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Cal

Cal Ripken Jr. (born August 24, 1960) is an American former professional baseball player who spent his entire 21-season career as a and third baseman for the Orioles from 1981 to 2001. Dubbed the "" for his extraordinary durability, Ripken established the all-time MLB record of 2,632 consecutive games played between 1982 and 1998, surpassing Lou Gehrig's longstanding mark of 2,130 on September 6, 1995. Among his other achievements, he won the Award twice (1983 and 1991), earned 19 All-Star selections, secured the AL Rookie of the Year in 1982, captured two Gold Glove Awards, and contributed to the Orioles' championship. Ripken amassed 3,184 hits, 431 home runs, and 1,695 runs batted in over his career, culminating in his 2007 induction into the Hall of Fame on the first ballot with 98.5% of the vote. Post-retirement, he has engaged in business ventures, philanthropy through the Cal Ripken, Sr. Foundation focused on youth development, and roles such as a board member for companies including .

Units and abbreviations

Calorie

The small calorie, denoted as cal or c, is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree under standard , typically at a reference temperature of 14.5°C to minimize variations due to water's specific heat anomalies. This unit originated in 19th-century research, building on earlier concepts where was treated as a fluid-like substance, though later mechanistic views emphasized equivalence. The large , denoted as Cal or kcal (kilocalorie), equals exactly 1,000 small calories and is the standard in nutritional contexts to quantify , reflecting the scale needed for human metabolic processes. Historically, the calorie emerged from efforts to quantify in engine efficiency studies during the , entering English dictionaries by 1840 as a for combustion . Precise definitions solidified in the mid-19th century, with Julius Robert von Mayer proposing a kilogram calorie (modern kcal) in 1848 based on physiological production, and further refinements by Favre and Silbermann in 1852 linking it to experiments. In modern standards, the international calorie is fixed at 4.1868 joules for steam table consistency, while the thermochemical calorie is exactly 4.184 joules, enabling conversions like 1 kcal = 4.184 kJ for precise calculations in physics and . In physics, the calorie facilitates first-principles computations of transfer, such as specific heat capacities in materials or work- equivalence in thermodynamic cycles, underpinning efficiency analyses in engines where input directly correlates to mechanical output via conservation laws. For human and diet, it measures gross from macronutrients—approximately 4 kcal per gram of or protein, and 9 kcal per gram of —though net metabolizable varies due to digestive inefficiencies, with empirical adjusted by Atwater factors (e.g., 4.27 kcal/g protein, 8.79 kcal/g ). Average daily caloric needs, derived from studies on reference adults (e.g., 77 kg male, 62 kg female), range from 1,900 kcal for sedentary women to 2,300 kcal for moderately active men, scaling with body mass, age, and activity via equations like Harris-Benedict for resting expenditure. These values reflect empirical data from controlled , confirming balance as the causal determinant of body weight stability absent pathological factors.

Caliber

Caliber, often abbreviated as "cal," denotes the nominal internal of a barrel's bore or a , serving as a key metric in and . This measurement determines the compatible size, influencing factors such as chamber , , and trajectory . In rifled barrels, caliber is typically specified as the across the lands (the raised portions between grooves), though some contexts reference the groove-to-groove for in final . The term "caliber" traces its etymological roots to the qālib (meaning "mold" or "form"), adopted into European languages via calibro by the , when it began standardizing bore measurements amid early modern ordnance practices. During this period, as and production scaled for military campaigns, empirical gauging of bore —using tools like —emerged to ensure projectile fit and reduce misfires, evolving from inconsistent medieval casting to more uniform imperial standards. By the , naval and land further refined caliber as both a unit and a barrel length multiplier (e.g., calibers denoting multiples of bore ), prioritizing causal reliability in and accuracy over designs. Calibers are expressed in inches (hundredths or thousandths, e.g., .45 cal for 0.45 inches or approximately 11.43 mm) or directly in millimeters, with the choice reflecting regional conventions— for many designs and metric for ones. Nominal values approximate the intended bore size, but actual dimensions incorporate manufacturing tolerances (e.g., groove depth adding 0.001–0.003 inches), verified through standards like those from the Sporting Arms and Ammunition Manufacturers' Institute (SAAMI), which specify chamber and bore parameters for interchangeability and safety. These distinctions ensure projectiles seal properly against for , mitigating risks like excessive pressure buildup or keyholing ( tumbling), as tighter fits enhance gas containment while looser ones risk instability—empirically validated in ballistic testing for consistent performance across variances.

