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Cola acuminata

Cola acuminata (P. Beauv.) Schott & Endl. is an evergreen tree species in the family Malvaceae, native to the humid tropical forests of West and Central Africa, where it is best known for producing the kola nut, a caffeine-rich seed traditionally chewed as a stimulant and used in beverages and cultural rituals.^[1]^[2] The tree typically reaches heights of 10–20 meters (occasionally up to 30 meters), with a slender bole up to 50 cm in diameter, low-branching habit, rough gray bark, and elliptic to ovate dark green leaves that are leathery and measure up to 16 cm long.^[3]^[2] Native to regions including Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Angola, C. acuminata thrives as an understory species in lowland rainforests at altitudes above 300 meters, preferring hot, humid conditions with annual rainfall of 1,200–1,800 mm and deep, well-drained, fertile soils in the pH range of 5.0–6.5.^[1]^[3]^[2] It has been introduced to areas such as Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Trinidad and Tobago, where it is cultivated for both ornamental and economic purposes.^[1] The plant flowers and fruits year-round in suitable climates, with creamy white to yellow flowers featuring red bases borne on short peduncles, followed by woody, brown pods (15–25 cm long) that split into 3–5 straight or slightly curved carpels, each containing 4–10 flat, bitter seeds (the kola nuts) with 3–6 cotyledons, which are white to pinkish and rich in alkaloids like caffeine (1.25–2.4%).^[3]^[2]^[4] The kola nuts of C. acuminata hold significant cultural, economic, and medicinal value, particularly in West African societies where they symbolize hospitality, are central to ceremonies, and serve as a natural energizer to combat fatigue, hunger, and headaches.^[4]^[2] Commercially, the seeds are harvested for their stimulant properties—historically flavoring the original Coca-Cola formula—and are processed into extracts for soft drinks, pharmaceuticals, and foods, while the tree's durable wood is used for construction, furniture, and fuel.^[2] Medicinally, the nuts act as a digestive aid, diuretic, and astringent for treating diarrhea and dysentery, with ongoing research exploring their antioxidant and anticholinesterase effects for neurodegenerative conditions.^[4]^[2] Despite its importance, overexploitation and habitat loss pose threats, prompting efforts in agroforestry and cultivation to sustain production.^[3]

Taxonomy and Naming

Taxonomic Classification

Cola acuminata belongs to the kingdom Plantae, phylum Tracheophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Malvales, family Malvaceae (subfamily Sterculioideae), genus Cola, and species acuminata.^[5]^[6]^[1] The genus Cola was traditionally placed in the family Sterculiaceae, but molecular phylogenetic studies in the late 1990s and early 2000s, using chloroplast genes such as ndhF, atpB, and rbcL, demonstrated that Sterculiaceae, along with Bombacaceae and Tiliaceae, are polyphyletic and nested within an expanded Malvaceae sensu lato.^[7]^[8] This reclassification was formalized in systems like APG II (2003), placing Cola in Malvaceae subfamily Sterculioideae.^[9] The genus Cola comprises approximately 125 species of trees and shrubs, primarily endemic to tropical African rainforests, with C. acuminata recognized as one of the most economically significant due to its seeds' use in traditional and commercial products.^[10]^[11] C. acuminata was first described as Sterculia acuminata by Palisot de Beauvois in 1805 based on material from West Africa, and transferred to Cola by Schott & Endlicher in 1832; the type material's precise location remains uncertain but originates from regions like present-day Benin or Nigeria.^[1]^[12] A variety, C. acuminata var. erythraantha, is occasionally recognized but not widely accepted.^[1]

