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Cleaning agent

A cleaning agent is a substance, typically in the form of liquids, powders, sprays, or granules, designed to remove organic and inorganic contaminants such as dirt, body fluids, grease, oils, and stains from surfaces and objects through chemical and mechanical processes, often in combination with water.^[1] These agents function by lowering surface tension, emulsifying soils, and suspending particles to prevent redeposition, distinguishing them from disinfectants which primarily target microorganisms rather than physical removal.^[2] Cleaning agents encompass a variety of types based on their chemical composition and pH levels, including soaps, synthetic detergents, acidic cleaners, alkaline cleaners, and neutral cleaners, each suited to specific applications in household, industrial, healthcare, and preservation contexts.^[3] Soaps, derived from natural fats and oils, act as surfactants to emulsify oils but form insoluble scum in hard water, while synthetic detergents—developed as alternatives—use anionic, non-ionic, cationic, or amphoteric surfactants that perform effectively in varied water conditions without such drawbacks.^[3] Acidic agents (pH <7), containing compounds like phosphoric or hydrochloric acid, excel at dissolving mineral deposits and rust on surfaces like masonry, whereas alkaline agents (pH 9-12.5) with ingredients such as sodium carbonate or trisodium phosphate target organic soils like grease and waxes on hard surfaces.^[3] Neutral agents (pH ≈7) provide mild cleaning for delicate or waxed floors, minimizing damage while removing general dirt.^[3] The core components of most cleaning agents include surfactants for soil attraction and dispersion, chelating agents like EDTA or phosphates to bind metal ions in hard water, builders such as sodium silicate to soften water and maintain pH, and water as the primary solvent comprising 50-95% of the formulation.^[2] Historically, cleaning agents trace back to ancient soaps formed from animal fats and ashes, but synthetic detergents emerged in 1917 in Germany to overcome soap's limitations in hard water, evolving through milestones like the 1965 shift to biodegradable linear-chain surfactants and phosphate reductions in the 1970s-2000s to mitigate environmental eutrophication.^[4] Today, they are essential for hygiene in settings from homes to hospitals, though their use requires attention to safety, as alkaline and acidic types can pose skin hazards or surface damage if mishandled.^[3]

Overview and Classification

Definition and Principles

A cleaning agent is a substance or mixture, typically in the form of liquids, powders, sprays, or granules, designed to remove dirt, stains, and other unwanted contaminants from surfaces, fabrics, or equipment through chemical, physical, or mechanical processes.^[5] These agents facilitate the breakdown and detachment of soils such as dust, grease, minerals, and organic residues, enabling their suspension in a liquid medium for easy removal.^[6] The effectiveness of cleaning agents relies on their ability to interact with both the contaminant and the surface without causing damage, often combining water as a universal solvent with specialized additives.^[7] The use of cleaning agents traces back to ancient civilizations, with the earliest known formulation appearing around 2800 BCE in Babylon, where a mixture of animal fats boiled with wood ashes produced a primitive soap-like substance.^[8] This natural approach evolved over millennia, but a significant advancement occurred in the 20th century with the development of synthetic detergents, first pioneered during World War I in Germany due to fat shortages, leading to commercial products like Tide in 1946 that outperformed traditional soaps in hard water conditions.^[9] These innovations shifted cleaning from reliance on animal or vegetable fats to petroleum-based surfactants, expanding efficacy and versatility.^[8] At their core, cleaning agents operate through key principles involving specific chemical components. Surfactants, the primary active ingredients in chemical-based cleaners, enable emulsification by forming micelles that encapsulate hydrophobic soils like oils and greases, allowing them to mix with water.^[10] Solvents dissolve soluble contaminants directly, while acids and bases react with mineral deposits or saponify fats—acids dissolving calcium scales and bases neutralizing acidic soils.^[11] Oxidizers, such as hydrogen peroxide, break down organic matter by releasing oxygen to degrade stains and disinfect surfaces through oxidation reactions.^[12] These principles underpin the broader classifications of cleaning agents, including acidic, alkaline, neutral, abrasive, solvent-based, and enzymatic types, as detailed in subsequent sections.^[13] The basic mechanisms of action include wetting, dispersion, and rinsing. Wetting reduces the surface tension of water via surfactants, allowing the cleaning solution to spread and penetrate into crevices where soils adhere.^[5] Dispersion then separates soil particles from each other and the surface, preventing re-deposition by suspending them in the solution.^[10] Finally, rinsing flushes away the dispersed contaminants with clean water, ensuring no residues remain on the cleaned item.^[7]

Types of Cleaning Agents

Cleaning agents are classified primarily by their chemical composition and physical action, including detergents (surfactant-based), acidic and alkaline cleaners, abrasives, solvents, and enzymatic formulations, with details provided in later sections on chemical, mechanical, physical, and biological aspects.^[13]^[14] Detergents, often synthetic surfactants, are versatile for general cleaning and emulsify oils and greases. Acidic cleaners dissolve inorganic deposits like rust and scale, while alkaline cleaners target organic soils such as fats and proteins. Neutral cleaners use mild surfactants for delicate surfaces. Abrasives provide mechanical scouring through friction with fine particles like pumice or calcium carbonate, typically under 0.05 mm in size. Solvents, such as glycol ethers, dissolve organic contaminants like paints and oils without chemical reaction. Enzymatic cleaners employ biological catalysts like proteases and lipases to break down specific organic stains at lower temperatures.^[13]^[15] Many modern cleaning agents are hybrids, combining multiple types for improved performance, such as detergents with abrasives or enzymes.^[13] Selection of cleaning agent type depends on key factors including the surface material—delicate fabrics may require neutral or enzymatic agents to avoid damage, while hard surfaces suit abrasives or acids—the nature of contaminants, such as organic greases versus inorganic scales, and the application environment, like household settings favoring milder formulas over industrial ones needing stronger efficacy.^[13]^[16] Since the 2000s, there has been emphasis on eco-friendly and biodegradable agents, driven by regulations like the European Union's REACH framework, which entered into force in 2007 and mandates registration and restriction of hazardous chemicals to promote sustainable alternatives. As of 2025, trends include the development of bio-based surfactants derived from plant sugars and increased adoption of circular economy practices in formulations to further reduce environmental impact.^[17]^[18]