California

"Cal" or "Cal." serves as an informal abbreviation for the U.S. state of , appearing in historical postal notations and casual references since the mid-19th century. This shorthand emerged alongside the of 1848–1855, which spurred rapid settlement and the push for statehood. achieved statehood as the 31st U.S. state on September 9, 1850, bypassing territorial status through the Compromise of 1850. The official two-letter postal code is "CA," but "Cal." persists in contexts like addresses and institutional names from the era. Covering 163,696 square miles (423,970 km²), exhibits extreme geographic diversity, spanning Pacific coastline, the fertile Central Valley, mountains rising to 14,505 feet at Mount Whitney, and arid deserts in the east and southeast. The state's topography includes over 800 miles of coastline and the lowest point in the contiguous U.S. at (-282 feet). As of 2024 estimates, California's population stands at 39,431,263, making it the most populous despite recent net domestic out-migration. California's , with a 2024 gross domestic product of approximately $4.1 trillion, ranks as the fourth-largest globally if considered independent, surpassing Japan's according to data cited by state officials. dominates output with $59 billion in annual value, leading U.S. production in , fruits, nuts, and as the top exporter of products. The sector contributes $542.5 billion in direct impact, comprising 16.7% of the state centered in . Energy production includes leadership in utility-scale geothermal (70% of U.S. total in 2024) and renewables, accounting for diverse sources amid the state's variable terrain.

Calendar

The abbreviation "cal." serves as shorthand for "" in bibliographic, historical, and scientific references, aiding precise chronological documentation by distinguishing calendar-based timelines from other methods. In archaeological and radiometric contexts, it appears in terms like "cal BP" (calibrated years , benchmarked to 1950 ) or "cal AD/BC," which adjust raw data—such as uncalibrated radiocarbon ages—to align with years accounting for atmospheric variations in levels. This notation underscores the empirical necessity of curves derived from tree rings and ice cores to map isotopic measurements onto actual elapsed time. Historical calendars evolved to track Earth's orbital period, with the employing a 365.25-day year that overestimated the —the interval between vernal equinoxes, measured at approximately 365.2422 days—resulting in a drift of about one day every 128 years. The , enacted via in , addressed this by suppressing ten days in (skipping from the 4th to the 15th) in adopting regions and adjusting leap rules to omit them in century years not divisible by 400, thereby reducing annual error to one day per 3,300 years. Adoption occurred first in Catholic in , with Protestant and areas following variably over centuries due to religious and political resistance. Contemporary digital calendars standardize on the Gregorian framework under , which mandates formats like YYYY-MM-DD for dates to ensure machine-readable, unambiguous representation tied to the extended backward. This facilitates cross-system compatibility in computing and data interchange, reflecting the calendar's causal grounding in astronomical observations rather than arbitrary conventions.

Personal names

Given name

Cal is predominantly a masculine or in English-speaking countries, most frequently employed as a of longer names including Calvin, Callum, and Caleb. As a standalone name, it appears infrequently in official records, with its usage tied to informal shortenings rather than independent registration. The name Calvin, from which Cal commonly derives, originates from the Latin calvus, meaning "bald" or "hairless," reflecting a descriptive that evolved into a and in and English contexts. , another source, stems from calum, a form of the Latin Columba meaning "dove," symbolizing peace and often linked to early Christian naming traditions. For , Cal serves as a rooted in the Hebrew kālev (כָּלֵב), literally denoting "" but traditionally interpreted in biblical contexts as implying faithfulness or wholehearted devotion due to folk etymologies combining elements for "whole heart." These derivations highlight Cal's practical role as a concise, versatile abbreviation rather than a name with independent ancient origins. U.S. data on related full names like Calvin indicate peak usage in the early , particularly the and , aligning with broader trends in naming before declining post-mid-century.