Etymology and Synonyms

The genus name Cola is a Latinized form derived from the Temne language of Sierra Leone, where the nut is called kola, reflecting its indigenous West African origins.^[13] The genus was established in 1832.^[1] The term entered European botanical literature in the mid-16th century through Portuguese traders who encountered the plant during coastal explorations and introduced samples to Europe.^[14] The specific epithet acuminata originates from the Latin acuminatus, meaning "pointed" or "tapering," in reference to the acuminate (sharply pointed) apices of the leaves. Cola acuminata is commonly known as the kola nut tree, goora nut, or bitter kola, the latter distinguishing it from the sweeter nuts of Cola nitida.^[15] Other regional names include abata kola (in Yoruba), guru nut, and bissy nut.^[15] Synonyms for Cola acuminata include Sterculia acuminata P. Beauv., the basionym established in 1805, as well as Bichea acuminata (P. Beauv.) Farw., Bichea solitaria Stokes, Braxipis grandiflora Raf., and Clompanus longifolia Kuntze. A red-fruited variant is recognized as Cola acuminata var. erythraantha Engl.^[16] Historical naming has involved confusion with Cola nitida, the commercially dominant kola species, due to overlapping uses as stimulants and similar appearances; for instance, C. nitida was distributed to botanic gardens in the 1880s under the misnomer C. acuminata.^[17] This taxonomic overlap arose from early European descriptions that did not fully differentiate the species based on nut flavor and leaf morphology.^[18]

Physical Description

Morphology

Cola acuminata is a medium-sized evergreen tree that typically grows to a height of 10–20 meters, although it can reach up to 30 meters in optimal conditions, with a straight, cylindrical trunk up to 50 cm in diameter and a low-branching habit where branches often start near the base.^[15]^[2]^[19] The bark on mature trees is rough, fissured, and grey to olive-green, often splitting into square-like patterns, while larger branches exhibit smoother surfaces with corky warts.^[19]^[20] Leaves are simple and alternate, obovate to elliptic in shape, measuring 10–20 cm in length and 5–7 cm in width, with a leathery texture, dark green coloration, acuminate tips, prominent venation, and petioles around 4 cm long; they are sparse and concentrated at branch tips, often appearing curled or twisted.^[15]^[19]^[20] Flowers are small, white to yellowish-white, and arranged in axillary clusters or panicles up to 20 cm long; each consists of five sepals fused for about half their length into an open, cup-shaped perianth 1–2.5 cm across, with no petals and subtle dark red markings at the base.^[15]^[19] The root system features a deep taproot that penetrates 120–150 cm into the soil, accompanied by extensive lateral roots ramifying in the upper layers, which supports stability and nutrient uptake in varied soil conditions.^[20]

Habitat and Distribution

Cola acuminata is native to the tropical rainforests of West and Central Africa, with its original range extending from Nigeria to Gabon and occurring spontaneously in the mountainous areas of Angola, Zaire (Democratic Republic of the Congo), and Cameroon; it is also native to Benin, Togo, and Equatorial Guinea.^[3]^[1]^[21] This species has been introduced to central Africa. It thrives primarily in lowland evergreen forests, secondary forests, and forest edges at elevations typically over 300 meters, often as an understorey tree on deep, rich, well-drained soils with high humus content.^[2]^[3]^[15] It is commonly associated with agroforestry systems where it offers shade for crops like cocoa, supporting biodiversity in mixed forest environments.^[3] The tree tolerates partial shade in its natural understorey habitat but can adapt to more open conditions at forest edges.^[2] The species requires a hot, humid tropical climate with mean annual temperatures between 23–35°C and annual rainfall of 1,200–1,800 mm, distributed over at least eight months to support its growth in lowland forests.^[2]^[3] It exhibits some drought tolerance once established, enduring dry seasons of up to three months provided there is access to groundwater, but it is highly sensitive to frost and prefers evenly distributed precipitation in marshy or humid areas.^[2]^[3] Outside its native range, C. acuminata has been introduced and cultivated since the 19th century in tropical regions including Central and South America, the West Indies, Mauritius, and Malaysia, often through seed dispersal from West Africa.^[3]