Chemical Composition

Acidic Agents

Acidic cleaning agents are chemical solutions with a low pH that effectively target inorganic contaminants such as mineral deposits, rust, and scale buildup by lowering the pH and facilitating dissolution or neutralization reactions. These agents work through proton donation, which breaks down alkaline residues and metal oxides that are resistant to other types of cleaners.^[19] Unlike milder neutral alternatives, acidic agents are designed for reactive cleaning of tough, acid-soluble soils, requiring careful handling to avoid material damage.^[7] Common acids used in these agents include hydrochloric acid (HCl), also known as muriatic acid, which is effective for rust removal on steel and iron surfaces due to its strong reactivity. Citric acid, derived naturally from citrus fruits, serves as a milder, biodegradable option for descaling tasks like removing limescale from appliances.^[20] Phosphoric acid is frequently employed for cleaning metal surfaces, as it not only dissolves rust but also leaves a protective phosphate layer to inhibit further corrosion. Sulfuric acid, often found in drain cleaners, provides aggressive action against organic and inorganic blockages in plumbing systems.^[21] The primary chemical reactions involve neutralization of alkaline soils and dissolution of metal oxides. For neutralization, hydrochloric acid reacts with calcium carbonate (a common mineral deposit) as follows:

\mathrm{CaCO_3 + 2HCl \rightarrow CaCl_2 + H_2O + CO_2}

This effervescent reaction releases carbon dioxide gas, aiding in the physical dislodgement of deposits.^[22] For rust dissolution, acids like phosphoric acid interact with iron(III) oxide (Fe₂O₃), the main component of rust, to form soluble iron phosphates and water:

\mathrm{Fe_2O_3 + 2H_3PO_4 \rightarrow 2FePO_4 + 3H_2O}

Such reactions convert insoluble oxides into removable compounds, effectively cleaning affected surfaces.^[23] Acidic agents typically operate in a pH range of 1 to 5, with stronger formulations like undiluted hydrochloric acid approaching pH 0, while milder citric acid solutions may hover around pH 2-3.^[24] To prevent surface damage, dilution is essential; for instance, muriatic acid should be mixed at a 1:10 ratio with water for general use, and always applied in well-ventilated areas to minimize exposure.^[25] Unique risks associated with these agents include the production of hazardous fumes, such as hydrogen chloride gas from concentrated HCl solutions, which can irritate the respiratory system, and potential chlorine gas release if inadvertently mixed with oxidizing agents.^[26] Additionally, they pose a high corrosion risk to sensitive materials like aluminum, where acids can rapidly etch and degrade the metal, necessitating material compatibility checks before application.^[27]

Alkaline Agents

Alkaline cleaning agents are formulations that utilize strong bases to create high-pH environments, effectively targeting organic soils such as fats, oils, proteins, and greases through processes like saponification and hydrolysis.^[28] These agents are particularly valued for their ability to break down stubborn residues that neutral or acidic cleaners cannot handle as efficiently. Common key bases include sodium hydroxide (NaOH, also known as lye or caustic soda), which excels in heavy-duty degreasing applications; ammonia (NH₃ or ammonium hydroxide), effective for cleaning glass surfaces and removing certain stains; sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃, or washing soda), which aids in water softening to enhance overall cleaning performance; and potassium hydroxide (KOH, or caustic potash), commonly used in liquid soap formulations for its solubility and mildness compared to NaOH.^[19]^[11]^[29] The primary chemical reactions enabling the efficacy of alkaline agents involve base-catalyzed hydrolysis. Saponification, for instance, occurs when a base like NaOH reacts with triglycerides in fats and oils to produce glycerol and fatty acid salts (soaps), which act as emulsifiers to lift and remove greasy soils: NaOH + triglyceride → glycerol + soap.^[30] Additionally, these agents promote the hydrolysis of proteins by disrupting peptide bonds in basic conditions, facilitating the dissolution of protein-based residues such as those found in food or biological soils.^[31] The pH of alkaline cleaning agents typically ranges from 8 to 14, with stronger formulations approaching 14 for intensive cleaning, and stability is often maintained through buffering agents like phosphates or silicates to prevent pH fluctuations during use.^[32]^[33] In industrial settings, alkaline agents play a critical role in processes requiring thorough removal of organic contaminants. For example, in food processing, they are integral to Clean-In-Place (CIP) systems, where 1-5% NaOH solutions circulate through equipment to saponify and eliminate fats, proteins, and residues without disassembly, ensuring hygiene and compliance with safety standards.^[34] Similarly, in metal pretreatment, alkaline cleaners with pH levels between 8.5 and 14 are employed to degrease surfaces prior to coating or plating, effectively removing oils, carbon deposits, and other soils to prepare substrates for further treatment.^[35]