Notable individuals

Calvin Coolidge (1872–1933), nicknamed "Silent Cal," served as the 30th from August 2, 1923, to March 4, 1929, succeeding upon his death. A from , Coolidge emphasized fiscal restraint, vetoing farm relief and other spending bills while reducing federal taxes and the national debt from $22.3 billion to $16.9 billion during his tenure. His administration prioritized business prosperity and intervention, contributing to in the . Cal Ripken Jr. (born August 24, 1960) holds the record for the most consecutive games played, with 2,632 games from April 30, 1982, to September 19, 1998, surpassing Lou Gehrig's previous mark of 2,130. Playing his entire 21-season career with the Baltimore Orioles, he accumulated 3,184 hits, 431 home runs, and 1,695 RBIs, earning two Most Valuable Player awards in 1983 and 1991, along with 19 selections. Ripken also set the record for home runs with 345. Cal Hubbard (1900–1977), born Robert Calvin Hubbard, was a pioneering offensive tackle in the , playing for teams including the and from 1927 to 1936. Inducted as a charter member of the in 1963, he was also enshrined in the in 1951 and the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1978 for his umpiring career, making him the only individual in both football and baseball halls. At 6 feet 2 inches and 250 pounds, Hubbard's speed and strength revolutionized the tackle position. Cal Thomas (born December 2, 1942) is an American conservative syndicated columnist whose work has appeared in over 600 newspapers since 1984, authoring more than 20 books on and . A veteran of , including roles at and , Thomas critiques progressive policies and advocates traditional values, with columns distributed by .

Geographical places

United States

California, a state on the Pacific coast of the , has been traditionally abbreviated as "Cal." or "Calif." since the 19th century. Admitted to the Union on September 9, 1850, as the 31st state, it encompasses 163,696 square miles of land area and borders to the north, and to the east, and to the south. The state's diverse geography includes coastal plains, central valleys, mountains, and regions, supporting a of approximately 39.5 million residents as recorded in the 2020 census. California City, informally known as Cal City, is a municipality in Kern County, situated in the northern of the , approximately 100 miles north of . Established in the late as a with expansive street grids intended for rapid growth, it covers 203.65 square miles, making it the third-largest city in by land area despite low development . The 2020 population was around 14,000, predominantly in the eastern developed portion, with coordinates near 35°07′N 117°51′W; the area features off-road and proximity to but remains sparsely populated outside core zones. Smaller locales bearing the name California exist elsewhere, such as in , a home rule-class city with a 2020 of 83 along the . These are distinct from the California state shorthand and lack widespread "Cal" nicknames.

International

Islet, known in as Ilhéu da or Ilhéu de Baixo, is an uninhabited rocky outcrop located approximately 500 meters south of in the Archipelago, an autonomous region of . The islet features caves and was historically significant for its rich deposits, which were quarried for lime production. Its name derives from the word "cal," meaning lime (), reflecting these geological resources. Çal is a district and municipality in , southwestern , covering an area of 860 km² with a of 17,889 as of 2022. The district's is integrated with Denizli's broader industrial base, particularly textiles, alongside focused on , fruits, and emerging . Etymological origins of the name Çal remain uncertain, potentially linked to Turkish roots associated with the verb "çal," denoting actions like striking or playing, though no definitive historical attestation ties it directly to the place.

Education and organizations

Universities and schools

The , commonly referred to as "Cal," was established in 1868 as the original campus of the University of California system, inheriting assets from the private College of California and relocating to its current Berkeley site by 1873. As the flagship institution, it retains the historic nickname "Cal," derived from its early identity as simply the University of California before the system's expansion, though this usage has sparked occasional tension with other UC campuses seeking to avoid implying Berkeley's exclusivity over the broader "UC" brand. With approximately 33,070 undergraduates and 12,812 graduate students enrolled as of recent data, Berkeley ranks fifth globally in the 2025 (ARWU) and 12th in the 2026, reflecting its strengths in research output and academic reputation. Berkeley has produced or hosted 22 Nobel laureates among its faculty, spanning fields like physics, chemistry, and economics, with contributions including foundational work in and . Its research enterprise generates over $1 billion in industry-sponsored funding and has spurred more than 300 startups through , while the UC system as a whole leads U.S. public universities in utility patents granted. The , known as Caltech, originated in 1891 as Throop University in Pasadena, evolving into a premier and institute under leaders like and Robert A. Millikan. Ranking ninth in the 2025 ARWU and highly in QS metrics for employer reputation and citations per faculty, Caltech emphasizes small-scale, intensive research with a focus on physics, astronomy, and engineering. It manages the (JPL), founded in 1936 by Caltech faculty for rocket propulsion experiments and now a center overseeing robotic space missions, underscoring its pivotal role in federal research funding tied to innovation.