Reproduction

Flowers and Pollination

Cola acuminata exhibits continuous flowering in tropical regions, with a pronounced peak during the dry season from November to February in West Africa.^[22] This seasonal pattern aligns with environmental cues that favor reproductive activity, though sporadic blooming occurs year-round under suitable humid conditions.^[3] The inflorescences are axillary racemes or panicles bearing several to many flowers, typically 10 to 50 in number, arranged in a non-whorled, rotate fashion.^[22] Flowers are predominantly hermaphroditic (bisexual), measuring 1 to 2.5 cm in diameter, with smaller male flowers occasionally present on the same tree.^[3] The perianth forms an open cup-shaped structure, white or cream-colored with dark red markings at the base for visual attraction; the calyx lobes are united for nearly half their length, and the stamens are fused into a short central column bearing anthers.^[22] These features, including nectar production, serve to attract pollinators, though detailed nectar chemistry remains undescribed in primary sources. Pollination in Cola acuminata is primarily entomophilous, facilitated by insects such as bees, flies, and midges (Forcipomyia spp.), which transfer sticky pollen between flowers.^[22] The species displays self-incompatibility, a genetic mechanism that promotes outcrossing and requires cross-pollination for successful fertilization, as evidenced by low natural fruit set rates of 10-20% compared to up to 33% under artificial cross-pollination.^[22] This reproductive strategy contributes to genetic diversity but limits yield in natural stands, where pollinator activity and flower density influence outcomes.

Fruits and Seeds

The fruits of Cola acuminata develop following pollination and form star-shaped clusters of typically up to 5 woody follicles, each measuring 10-20 cm in length and featuring a brown-mottled exterior with longitudinal ridges.^[3] These dehiscent follicles ripen approximately 5-6 months after pollination, transitioning from green to a paler hue indicative of maturity.^[23] Upon ripening, the follicles naturally split open along their sutures to release the contained seeds, facilitating dispersal in natural habitats.^[15] The seeds, commonly known as kola nuts, consist primarily of the cotyledons and are flat, ovoid structures typically 3-5 cm long, 2-4 cm wide, and 1-1.5 cm thick.^[3] Fresh seeds exhibit a pink to red coloration, though white varieties occur, and they possess a distinctly bitter taste due to high levels of tannins and alkaloids.^[2] Each follicle contains 4-10 seeds, arranged in two rows and surrounded by a thin white seed coat that is often removed post-harvest.^[24]^[3] As recalcitrant seeds, they are desiccation-sensitive and maintain viability for only 2-3 weeks when fresh, necessitating immediate planting or storage in moist, shaded conditions such as wrapped in banana leaves to prevent rapid deterioration.^[25] Nutritionally, the seeds feature a moisture content of about 3.4%, crude protein around 12%, and contain starch granules; compared to those of Cola nitida, the seeds of C. acuminata are generally smaller and more bitter.^[26]^[27]

Cultivation and Production

Growing Requirements

Cola acuminata thrives in tropical climates with a mean annual temperature ranging from 23°C to 35°C and annual rainfall between 1,200 and 1,800 mm, distributed over a well-defined wet season; it requires protection from frost, with a minimum temperature tolerance of 13°C, corresponding to USDA hardiness zones 10–12.^[2]^[28]^[3] Native to the humid forests of West Africa, the species has been successfully cultivated in similar equatorial regions worldwide under these conditions.^[15] The plant prefers well-drained, fertile loamy or sandy soils with a pH of 5.5–7.0, though it can tolerate clay soils provided they do not become waterlogged; deep soils rich in humus are ideal for root development and sustained productivity.^[28]^[2]^[29] High pH levels above 7.0 should be avoided, as they inhibit growth.^[2] For optimal canopy development and fruit yield, Cola acuminata requires full sun to partial shade exposure; in cultivation, trees are typically spaced 5–8 meters apart to accommodate their mature height of up to 20 meters and prevent overcrowding.^[28]^[3]^[15] Young plants benefit from moderate irrigation to maintain consistent soil moisture, while mature trees exhibit drought resistance and can survive dry seasons with access to groundwater; applying organic mulch around the base helps retain soil moisture and suppress weeds.^[2]^[3]^[30] Fertilization should emphasize nitrogen-rich applications during vegetative growth phases to promote robust stem and leaf development, transitioning to balanced NPK formulations (such as 15-15-15) for fruiting stages; excess phosphorus should be avoided in soils where natural levels already exceed critical thresholds of 3.7 mg/kg to prevent nutrient imbalances.^[31]^[32]^[33] Organic amendments, including poultry manure or blended composts, have been shown to enhance soil fertility and seedling vigor comparably to synthetic NPK in degraded sites.^[34]^[35]