Neutral Agents

Neutral cleaning agents maintain a pH range of 6 to 8, enabling effective soil removal without causing significant chemical alterations to surfaces or fabrics. Unlike more aggressive cleaners, they depend primarily on surfactants to lower surface tension and facilitate the dispersion and emulsification of dirt, grease, and residues. This approach makes them suitable for everyday household and light industrial applications where preserving material integrity is essential.^[36]^[37] The core components include non-ionic surfactants, such as alcohol ethoxylates, which provide versatile cleaning on organic soils, and anionic surfactants like sodium lauryl sulfate, which enhance foaming and detergency. Builders, notably zeolites, are incorporated to soften water by sequestering calcium and magnesium ions, thereby preventing interference with surfactant performance and improving overall efficacy in hard water conditions. These ingredients are blended in formulations that prioritize mildness, with surfactants typically comprising the largest portion for optimal cleaning power.^[38]^[39] Their mechanism centers on micelle formation, where surfactant molecules self-assemble into spherical structures above the critical micelle concentration (CMC), generally around 0.1-1% for common types, trapping hydrophobic dirt particles within hydrophilic exteriors for suspension and rinsing. This process avoids the need for extreme pH adjustments, reducing risks to sensitive materials. The neutral pH range offers key advantages, including the preservation of dyes and finishes on textiles and the protection of delicate surfaces like wood, which can warp or discolor under acidic or alkaline conditions, and electronics, where non-corrosive action safeguards metals such as aluminum and zinc from etching or residue buildup.^[40]^[36] In practice, neutral agents are supplied as concentrates and diluted to 0.5-2% in water for application on floors, countertops, or laundry, ensuring efficient use and minimal residue. Enzyme-enhanced variants incorporate bio-based additives like proteases for protein stains or amylases for starches, operating effectively at pH 6-8.5 to boost stain removal while maintaining gentleness, as seen in laundry detergents designed for low-temperature washing.^[41]^[42]

Mechanical and Physical Agents

Scouring and Abrasive Agents

Scouring and abrasive agents function through mechanical action, employing physical friction to dislodge and remove stubborn dirt, grime, and deposits that adhere tightly to surfaces. These agents rely on the hardness and shape of embedded particles or materials to scrape away contaminants without depending on chemical dissolution or reaction. Commonly used in household and industrial settings for tasks requiring intensive cleaning, they are particularly effective against baked-on residues or mineral scale on non-delicate surfaces.^[43] The materials in scouring and abrasive agents are categorized as natural or synthetic, with variations in particle size determining their suitability for different applications. Natural abrasives include minerals such as pumice, a lightweight volcanic rock composed primarily of siliceous material, and quartz, which provides sharp, hard particles for effective scouring. Synthetic alternatives encompass plastic beads for milder action and aluminum oxide, a durable engineered material often used in more aggressive formulations. Particle sizes range from fine (typically under 50 microns) for polishing delicate finishes to coarse (over 100 microns) for heavy-duty removal of thick buildup, allowing customization based on surface tolerance.^[44]^[45]^[46] The primary mechanism involves friction-generated abrasion, where the agent's particles or structure physically erode the outer layer of dirt or tarnish, exposing clean substrate beneath. This process is often enhanced by combining abrasives with mild detergents, which emulsify and lift the loosened particles for easier rinsing. Unlike chemical cleaners, the action is purely mechanical, minimizing residue but requiring manual effort to apply pressure and motion. Neutral agents may be paired briefly afterward to remove any remaining abrasive residue without further surface interaction.^[43]^[47]^[48] Scouring and abrasive agents are available in several forms to suit various cleaning needs. Powders, such as those made from baking soda pastes or pumice-based scouring mixes, offer versatile dry or wet application for sinks and cookware. Pads include steel wool for robust metal polishing and melamine foam erasers, which provide a fine, non-particulate abrasion ideal for walls and appliances. Liquids with suspended abrasives, like those containing fine mineral particles, deliver controlled scouring for glass or tile without excessive dryness.^[48]^[49]^[25] Despite their efficacy, these agents have notable limitations, primarily the risk of surface scratching or dulling if mismatched to the material being cleaned. Overuse on softer surfaces like painted wood or glossy finishes can strip protective coatings, leading to accelerated wear or aesthetic damage. In response to consumer safety concerns, there was a historical shift in the 1990s toward softer abrasives, such as melamine foam discovered for cleaning applications in Japan, replacing harsher metal-based options to reduce injury and surface harm while maintaining performance.^[50]^[51]^[52]

Solvent-Based Agents

Solvent-based agents are physical cleaning solutions that dissolve and remove non-water-soluble contaminants such as oils, greases, paints, and adhesives by leveraging the solvent properties of organic compounds.^[53] These agents operate without chemical reactions like acidification or alkalization, instead relying on molecular dissolution to break down and lift residues from surfaces.^[54] They are particularly effective for industrial degreasing, electronics maintenance, and specialized fabric cleaning, where water-based methods fall short.^[55] Common solvents in these agents include hydrocarbons, alcohols, chlorinated compounds, and emerging green alternatives. Hydrocarbon solvents, such as mineral spirits, excel at dissolving heavy greases and oils from metal surfaces and tools due to their non-polar nature.^[56] Alcohols like isopropyl alcohol are widely used for cleaning electronics, as they effectively remove flux residues, fingerprints, and light oils while evaporating quickly without leaving residue.^[57] Chlorinated solvents, notably perchloroethylene (also known as tetrachloroethylene or PCE), have traditionally been employed in dry cleaning to dissolve oils and stains from fabrics, though their use has been phased out in many regions during the 2020s due to health and environmental concerns.^[58] As greener options, bio-based solvents like d-limonene, derived from citrus peels, provide effective dissolution of adhesives and paints while being biodegradable and less toxic.^[59] The primary mechanism of solvent-based cleaning follows the "like dissolves like" principle, where non-polar solvents dissolve non-polar contaminants such as oils and fats, while polar solvents target polar residues. Safety considerations include evaporation rates, which determine drying time and ventilation needs, and flash points, a measure of ignition risk; solvents with flash points above 60°C, such as certain glycol ethers or higher-boiling hydrocarbons, are classified for lower flammability and safer handling in enclosed spaces.^[60] Formulations of solvent-based agents typically consist of 80-100% active solvent, often augmented with small amounts of stabilizers to prevent degradation or phase separation, ensuring consistent performance.^[54] Aqueous variants incorporate co-solvents like glycol ethers to enhance water compatibility and solubility of mixed residues, allowing for broader application in semi-aqueous cleaners.^[53] Regulatory frameworks, particularly the U.S. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, impose limits on volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in cleaning solvents to reduce air pollution, prompting the development of low-VOC formulations that maintain efficacy while minimizing emissions.^[61] These controls, enforced through guidelines like the EPA's Control Techniques Guidelines for industrial cleaning solvents, have accelerated shifts toward exempt or low-volatility alternatives.

