectin, or moxidectin) in pour-on ...
[86]
Treatment and control of bovine hypodermosis with ivermectin long ...
Oct 18, 2016 · The results from this study demonstrate that ivermectin in a long-acting formulation is 100 % efficacious in the treatment of cattle naturally infested by H. ...
[87]
Fly Control Considerations for Cattle on Pasture - SDSU Extension
Sep 9, 2022 · Instead, rotate between MOA groups each year or even during the fly season. Mode of action groups include organophosphates (Group 1B) ...
[88]
https://madbarn.com/botflies-in-horses/
[89]
Warble fly control in Europe - Publications Office of the EU
Aug 2, 1996 · National control and eradication programmes are beginning to have an impact in many European countries, reducing the economic losses due to ...<|separator|>
[90]
Warble Fly - a UK success story - Leather International
Sep 4, 2006 · It was considered to have been totally eradicated in the UK by 1990. As a consequence, the compulsory treatment of cattle was lifted. Today, the ...
[91]
Warbles - State of Michigan
Warbles are the larval stage of the botfly, which characteristically infect rodents and rabbits. They are found under the skin, usually around the legs and neck ...
[92]
Cutaneous furuncular myiasis: Human infestation by the botfly - PMC
Symptoms of infestation include a locally painful, firm furuncular lesion, often with a centrally located pore.
[93]
Ultrasound Detection of Human Botfly Myiasis of the Scalp: A Case ...
Dec 4, 2020 · We present a case of botfly myiasis of the scalp in which ultrasound was utilized to visualize the larvae and confirm the diagnosis prior to larval removal.
[94]
Ultrasound Features of Cutaneous Furuncular Myiasis - PMC
Ultrasound is useful in the diagnostic workup and has specific features and techniques to demonstrate live larva. We present a patient who acquired cutaneous ...
[95]
Myiasis Treatment & Management - Medscape Reference
May 21, 2025 · A noninvasive approach, which involves placing petroleum jelly, liquid paraffin, beeswax or heavy oil, or bacon strips over the central punctum, has been ...
[96]
Human Botfly: A Case Report and Overview of Differential Diagnosis
Oct 7, 2018 · Dermatobia hominis, commonly known as human botfly, is found in Central and South America, from Mexico to Northern Argentina, excluding Chile. ...Missing: habitat | Show results with:habitat
[97]
Getting under your skin: botfly myiasis - PMC - PubMed Central
May 27, 2019 · Attempting to squeeze out the botfly is not advised as this can rupture the larva and cause an anaphylactic reaction.Missing: complications allergic superinfections
[98]
Ophthalmomyiasis Externa and Importance of Risk Factors, Clinical ...
Dec 11, 2023 · Nevertheless, in post-larval removal, it is advisable to provide anti-inflammatory drugs, antibiotics, and ivermectin, as they have been ...
[99]
Furuncular cutaneous myiasis after travel in South America
Oct 16, 2025 · Initial treatments with anti-inflammatory agents and antibiotics were ineffective. ... treatment of human myiasis [18]. While the outcome ...
[100]
Treating parasitic human botfly - Nursing2025
The infested arthropods deposit larvae from the eggs when they bite a human or other mammal. A botfly larva enters the host's skin through the bite wound or a ...
[101]
About Myiasis - CDC
Sep 13, 2024 · Myiasis is an infection of fly larva in human tissue. Signs and symptoms People infected with myiasis will develop a lump in their tissue as the larva grows.
[102]
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227819
[103]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304401715003246