Propagation and Harvesting

Cola acuminata is primarily propagated by seeds, which must be sown fresh due to their recalcitrant nature and sensitivity to desiccation.^[25] Fresh seeds are typically planted in nurseries using a 1:1 (v/v) mixture of forest topsoil and river sand as the optimal substrate, achieving germination rates up to 97% over a period of about 45 days at temperatures around 22°C.^[25] Photoperiod does not significantly affect germination, with similar success under 12 hours of light per day or continuous darkness.^[25] Scarification is not required, though soaking fresh seeds in water can enhance germination success to 50-70% in less optimal conditions.^[3] Vegetative propagation is also employed, particularly for selected varieties, using methods such as cuttings or air layering (marcottage).^[3] Cuttings are germinated in boxes or polythene bags filled with topsoil and sand, offering a preferred means to multiply desirable strains like the white-seeded type.^[3] Air layering on orthotropic branches of 4.0-4.9 cm diameter yields the highest rooting rates, up to 82%, with roots forming from the sixth week and full development by the fourth month.^[36] Trees propagated from seeds reach first fruiting in about 7 years and full maturity around 20 years, while vegetatively propagated plants, such as those from grafts or air layers, fruit in 2-3 years.^[3] Harvesting of Cola acuminata occurs manually between April and June, when pods are ripe, by collecting fallen fruits from the ground or using curved knives attached to long poles to cut pods from the tree.^[3] Mature trees yield approximately 300 seeds annually after reaching peak production around year 20.^[3] Post-harvest handling involves splitting the pods, soaking the nuts in clean water for 24 hours, removing the testa, washing, and air-drying them on perforated trays for 48 hours to reduce moisture and prevent molding.^[37] Dried nuts can be stored in ventilated containers lined with leaves or polyethylene for up to 1 month, maintaining quality with minimal weight loss and pest incidence when using protective linings like Newbouldia laevis leaves.^[37]

Pests and Diseases

Cola acuminata cultivation faces challenges from various pests and diseases that can reduce yields. Major insect pests include kola weevils (Balanogastris kolae), stem borers, pod borers, and fruit flies, which damage pods and seeds. Fungal diseases such as those caused by Fomes lignosus and other pathogens affect roots and stems. Management involves integrated pest management practices, including regular monitoring, use of resistant varieties, and organic controls, though low yields persist due to these factors and inadequate technology as of 2024.^[3]^[38]^[39]

Chemical Composition

Primary Compounds

The seeds of Cola acuminata are rich in xanthine alkaloids, with caffeine being the predominant compound at concentrations ranging from 1.5% to 3.2% of dry weight, averaging approximately 2.5%, and primarily concentrated in the cotyledons where it serves as a central nervous system stimulant.^[26] Other alkaloids include theobromine at 0.0076–0.1277% and traces of theophylline, alongside kolanin, a bitter glycoside that hydrolyzes into glucose and caffeine.^[26]^[40] Phenolic compounds are also significant, including catechin at 0.7–2.4% and proanthocyanidins, contributing to the seed's astringent properties.^[26] The proximate composition reveals carbohydrates at around 50%, proteins at 12%, and fats ranging from 1% to 16%, with minerals such as potassium (1.01–1.47%) and magnesium (0.2–0.27%) present in notable amounts.^[26]^[41] Caffeine content in C. acuminata seeds has been reported as 1.5–2.5% in some studies, compared to 1.0–1.9% in C. nitida, though broader reviews indicate variation and sometimes lower levels in C. acuminata due to genetic and environmental factors.^[42] Processing affects these compounds; drying leads to the formation of caffeine-catechin complexes and hydrolysis of unstable glycosides like colatin-caffeine, reducing free caffeine levels, while fermentation can further degrade phenolics and alkaloids through enzymatic oxidation.^[26] Caffeine isolation from C. acuminata seeds typically involves solvent extraction methods, such as maceration with ethanol or dichloromethane followed by liquid-liquid partitioning to separate the alkaloid from other constituents.^[43]