Applications by Purpose

Kitchen and Dishwashing Cleaners

Kitchen and dishwashing cleaners are specialized formulations designed to remove grease, food residues, and organic soils from cookware, utensils, and appliances while ensuring food safety through effective rinsing and minimal residue. These products prioritize emulsification of fats and breakdown of starches and proteins, often using surfactants and enzymes tailored to hard surfaces in high-moisture environments. In kitchens, where cross-contamination risks are high, these agents must comply with regulatory standards for indirect food contact, emphasizing quick action and thorough rinsability to prevent any transfer to food. Oven cleaners typically consist of alkaline pastes containing about 10% sodium hydroxide (NaOH), which reacts with baked-on grease and carbonized residues to form soap-like compounds and char the organic matter, facilitating removal after a dwell time at room temperature or slightly elevated temperatures up to 100°C.^[62]^[63] These formulations exploit the saponification process, where NaOH hydrolyzes fats into soluble salts, while the high alkalinity dehydrates carbohydrates, turning them into a char that can be wiped away. For vertical surfaces like oven walls, aerosol foam versions are common, delivering a thick, clinging matrix that prevents runoff and ensures even contact with soils.^[64] Manual dishwashing detergents rely on high-foaming anionic surfactants, such as 20-30% linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS), to create persistent suds that suspend grease and food particles during hand washing.^[65] These surfactants lower surface tension, enabling emulsification of oils in water, and are often combined with milder amphoteric or non-ionic types for skin compatibility. In contrast, automatic dishwashing detergents (ADDs) use low-foam non-ionic surfactants to avoid excessive bubbling in machines, incorporating enzyme blends like proteases for protein stains and amylases for starches, alongside builders such as sodium citrate to soften water and enhance cleaning efficiency.^[66]^[67] The pH of ADDs is typically adjusted to 10-13 to optimize grease emulsification through improved surfactant performance and mild saponification without damaging dishware.^[68] Rinse aids in automatic systems employ non-ionic surfactants that reduce water surface tension, promoting a sheeting action where water spreads thinly and drains evenly, minimizing spots and films on glassware and cutlery.^[69] For delicate items like fine china, neutral agents may be used sparingly to avoid etching. Safety standards require these cleaners to be rinsable to below detectable residue levels, with formulations approved under FDA guidelines for food contact surfaces, ensuring no migration of chemicals into food. Phosphates have been largely avoided in these products since the 1990s due to environmental bans in regions like the European Union and voluntary phase-outs in the US to prevent water eutrophication. As of 2025, there is increasing adoption of bio-based surfactants and enzymes in dishwashing formulations to meet sustainability demands.^[70]

Laundry and Fabric Cleaners

Laundry and fabric cleaners are specialized formulations designed to remove soils, stains, and odors from textiles while preserving fabric integrity, color, and texture during washing cycles. These agents primarily function through surfactants that emulsify dirt and oils, enzymes that break down organic residues, and builders that soften water to enhance cleaning efficacy. Unlike hard-surface cleaners, they are optimized for porous materials like cotton and synthetics, addressing challenges such as dye bleeding and fiber damage. Key components in these cleaners include anionic surfactants, which typically comprise 15-30% of the formulation by weight and serve as the primary cleaning agents by reducing surface tension and suspending particles.^[71] Optical brighteners, often stilbene-based compounds, are added at low concentrations (around 0.1-0.5%) to absorb ultraviolet light and emit blue fluorescence, making fabrics appear whiter without altering their actual cleanliness.^[72] Enzymes such as lipases target fatty stains by hydrolyzing triglycerides into more soluble components, improving removal of grease from sources like food or body oils. Builders historically included sodium tripolyphosphate to sequester calcium and magnesium ions in hard water, but environmental concerns over eutrophication led to its replacement by zeolites starting in the 1970s, with widespread adoption by the 1980s.^[4]^[73] Laundry cleaners are available in powder and liquid forms, each suited to different washing conditions. Powder formulations are anhydrous and highly concentrated, offering better stability for enzymes and builders, while liquids contain 30-50% water as a carrier, which aids dissolution but increases packaging weight and shipping costs.^[74] High-efficiency (HE) variants, formulated for low-water machines, emphasize low-sudsing properties through balanced surfactant blends—often a mix of anionic and nonionic types—to prevent foam buildup and ensure thorough rinsing in reduced volumes (typically 40-50% less water than standard cycles).^[75]^[76] For stain-specific applications, oxygen-based bleaches like sodium percarbonate are preferred for color-safe whitening, as they decompose into hydrogen peroxide, water, and soda ash upon contact with water, oxidizing stains without chlorine damage to dyes or fibers.^[77] Fabric softeners, used in the rinse cycle, rely on quaternary ammonium compounds (quats) such as dialkyldimethyl ammonium chloride, which deposit a lubricating layer on fibers to reduce static and improve smoothness, typically at 5-10% concentration in the product.^[78] Solvent-based agents may be referenced briefly for spot pre-treatment of oily stains prior to full washing. Cleaning performance is evaluated using standardized methods like ASTM D4265, which simulates home laundering to measure soil removal through visual and instrumental assessment of test fabrics.^[79]