Businesses and other organizations

Continental Airlines traded on the under the ticker symbol CAL until its merger with . The merger, valued at $8.5 billion, closed on October 1, 2010, creating United Continental Holdings Inc. as the world's largest airline by . Cal-Maine Foods, Inc., incorporated in 1969 and headquartered in , is the largest producer and distributor of shell eggs in the United States, operating approximately 44 facilities with over 48 million laying hens. The company reported sales of $572.3 million in 2004 and trades under the ticker CALM on . As of October 2025, its stands at $4.36 billion. Copyright Agency Limited (CAL), an not-for-profit , facilitates licensing for the reproduction and communication of ed textual and artistic works, distributing royalties to creators. Established as a collecting society, it serves educational institutions, governments, and businesses through statutory and voluntary licenses.

Science, technology, and software

Scientific terms

In physics, the Cold Atom Laboratory (CAL) is a multi-user experimental facility developed by and installed on the to investigate ultracold quantum gases in microgravity. Launched aboard CRS-15 on May 21, 2018, CAL employs and magnetic trapping to produce Bose-Einstein condensates of rubidium-87 and potassium-39 atoms at temperatures below 100 picokelvin, enabling prolonged observation of quantum phenomena unattainable under terrestrial gravity. These experiments probe fundamental questions in , such as and in expanded atomic clouds, with findings published in peer-reviewed journals demonstrating novel behaviors like persistent currents in ring-shaped condensates. In chemistry, calomel denotes mercury(I) chloride (Hg₂Cl₂), a white, insoluble compound synthesized by reacting mercury with mercuric chloride and historically applied in analytical electrochemistry as the basis for the saturated calomel electrode (SCE). This reference electrode, consisting of Hg|Hg₂Cl₂|KCl(sat.), provides a stable potential of +0.241 V versus the standard hydrogen electrode at 25°C, facilitating precise measurements in potentiometric titrations and pH determinations due to its low solubility product and minimal junction potential variability. While toxicological concerns have reduced its modern use, calomel's role persists in specialized voltammetric setups where chloride tolerance is required. In mathematical , CAL serves as a mnemonic proposed for structuring problem-solving: recognizing the need for (C), approximating via incremental methods (A), and evaluating the (L). Introduced in educational literature, this framework aids students in distinguishing from algebraic approaches, emphasizing conceptual steps over rote computation, though it remains a teaching rather than a formal mathematical .

Software and computing acronyms

Client Access License (CAL) is a Microsoft licensing requirement for accessing services from server software such as Windows Server, granting rights to users or devices for functions like file sharing and remote desktop services. This model, formalized with Windows Server 2003 in 2003, mandates CALs in addition to the server license itself, with options for User CALs—licensing individuals across multiple devices—or Device CALs, licensing specific hardware regardless of user. Businesses must maintain compliance by matching CAL counts to concurrent or named users/devices, influencing IT procurement strategies and contributing to Microsoft's revenue through additive licensing for features like Enterprise CAL Suites. In 2025, Microsoft raised prices for CAL suites by 15-20%, prompting enterprises to reassess on-premises deployments amid shifts toward cloud alternatives, though the model persists for hybrid environments due to its granularity in access control. Computer-Assisted Learning (CAL) denotes educational methodologies leveraging computers for interactive instruction, tracing origins to 1963 experiments in computer-assisted instruction (CAI) at , where mainframe systems delivered drill-and-practice exercises. Gaining traction in the with personal computers, CAL evolved into systems supporting content, simulations, and adaptive algorithms that adjust difficulty based on learner performance, fostering individualized pacing over uniform classroom delivery. Adoption rates surged post-, with studies indicating improved retention in subjects like through immediate loops, though outcomes depend on and instructor integration rather than alone. This paradigm influenced edtech markets, enabling scalable remote learning but highlighting disparities in access for under-resourced institutions. Continuous Acquisition and Life-cycle Support (CALS) constitutes a U.S. Department of Defense framework, launched in the , to digitize technical data exchange for military systems acquisition and , originally under the moniker Computer-Aided Support. It standardizes formats like CAD files and electronic to integrate suppliers, reducing paper-based inefficiencies and lifecycle costs in software and sustainment. By the 1990s, CALS implementation across programs like yielded measurable efficiencies, such as faster among contractors, though GAO audits noted variable adoption due to challenges. In software contexts, it underpins tools for and , impacting industry contracts by mandating digital-native processes over legacy methods.