Pharmacological Effects

The primary pharmacological effects of Cola acuminata seeds stem from their methylxanthine alkaloids, particularly caffeine, which acts as a central nervous system stimulant by antagonizing adenosine receptors, leading to heightened alertness, improved cognitive performance, and mild euphoria in humans.^[26] These effects are dose-dependent, with a typical intake equivalent to 200-400 mg of caffeine—corresponding to approximately 2-4 nuts—enhancing mental focus and physical endurance without significant adverse reactions in healthy adults.^[26] Caffeine also promotes increased metabolism by stimulating lipolysis and thermogenesis, contributing to appetite suppression observed in both human and animal models.^[4] Cardiovascular effects are influenced by trace amounts of theobromine, a mild vasodilator that relaxes vascular smooth muscle and may aid in blood pressure regulation by counteracting caffeine's vasoconstrictive tendencies at moderate doses.^[44] In isolated rat heart preparations, low concentrations of seed extracts (2-10 mg/mL) elevate heart rate by 30-47% and contractile force by 40-60%, supporting potential benefits for circulation while higher doses risk arrhythmias.^[26] Antioxidant properties arise from phenolic compounds such as catechins, which scavenge free radicals and reduce oxidative stress in cellular models, protecting erythrocytes from lipid peroxidation in vitro.^[26] Additionally, decaffeinated extracts exhibit anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting neutrophil elastase, a key enzyme in inflammatory responses, suggesting mechanisms beyond caffeine for modulating immune-related pathways.^[26] Toxicity concerns primarily relate to excessive caffeine intake, with overconsumption exceeding 10 nuts per day (approximately 1,000 mg caffeine) potentially causing insomnia, tachycardia, and gastrointestinal distress; however, moderate use aligns with World Health Organization guidelines for caffeine safety (up to 400 mg daily for adults). Subchronic rodent studies at high doses (57 mg/kg extract every other day for 18 weeks) reveal reduced body weight, organ hypertrophy, and behavioral alterations, indicating cumulative risks with prolonged exposure.^[26] Animal studies further elucidate these effects, with subchronic administration of seed extracts to rats resulting in reduced body weight, consistent with appetite-suppressive actions mediated by central nervous system stimulation.^[26] Extracts also demonstrate antimicrobial activity in vitro and in rodent models, inhibiting growth of pathogens such as Escherichia coli through disruption of bacterial cell membranes, highlighting potential prophylactic applications.^[45]

Uses and Applications

Culinary and Traditional Uses

In West Africa, particularly in countries like Nigeria, Ghana, and Côte d'Ivoire, the seeds of Cola acuminata, known as kola nuts, are traditionally chewed fresh to release caffeine and other stimulants, providing a quick burst of energy to combat fatigue during labor-intensive activities such as farming or long-distance travel.^[46] This practice is deeply embedded in social rituals, where nuts are shared among groups to foster hospitality, seal agreements, or mark communal gatherings, often bitten into small pieces and masticated slowly to savor the initial bitterness that transitions to a mildly sweet aftertaste.^[11]^[46] Kola nuts are also incorporated into various beverages, where they are ground and infused into teas or porridges for daily consumption, or fermented to produce traditional drinks like kola wine, which combines the nuts' alkaloids with local sweeteners for a stimulating tonic.^[46]^[14] Historically, extracts from Cola acuminata served as the flavor base for early commercial cola sodas, including the original Coca-Cola formula developed in 1886 by pharmacist John Pemberton, which used kola nut essence alongside coca leaf for its invigorating qualities.^[46] In culinary applications, the nuts are roasted and pounded into pastes that flavor soups or stews, while the reddish seed coats provide a natural dye for coloring foods.^[46] To mitigate the inherent bitterness, preparations often involve mixing ground kola with honey, sugar, or other sweeteners, enhancing palatability for broader use in diets reliant on staple crops.^[46] Additionally, smoking the nuts over wood fires extends their shelf life, allowing transport and storage in humid tropical climates without rapid spoilage, thus supporting their role as a portable energy source in resource-limited settings.^[46] Overall, these uses underscore Cola acuminata's contribution to nutritional sustenance, delivering readily available carbohydrates and stimulants to sustain physical endurance in traditional West African lifestyles.^[46]