Bathroom and Hygiene Cleaners

Bathroom and hygiene cleaners are specialized formulations designed to maintain sanitary conditions in high-moisture environments like toilets, sinks, and showers, primarily targeting limescale buildup, bacterial contamination, and persistent odors. These products often combine acidic components for mineral dissolution with antimicrobial agents to achieve effective cleaning and disinfection on porcelain, tile, and other non-porous surfaces.^[3] Toilet cleaners frequently employ acidic gels containing 5-10% hydrochloric acid to dissolve limescale and remove stubborn bowl rings formed by mineral deposits and organic residues.^[80] These gels are thickened with polymers such as polyacrylic acid to enhance cling to vertical surfaces, allowing prolonged contact time for better efficacy against tough stains.^[81] In addition, quaternary ammonium compounds like benzalkonium chloride, typically at concentrations of 0.1-0.2%, are incorporated as disinfectants to provide microbial kill by disrupting bacterial cell membranes.^[82] Hygiene products for bathrooms often include deodorants that utilize masking agents such as pine oil to neutralize and cover odors from organic waste, while also offering mild antimicrobial properties through the oil's natural terpenes.^[83] Bleach-based formulations, containing 3-6% sodium hypochlorite, serve as potent disinfectants by oxidizing microbial proteins and effectively eliminating bacteria, viruses, and fungi on contact surfaces.^[84] Common formulations extend to effervescent tablets, which rely on a reaction between citric acid and sodium bicarbonate to produce carbon dioxide bubbles, aiding in the mechanical scrubbing and distribution of active ingredients across the toilet bowl.^[85] Efficacy of these disinfectants is evaluated against EPA standards, requiring at least a 3-log reduction (99.9% kill rate) in bacterial populations on hard surfaces within specified contact times.^[86] To prevent mold growth in humid areas, preservatives like isothiazolinones are added, inhibiting fungal spore germination through interference with microbial metabolism.^[87]

Floor and Surface Cleaners

Floor and surface cleaners are formulated to remove dirt, grime, and contaminants from large-area hard surfaces such as floors, walls, and countertops while maintaining surface integrity, ensuring non-slip properties, and minimizing residue buildup. These agents balance effective soil removal with protection against wear, often tailored to specific surface materials to prevent damage like etching or dulling. Common formulations prioritize quick application and drying to reduce downtime in residential and commercial settings, incorporating surfactants for emulsification and additives for enhanced performance. For delicate hard floors like vinyl and marble, neutral pH cleaners with a range of 7-8 are recommended to avoid chemical reactions that could etch or discolor the surface.^[88] These formulations typically include mild surfactants and polymers, such as acrylic or styrene-acrylic emulsions, to provide a protective shine and gloss enhancement without abrasion.^[89] On more robust surfaces like concrete, alkaline cleaners are employed to tackle heavy grease and oil accumulation, often containing 2-5% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to saponify fats and break down organic residues effectively.^[3] These high-pH solutions (typically 11-13) are applied via mopping or pressure washing, followed by thorough rinsing to neutralize and prevent efflorescence.^[90] Carpet cleaners focus on deep penetration and extraction of embedded soils, utilizing foam-based or liquid solutions designed for methods like hot-water extraction. These formulations incorporate solvents such as 5% glycol ethers (e.g., diethylene glycol monobutyl ether) to dissolve oils and stains, combined with defoamers like silicone-based compounds to control foam during agitation and prevent equipment clogs.^[91] Hot-water extraction involves injecting a heated cleaning solution into the carpet pile and using a vacuum to remove soiled water, achieving up to 95% soil removal when performed with proper dwell times.^[92] All-purpose multi-surface cleaners are versatile sprays suitable for countertops, walls, and general hard surfaces, featuring quaternary ammonium compounds (quats) as primary surfactants for their dual cleaning and antimicrobial properties.^[78] These no-rinse formulations evaporate quickly due to volatile components like alcohols, leaving no streaky residue and allowing immediate use of the surface.^[93] To enhance longevity and cleaning efficiency, durability additives such as anti-redeposition agents are included in floor and surface formulations. Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), a water-soluble polymer, suspends removed soil particles in solution, preventing their resettlement on cleaned surfaces during rinsing.^[94] This anionic agent works by increasing the negative charge on dirt and fibers, promoting dispersion and maintaining clarity on hard floors.^[95]

Specialized Industrial Cleaners

Specialized industrial cleaners are formulated for demanding environments such as manufacturing plants, automotive facilities, and large-scale building maintenance, where they address heavy contaminants like grease, scale, and mineral deposits at volumes far exceeding household applications. These agents prioritize rapid action, minimal equipment downtime, and compatibility with automated systems to enhance operational efficiency. Unlike general-purpose cleaners, industrial variants often incorporate targeted chemistries to handle corrosive residues and ensure surface integrity under high-throughput conditions. As of 2025, formulations increasingly avoid per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) due to EPA regulations on their use in cleaning products.^[96] In industrial drain maintenance, enzymatic cleaners utilize bacterial cultures to target organic clogs, such as food waste and grease in food processing facilities. These formulations contain multi-strain bacteria that produce enzymes to break down complex organics into simpler compounds, preventing buildup without damaging pipes.^[97] Chemical alternatives, commonly based on caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) combined with aluminum powder, generate heat through an exothermic reaction that produces hydrogen gas, aiding in the liquefaction and expulsion of blockages. This reaction occurs as aluminum dissolves in the alkaline solution, releasing heat to accelerate grease saponification.^[98] For metal and glass surfaces in industrial settings, polishing compounds frequently incorporate silica abrasives to achieve precise finishes on components like machinery parts and architectural glass. These fine silica particles provide controlled abrasion, removing oxidation and imperfections while preserving substrate integrity, often applied via automated buffing systems. Facade cleaners for concrete structures employ high-pressure application of alkaline solutions to dissolve efflorescence, the white mineral salts leaching from porous surfaces due to moisture migration. The alkalinity neutralizes and lifts deposits without etching the concrete, typically followed by rinsing to restore aesthetic and structural appearance.^[99]^[100] Clean-in-place (CIP) systems represent a cornerstone of industrial hygiene in sectors like dairy and pharmaceuticals, circulating alkaline solutions through pipelines and vessels without disassembly. These systems commonly use 1-3% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) at temperatures of 60-80°C to hydrolyze proteins, fats, and residues, with contact times of 45-60 minutes ensuring thorough sanitation.^[101] In metal cleaning formulations, rust inhibitors such as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) chelate iron ions, preventing re-corrosion by forming stable complexes that solubilize rust without aggressive acidification.^[102] Industrial cleaners are produced and distributed in bulk formats, such as 1000-liter intermediate bulk containers (IBCs), to support large-scale operations in manufacturing and maintenance. Compliance with Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) standards is mandatory, including permissible exposure limits for vapors and mists, proper labeling under the Hazard Communication standard, and provision of personal protective equipment to mitigate risks like skin irritation and respiratory exposure during handling and application.^[26]