Sports

Teams and athletes

The represent the , in NCAA Division I athletics as members of the Atlantic Coast Conference across 30 varsity sports. The program has accumulated over 100 team national championships in 15 sports, including dominant success in with 27 College Rugby Association of America Division 1A titles, the most recent in May 2025. In men's , the Golden Bears won the 1959 NCAA Championship and reached three Final Fours overall. Calvin "Cal" Ripken Jr. stands as a prominent athlete bearing the name, playing for the from 1981 to 2001 and establishing MLB's for consecutive at 2,632, spanning May 30, 1982, to September 19, 1998. Ripken earned American League Rookie of the Year in 1982, followed by awards in 1983—when the won the —and 1991, along with All-Star Game that year. He amassed 3,184 hits, 431 home runs (a at the time), and 1,695 over his career, securing 19 All-Star selections and induction into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 2007 on his first ballot.

Arts and entertainment

Fictional characters

In John Steinbeck's novel East of Eden, published in 1952, Caleb "Cal" Trask serves as one of the protagonists, the darker twin son of Adam Trask who grapples with paternal rejection in favor of his brother Aron and seeks redemption through business ventures during World War I-era Salinas Valley. The character embodies internal conflict over inherited moral failings from his mother Cathy, ultimately pursuing self-forgiveness via the Hebrew concept of timshel (thou mayest). James Dean portrayed Cal in the 1955 film adaptation directed by Elia Kazan, emphasizing his brooding intensity and quest for paternal approval. Dr. Cal Lightman is the lead character in the television series , which aired from 2009 to 2011 across three seasons, depicted as a British-American and founder of the Lightman Group who detects by analyzing facial microexpressions and involuntary nonverbal cues. Inspired by real deception expert Paul Ekman's research, Lightman consults for and private clients on cases involving and behavioral analysis, often employing extreme methods to elicit truths. played Lightman, highlighting his personal volatility stemming from a troubled family background. In the episodes "" and "" from series 4, broadcast on June 21 and June 28, 2008, respectively, CAL denotes Charlotte Abigail Lux, the youngest daughter of archaeologist Felman Lux whose dying consciousness was digitized and integrated into the planet's core computer system to preserve her life. As a virtual node, CAL interfaces with the and , managing data shadows of deceased patrons while trapped in a simulated reality, ultimately sacrificing her existence to save 4,022 lives by expelling the Vashta Nerada threat. The child actress Eve Newton provided CAL's physical portrayal in archival family footage sequences.