Medicinal and Industrial Uses

In traditional medicine among the Yoruba and Igbo communities of Nigeria, decoctions of Cola acuminata nuts and bark are commonly used to treat digestive issues such as stomach upset, indigestion, and dysentery.^[47]^[48] Animal studies have supported anti-diabetic claims, showing that aqueous extracts of C. acuminata leaves significantly reduce blood glucose levels in alloxan-induced diabetic rats, comparable to glibenclamide.^[49] In modern pharmacology, extracts of C. acuminata nuts, rich in caffeine, are incorporated into dietary supplements to promote weight loss by suppressing appetite and boosting energy levels.^[50] The caffeine content also serves as a natural source in certain pharmaceuticals, historically contributing to stimulant formulations before widespread synthetic production.^[51] Industrially, the wood of C. acuminata provides a valuable resource for timber in furniture, house construction, and boat building, while also serving as an efficient fuelwood in rural African settings.^[2]^[21] Gum extracted from the pods exhibits mucoadhesive properties suitable for pharmaceutical adhesives and sustained-release drug delivery systems.^[52] Nut extracts are utilized in cosmetics for their skin-conditioning and antioxidant effects, acting as soothing agents in formulations.^[53]

Cultural and Economic Importance

Role in African Societies

In West African societies, particularly among the Igbo of Nigeria and the Akan of Ghana, Cola acuminata nuts hold profound ceremonial significance, often offered as symbols of hospitality, peace, and agreement during key social events. In Igbo traditions, the nuts are presented at weddings, funerals, and communal gatherings to invoke blessings and foster unity, with the breaking of the kola nut serving as a ritual to welcome guests and settle disputes.^[54] Similarly, among the Akan, C. acuminata is valued in rituals for its role in mediating conflicts and honoring ancestors, though Cola nitida is more prevalent; the nuts symbolize goodwill and are shared to affirm social bonds.^[54] These practices underscore the nut's role as a bridge between the human and spiritual realms, essential to maintaining communal harmony. Economically, C. acuminata nuts functioned as a substitute for currency in pre-colonial West African trade networks, known as "kola money" in markets where they were exchanged for goods like salt, cloth, and livestock. In regions such as southern Nigeria and Ghana, the nuts' portability and enduring value made them a staple in barter systems, facilitating long-distance commerce across forest and savanna zones.^[46] Communities protected kola groves as sacred sites, associating the trees with longevity and protection in folklore; for instance, planting a kola tree at a child's birth symbolizes enduring life and prosperity.^[3] Gender dynamics in C. acuminata use reflect traditional divisions, with men typically controlling trade and the breaking of nuts in public rituals, while women often prepare and present them during ceremonies. In Igbo society, women assess nut quality for offerings but are excluded from the breaking rite, which is reserved for elder males to ensure spiritual efficacy. Despite these roles, women have historically participated in kola trading in some areas, contributing to economic vitality.^[54] Urbanization has led to a decline in traditional kola nut chewing and daily rituals in West African cities, as modern lifestyles favor processed stimulants over the labor-intensive preparation of fresh nuts. However, the practice persists in festivals, weddings, and funerals, where it reinforces cultural identity amid changing social structures.^[55]