Environmental and Health Considerations

Environmental Impacts

Cleaning agents exert significant environmental impacts through pollution of water bodies, air, and soil, as well as resource-intensive production and disposal challenges. In aquatic environments, phosphates from detergents promote eutrophication by stimulating excessive algal growth, which reduces oxygen levels and disrupts ecosystems.^[103] This issue prompted regulatory action, including a national ban on phosphates in U.S. laundry detergents in 1993 and their prohibition in automatic dishwasher detergents in 17 states by 2010, reducing phosphorus contributions to wastewater by up to 34%.^[104] Similarly, nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPEs), common nonionic surfactants in cleaning formulations, degrade slowly into nonylphenol, a persistent endocrine disruptor that bioaccumulates in aquatic organisms and interferes with hormonal functions, leading to reproductive impairments.^[105] Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from solvent-based cleaners contribute to atmospheric pollution, reacting with sunlight and nitrogen oxides to form ground-level ozone and smog, with household products accounting for a substantial portion of urban VOC emissions—previously underestimated at around 25% but now recognized as dominant in some areas.^[106] A 2023 study identified over 530 VOCs emitted by common cleaning products, including 193 hazardous air pollutants, which contaminate indoor air at levels 2 to 5 times higher than outdoor sources, exacerbating urban air quality issues.^[107] On land and in waterways, microplastic particles from abrasive agents in scouring products enter soils and rivers via wastewater effluents; post-2015 studies along the Rhine River identified polyethylene spherules from such sources comprising up to 15% of microplastics, with concentrations exceeding 11,000 particles per 1,000 m³ near industrial outflows.^[108] The lifecycle of cleaning agents involves energy-intensive production, with life cycle assessments indicating manufacturing energy demands of approximately 3-4 MJ per typical wash load for compact powder detergents, contributing to fossil fuel depletion and greenhouse gas emissions.^[109] Non-biodegradable surfactants further complicate wastewater treatment, as their persistence and foaming properties hinder microbial degradation processes, allowing residues to pass through facilities and enter receiving waters.^[110] To mitigate these impacts, biodegradability standards like OECD 301 tests evaluate ready biodegradability, requiring at least 60% theoretical oxygen demand (ThOD) or CO₂ evolution within 28 days, often within a 10-day window, to classify surfactants as environmentally acceptable.^[111] Since the 2020s, shifts to plant-based alternatives, such as bio-based surfactants derived from vegetable oils, have achieved carbon footprint reductions of 39-86% compared to petroleum-derived equivalents, supporting broader sustainability in detergent formulations.^[112] However, a 2024 study revealed that many products labeled as "green" or eco-friendly still emit comparable levels of harmful chemicals as conventional cleaners, underscoring the need for stricter verification of sustainability claims.^[113]

Health and Safety Aspects

Cleaning agents can pose acute health risks primarily through direct contact or inhalation, leading to immediate irritation or injury. Exposure to alkaline cleaning products with a pH greater than 12 can cause severe skin and eye burns by penetrating tissues and saponifying fats, resulting in corrosion and potential permanent damage.^[114] Similarly, inhalation of ammonia fumes from household cleaners can irritate the respiratory tract, causing coughing, shortness of breath, and in severe cases, pulmonary edema or chemical pneumonitis.^[115] Chronic exposure to certain components in cleaning agents may lead to long-term health effects, including allergic reactions and increased cancer risk. Fragrances added to many cleaning products are common allergens, contributing to 8-15% of allergic contact dermatitis cases among patients undergoing patch testing in dermatology clinics.^[116] Formaldehyde, used as a preservative or disinfectant in some formulations, is classified as a human carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, with occupational exposure linked to nasopharyngeal cancer and leukemia.^[117] Recent research as of 2023 has associated VOCs from cleaning products with elevated risks of cardiovascular disease and certain cancers, while professional cleaners face a 50% higher risk of asthma and 43% higher risk of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) due to repeated exposure.^[107]^[118] To mitigate these risks, regulatory frameworks mandate safety measures for handling cleaning agents. Safety Data Sheets (SDSs), standardized under the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals adopted in 2003, provide detailed hazard information, safe handling procedures, and emergency response guidance for manufacturers and users.^[119] Personal protective equipment, such as chemical-resistant gloves made from nitrile or butyl rubber, is recommended for products with extreme pH values to prevent skin penetration and burns during use.^[120] Additionally, the Poison Prevention Packaging Act of 1970 requires child-resistant packaging for hazardous household cleaning products to reduce accidental ingestion by children under five.^[121] Certain populations face heightened vulnerability to cleaning agent exposures. Individuals with asthma are particularly sensitive to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from cleaning products, which can trigger airway inflammation, exacerbate symptoms, and increase the risk of asthma attacks.^[122] Regulatory exposure limits, such as the Occupational Safety and Health Administration's permissible exposure limit (PEL) for ammonia of 50 parts per million as an 8-hour time-weighted average, help protect workers from chronic respiratory effects.^[123]