Media works

"Cal" is a novel by Northern Irish author , first published in 1983 by Blackstaff Press and . The story centers on Cal McCluskey, a young Catholic man in reluctantly involved in activities during , who grapples with guilt after participating in the kidnapping and murder of a and subsequently falls in love with the victim's widow. The narrative explores themes of violence, remorse, and entrapment amid sectarian conflict, blending elements of and romance genres. It became a best-selling work, reflecting MacLaverty's critique of republican violence as damaging to identity. The novel received critical acclaim for its portrayal of personal moral struggles within political turmoil, though some analyses note its hybrid structure invites readings of desire intertwined with disavowal of nationalist ideals. It has been described as a for the self-destructive impact of on claimed . A titled "Cal," directed by Pat O'Connor, was released in 1984, starring John Lynch as Cal and as the widow Marcella. The screenplay closely follows the novel's plot, depicting Cal's guilt-ridden desire to escape IRA involvement while developing a with the woman whose husband he helped kill. Filmed primarily in Ireland, it emphasizes the tragic human cost of the conflict over ideological justifications. The film earned Helen Mirren the award at the 1984 for her performance as the grieving widow. It received BAFTA nominations for (Mirren) and Most Promising Newcomer (Lynch) but won neither. Critically, it holds a 92% approval rating on based on contemporary reviews praising its compassionate handling of a fraught romance amid violence. The film grossed approximately $1 million in domestic returns.

Aviation

Airlines and codes

, the of , operates under the ICAO airline code CAL, IATA designator CI, and callsign Dynasty. Founded on December 16, 1959, with initial registered capital of TWD 400,000, a staff of 26, and a fleet comprising one and two PBY Catalina flying boats, the began charter services before transitioning to scheduled passenger operations in 1963. Headquartered at (TPE), it has grown into a full-service carrier serving international routes across , North America, Europe, and Oceania, with over 1,300 weekly flights to more than 95 destinations as of 2025. The airline's fleet has evolved significantly from its early piston-engine aircraft, incorporating jetliners such as 707s and 727s in the 1960s–1970s, followed by widebodies including McDonnell Douglas DC-10s, A300s, and 747s for long-haul expansion. By 2025, China Airlines maintains an active fleet of 84 aircraft, averaging 9.3 years in age, comprising 65 passenger jets (including 15 A350-900s, 19 777-300ERs, and 10 737-800s) and 18 freighters (primarily 777Fs), supporting both passenger and cargo operations with a focus on efficiency and range for trans-Pacific and trans-Atlantic flights. Major routes emphasize connectivity from TPE to key hubs, including North American cities such as (LAX), (SFO), (JFK), and (YVR); European destinations like (AMS), (FRA), and (FCO); and Asian points including (NRT/HND), (BKK), (SIN), and (HKG). These services, often in alliance with partners since joining in 2013, facilitate high-volume passenger traffic and cargo transport, with freighters extending reach to freight centers like (LGG) and Anchorage (ANC). China Airlines' safety record includes multiple fatal accidents in the and early , attributed in investigations to factors such as , maintenance issues, and structural failures, resulting in over 700 fatalities across incidents like Flight 140 (1994, runway crash, 264 deaths) and Flight 611 (, mid-air disintegration off , 225 deaths due to improper repairs). No fatal accidents have occurred since , reflecting operational reforms, including enhanced training and maintenance protocols, leading to a 5/7 AirlineRatings rating in 2024 and U.S. FAA Category 1 certification in 2022. Other aviation identifiers associated with "CAL" include the callsign used by (formerly CAL Cargo Air Lines), an Israeli cargo operator with ICAO code ICL, which conducts freighter services from (TLV) but is distinct from ' code usage. No major historical U.S. airlines, such as (ICAO COA), utilized CAL as a primary code, though minor entities like Cal Gulf Aviation have appeared in ancillary code lists without significant operational legacy.

Other uses

Miscellaneous terms

In Sanskrit, cal (चल्) is a verbal root of the first class conjugation, meaning to move, shake, tremble, or go, with forms such as calati (present indicative) and cacāla (perfect tense), as attested in classical dictionaries like the Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary. This root underlies derivations related to motion or agitation in Hindu philosophical and literary texts. In Tamil, cāl (சால்) denotes abundance, fullness, or extensiveness as a verb (e.g., to excel or be suitable), and as an adjective or adverb signifies great, much, or intensely, per Dravidian etymological reconstructions tracing to Proto-South Dravidian sāl-. In the Doctor Who television series, CAL expands to Charlotte Abigail Lux, the digitized consciousness of a terminally ill girl whose mind, uploaded by her family in the 51st century, powers the central AI of the Library planet's data core, as revealed in the 2008 episodes "Silence in the Library" and "Forest of the Dead."