Global Economic Impact

Nigeria dominates the global production of kola nuts (primarily from C. acuminata and C. nitida), accounting for approximately 53% of the world's supply with an output of around 189,000 metric tons annually as of 2023.^[56]^[57] Global production was approximately 327,000 metric tons in 2024.^[58] The international trade in kola nuts reached a value of $18.7 million in 2023, primarily driven by exports from Nigeria to markets in Europe, North America, and other regions where the nuts are used for flavoring in beverages and pharmaceuticals.^[59] These exports have grown significantly, with a 113% increase from 2022, reflecting rising demand in the global food and extract industries.^[59] Historically, the kola nut trade played a significant role in West African commerce after the British abolition of the slave trade in 1807, helping to compensate for revenue losses by facilitating legitimate trade networks.^[54] The nuts also inspired the modern cola beverage industry; the original Coca-Cola formula in the 1880s incorporated kola nut extract for its caffeine content and bitter flavor, but by the 1920s, synthetic caffeine had largely replaced the natural extract due to cost efficiency and supply consistency.^[60] Beyond West Africa, kola nuts are cultivated on plantations in Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire, which contribute about 8% and 19% of global production, respectively, while the species has been introduced to Brazil and Indonesia for diversification and local use.^[54]^[22]^[56] However, the crop faces challenges from climate change, which is projected to reduce suitable growing areas in Africa by altering rainfall patterns and temperatures, potentially impacting yields.^[61] The species is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, though local overexploitation in high-demand regions contributes to genetic erosion.^[1] Economically, production is dominated by smallholder farmers who lack access to advanced processing infrastructure, limiting value addition and export quality, which hinders overall market growth.^[62]