Common Examples and Formulations

Household Cleaning Products

Household cleaning products encompass a wide range of consumer-available agents designed for everyday use in homes, typically formulated for convenience, safety, and efficacy on common surfaces. These products often feature surfactant-based solutions that emulsify dirt and grease, with formulations balanced to minimize skin irritation while maximizing cleaning power. All-purpose cleaners, dish soaps, and disinfectants like bleach represent staples, available in retail formats such as sprays, liquids, and wipes.^[124] Prominent examples include all-purpose cleaners like Mr. Clean, which rely on neutral nonionic surfactant blends such as C9-11 pareth and sodium C10-16 alkylbenzenesulfonate to dissolve soils without damaging surfaces. Dish soaps, such as Dawn, incorporate anionic and amphoteric surfactants like sodium lauryl sulfate, sodium laureth sulfate, and C10-16 alkyldimethylamine oxide, typically comprising 10-25% of the formula to provide strong degreasing and foaming action. Household bleach, a common disinfectant, contains approximately 5.25% sodium hypochlorite as the active ingredient, effective against bacteria and stains when diluted properly.^[125]^[126]^[127]^[84] Market trends reflect a shift toward sustainability and efficiency, with concentrated formulas becoming prevalent since the 2010s; these 2x or higher potency products reduce packaging material and shipping emissions by allowing smaller bottle sizes. Natural cleaning lines have gained traction, often featuring vinegar-based solutions with 5% acetic acid for mild, biodegradable cleaning on glass and counters. The popularity of multi-purpose wipes, infused with quaternary ammonium compounds as disinfectants, has surged, particularly post-2020, due to their convenience for quick sanitization of high-touch areas. The global household cleaning products market reached approximately USD 246 billion in 2023 and USD 257 billion in 2024, driven by demand for eco-friendly and multifunctional options.^[128]^[129]^[130]^[131] For optimal use, follow dosage guidelines such as 1-4 tablespoons of liquid cleaner per gallon of water, depending on the product's concentration, to avoid residue or surface damage. Store products in their original containers in cool, dry areas away from heat sources and direct sunlight to maintain stability and prevent degradation or accidental spills. Always read labels for specific instructions to ensure safe application.^[124]^[132]

Commercial and Industrial Agents

Commercial and industrial cleaning agents are formulated for high-volume, professional applications in sectors requiring robust performance, regulatory compliance, and scalability, distinguishing them from household products by their concentrated compositions and certifications for workplace safety. These agents often incorporate potent active ingredients to handle heavy soiling, such as grease, biofilms, and pathogens, while adhering to standards from organizations like NSF International and Green Seal.^[133]^[134] Heavy-duty degreasers exemplify these agents, particularly in automotive shops where solvent-based blends effectively remove oils, greases, and residues from engines and machinery. These formulations typically rely on organic solvents or alkaline boosters, with concentrations designed for immersion or spray application to dissolve contaminants without damaging metal surfaces. For instance, water-based compositions fortified with surfactants and solvents provide biodegradable options for industrial degreasing tasks.^[135]^[136] Enzymatic drain openers represent another specialized example, utilizing bacterial cultures like Bacillus species to break down organic buildup in commercial plumbing systems. These bio-based agents activate upon contact with moisture and organic matter, typically requiring 24-48 hours for full efficacy in degrading fats, proteins, and starches that cause blockages. Bacillus strains are particularly effective due to their spore-forming resilience, allowing sustained activity in drain environments over extended periods.^[137]^[138] Formulations in this category emphasize high concentrations for efficiency in large-scale operations, such as janitorial services where caustic soda (sodium hydroxide) cleaners at around 20% w/v tackle grease and carbon deposits on floors and equipment. These alkaline solutions, often diluted for use but supplied concentrated to minimize shipping volume, must meet safety standards for handling and disposal. Eco-certified variants, like those under Green Seal standards established in 1989, restrict volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to levels below 5% in many categories to reduce air quality impacts, aligning with California's Air Resources Board limits for industrial cleaners.^[139]^[134]^[140]^[141] In healthcare settings, quaternary ammonium compounds (quats) are widely used at concentrations up to 1000 ppm to disinfect surfaces against pathogens like methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), which shows variable susceptibility but is generally controlled by EPA-registered quats following contact times of 10 minutes. These agents provide broad-spectrum activity against enveloped viruses and bacteria, essential for infection control in hospitals. Similarly, in the food industry, no-rinse sanitizers certified under NSF protocols (e.g., D2 classification) enable quick application on equipment and surfaces without post-rinse requirements, ensuring compliance with hygiene standards while minimizing water use.^[142]^[143]^[133] Recent innovations in the 2020s focus on sustainable alternatives, such as bio-based solvents like soy methyl esters derived from soybean oil, which serve as drop-in replacements for petroleum-derived solvents in degreasers and cleaners. These esters offer comparable solvency for resins and adhesives while being biodegradable and low in VOCs, reducing environmental persistence compared to traditional options. In terms of cost-efficacy, professional cleaning with these agents typically ranges from $0.10 to $0.20 per square foot, depending on facility size and soil load, enabling economical maintenance for large commercial spaces.^[144]^[145]^[146]

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Fragrance most common cause of cosmetic allergic contact dermatitis
Dr. Ehrlich says that the frequency of sensitization to fragrance allergens is seen in 1 percent to 2 percent of the general population and in eight to 15 ...
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Formaldehyde and Cancer Risk | American Cancer Society
Sep 10, 2024 · IARC has concluded that formaldehyde is "carcinogenic to humans" based on sufficient evidence it can cause nasopharyngeal cancer and leukemia.What is formaldehyde? · How are people exposed to... · Can formaldehyde cause...
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[PDF] GLOBALLY HARMONIZED SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION AND ...
"A globally harmonized hazard classification and compatible labelling system, including material safety data sheets and easily understandable symbols, should be ...
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Assessment of suitability of disposable gloves for handling of ...
Cleaning workers use disposable gloves when handling chemicals including those with extreme pH-values (pH < 2; pH > 11.5). Objectives. To assess the suitability ...
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How the PPPA Determined Children's Ages for Testing CR Packaging
Nov 19, 2024 · The Poison Prevention Packaging Act (PPPA), enacted in 1970, is one of the cornerstones of child safety regulations in the United States.
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Cleaning Supplies and Household Chemicals
Apr 9, 2025 · VOCs and other chemicals released when using cleaning supplies contribute to chronic respiratory problems, allergic reactions and headaches.
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Mr. Clean Multi Surface Cleaner Liquid with Gain, Original Fresh
DIRECTIONS FOR USE: FLOORS/DILUTE CLEANING: Mix 1/4 cup per 1 gallon (1/2 bucket) of water.
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Mr. Clean with Unstopables Fresh Scent Multi-Surface Cleaner, 45 fl ...
Dec 17, 2024 · INGREDIENTS · Water · C9-11 Pareth · Propylene Glycol Butyl Ether · Sodium Citrate · Sodium Carbonate · Sodium C10-16 Alkylbenzenesulfonate · C10-16 ...
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Dawn Dish Soap Ingredients
Dawn dish soap includes water, sodium lauryl sulfate, sodium laureth sulfate, and C10-16 alkyldime-thylamine oxide, among others. It does not contain ...
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Ingredients in Dawn Dish Soap meet safety standards. The product ...
Jun 24, 2025 · The recommended concentration of SLES in dishwashing liquid formulations is typically between 10% and 20%. This range ensures optimal cleaning ...Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage
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The Power of Concentrated Formulas in Home Care - Lygos, Inc.
Aug 20, 2024 · Conclusion. Concentrated formulas are not just a trend—they are the future of home care. By reducing packaging waste, lowering transportation ...
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DIY All Purpose Cleaner with Vinegar - Live Simply
Rating 5.0 (4) Feb 10, 2021 · Most household vinegars (used in the kitchen) contain 4-6% acetic acid, which is what makes vinegar such a great cleaning ingredient.
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Common disinfectant wipes expose people to dangerous chemicals ...
May 11, 2023 · Quats are common components in popular disinfectant wipes and sprays, especially those that claim to “kill 99.9% of germs”. But in a new peer- ...
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Household Cleaning Products Market Analysis, Growth, and Outlook ...
Household Cleaning Products Market size was valued at USD 246.13 Billion in 2023 and is poised to grow from USD 256.96 Billion in 2024 to USD 378.6 Billion ...
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Storing Cleaning Products Safely? Survey Shows Safe Storage ...
Mar 21, 2022 · Keep cleaning products in their original containers and read product labels. Use and store products according to the product label. Kids can get ...
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Steps to Clean and Sanitize a Food Processing Facility | NSF
Oct 6, 2021 · The dry sanitizer or disinfectant needs to be highly evaporative, quick-drying and require no rinsing. 7. Dry. When using a rinse-off sanitizer ...
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GS-37 Cleaning Products for Industrial and Institutional Use
This standard establishes requirements for industrial and institutional general-purpose, restroom, glass, and carpet cleaners. For purposes of this standard, ...2.0 Safer Chemicals · 2.1 Safer Ingredients · 2.2 Safer Products
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US4772415A - Heavy duty degreaser composition and method of use
A water-based, non-toxic, biodegradable, heavy duty degreaser composition is provided which is particularly useful for cleaning containers, engines, pipes, and ...Missing: shop credible
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Your guide to industrial degreasers - NCH Europe
Jun 30, 2025 · Solvent-based degreasers are powerful cleaning agents that rely on organic solvents to dissolve and remove grease, oils, waxes, tar, adhesives, ...
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How Do Biological Drain Maintainers Work? - State Industrial Products
Activation starts two to three hours after they enter your drain and encounter a food source, but bacillus will be fully activated within 24 hours of you ...Missing: action | Show results with:action
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What is an Enzyme Cleaner? How Can It Help Your Drains?
May 10, 2024 · On average, it takes between 8-24 hours for enzyme drain cleaners to clear a clogged drain. This is another reason why enzyme drain cleaners ...Missing: action | Show results with:action
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Your Guide to VOCs in Paint and Cleaning Products - Green Seal
Because of this, VOCs also indirectly contribute to the formation of smog and particulate matter. Cleaning products, paints and coatings, and several other ...
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[PDF] CAUSTIC SODA HANDBOOK - Oxy
Temperatures of 100-140°F and solution concentration of 5-20% are recommended. A standard recommendation would be spraying the walls for. 2-4 hours with a 10 ...Missing: janitorial | Show results with:janitorial
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Chemical Disinfectants | Infection Control - CDC
Nov 28, 2023 · Hypochlorites, the most widely used of the chlorine disinfectants, are available as liquid (e.g., sodium hypochlorite) or solid (e.g., calcium ...
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E. Environmental Services | Infection Control - CDC
Jan 8, 2024 · The following factors influence the choice of disinfection procedure for environmental surfaces: the nature of the item to be disinfected ...2. General Cleaning... · B. Cleaning Housekeeping... · 7. Special Pathogen Concerns
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Environmental Benefits of Methyl Soyate | Vertec BioSolvents
May 17, 2023 · With a mild scent and amazing solvency power, Soy Methyl Ester is the ideal solvent for various applications, including coatings, adhesives, and ...
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Solvents - Soy New Uses
Methyl soyate, a methyl ester derived from soybean oil, is the key ingredient or carrier solvent in eco-friendly formulations.
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Commercial Cleaning Rates 2025: Prices, Chart, and Calculator
Jan 1, 2025 · The average commercial cleaning cost is $0.17 per square foot or $25 per hour per worker, with hourly rates ranging from $25 to $50.Commercial Office Cleaning... · Home Cleaning Cost · Commercial Cleaning...