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Cola acuminata, is an evergreen tree of the family Malvaceae, native to tropical Africa; while Cola nitida belongs to the family Sterculiaceae. They are native ...
[30]
Cola acuminata Cola Nut, Kola, Bissy Nut PFAF Plant Database
### Cultivation Details for Cola acuminata
[31]
https://www.globalscienceresearchjournals.org/articles/kola-cultivation-and-its-effect-on-soil-fertility-status-of-selected-kolanut-plantations-in-ogun-state-nigeria.pdf
[32]
9 Outdoor Care Hacks for Kola Nut - Greg
Nov 26, 2024 · Well-draining, fertile soil with pH 6.0-7.0 promotes healthy kola nut growth. Sunlight Requirements. Ideal Exposure. Kola nut plants thrive ...
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[PDF] Kola cultivation and its effect on soil fertility status of selected kolanut ...
At present, the demand for. Kolanut exceeds its production hence there is a need to increase its total plantation acreage and nut yield per tree. This can be ...
[34]
[PDF] Varietal Response of Cola Species to Fertilizer Application on Field ...
Sep 11, 2023 · Canopy development was significantly higher under Cola acuminata treated with Super-gro followed by NPK with the control having the least.
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Comparative Evaluation of Different Organic Fertilizers on Soil
When compared with NPK 15-15-15 fertilizer, poultry manure treatment also increased the plant height, leaf area, stem girth, leaf number, root length and fresh.
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(PDF) Simple and Blended Organic Fertilizers Improve Fertility of ...
Simple and blended organic fertilizers improve fertility of degraded nursery soils for production of kolanut (Cola acuminate) seedlings in Nigeria.Missing: acuminata | Show results with:acuminata
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Evaluation of Sole and Amended Organic Fertilizers on Soil Fertility ...
In addition, it also increased the leaf N, P, K, Ca and Mg by 37%, 45%, 18%, 35%, and 15% respectively compared to the oil palm bunch ash (sole) treatment.
[38]
(PDF) Multiplication végétative de Cola acuminata (Pal. de Beauv ...
Jan 15, 2019 · La multiplication végétative (bouturage, marcottage et greffage) apparait comme une alternative durable (Degrande et Facheux, 2002 ; Paluku et ...
[39]
(PDF) Influence of rural processing methods and postharvest ...
Aug 6, 2025 · Quality changes of kola nut (Cola acuminata) as affected by processing methods and short-term storage environments were investigated.
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Chemical Analyses, Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activities of ...
Kola nuts are rich in xanthine alkaloids, such as theobromine, caffeine, kolatin and kolanin. While caffeine stimulates the body, kolatin stimulates the heart.
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Nutritional and Anti-Nutrient Composition of Three Kola Nuts ( Cola ...
Protein content of the three kola nuts ranges from 4.95% (G. kola) to 10.64% (C. acuminata) whereas fat content ranges from 0.2 ± 0.00 (C. nitida) to 2.5 ± 0.42 ...
[42]
(PDF) EXTRACTION OF CAFFEINE FROM COLANUT - Academia.edu
Cola acuminata yields 1.863% caffeine, while Cola nitida yields 1.437%. Extraction techniques include solid-liquid and liquid-liquid methods for caffeine.
[43]
Extraction of Caffeine from Native Kola-nut (cola -acuminate) using ...
Sep 9, 2020 · Solvent extraction using maceration is the most commonly reported method for extracting kola nut caffeine or polyphenol compounds (Lowor, 2008; ...
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Theobromine | C7H8N4O2 | CID 5429 - PubChem - NIH
theobromine is used as a vasodilator, a diuretic, and heart stimulant. And similar to caffeine, it may be useful in management of fatigue and orthostatic ...
[45]
(PDF) The Comparative Effects Of Chronic Consumption Of Kola Nut ...
Aug 6, 2025 · The results showed that chronic consumption of kola nut and caffeine diets caused decrease in food intake and body weight.
[46]
[PDF] The Antimicrobial Property of the Acetone Extract of Cola acuminata
Aug 29, 2019 · In the past few years, several studies have been conducted on the antimicrobial properties of natural medicinal plants [1-3]. Many of these ...Missing: rodent | Show results with:rodent
[47]
Kola nut: so much more than just a nut - PMC
1. Abaka E. Kola nut. · 2. Lovejoy PE. Kola nuts: the coffee of the central Sudan. · 3. Mokwunye FC. Functional Characterisation of Kola Nut Powder for Beverage ...
[48]
Ethnobotanical uses of plants in Nigeria: an analysis of current ...
Aug 21, 2025 · Kola nuts (Cola nitida, C. acuminata) are considered as valuable plant in Nigeria [88]. It is used for digestion, alertness, and social rituals ...
[49]
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/367981014_Antidiabetic_and_Antioxidative_Potentials_of_Aqueous_Extract_of_Cola_Acuminata_Leaves_in_Alloxan-Induced_Diabetes_Mellitus_in_Male_Albino_Rats
[50]
Antidiabetic and Antioxidative Potentials of Aqueous Extract of Cola ...
Aug 10, 2025 · Antidiabetic and Antioxidative Potentials of Aqueous Extract of Cola Acuminata Leaves in Alloxan-Induced Diabetes Mellitus in Male Albino Rats.
[51]
Cola Nut - Uses, Side Effects, and More - WebMD
People use cola nut for fatigue, depression, exhaustion, diarrhea, weight loss, migraine headaches, and many other conditions, but there is no good ...
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Multi-ingredient, Caffeine-containing Dietary Supplements
The appearance of carbonated soft drinks or colas in the early 20th century often used kola nut (Cola acuminata) as a flavoring agent and caffeine source, ...
[53]
https://www.makingcosmetics.com/Z-BOT-KOLA-01.html
[54]
Formulation and Evaluation of Cola acuminata Gum-based ...
Objective: This study aimed to evaluate Cola acuminata gum (CAG) for the formulation of mucoadhesive sustained-release matrix tablets of diclofenac sodium.
[55]
https://feelnubia.org.uk/index.php/2025/clay-pot-food/he-who-brings-kola/
[56]
Best Coffee Alternative: 9 Natural Foods With Caffeine - Superfoodly
Apr 22, 2019 · Deriving it from that source is much cheaper than the two types of kola nuts, Cola acuminata and Cola nitida. Examples include energy drinks ...Missing: overharvesting synthetic
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Kola Nut in Africa and the Diaspora - Oxford Research Encyclopedias
Oct 21, 2025 · In Nigeria, bitter kola (garcinia cola) is dried, grounded, and mixed with honey to form a cough medicine. The bark, leaves, and twigs of cola ...
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"He Who Brings Kola, Brings Life":The Symbolism of Kolanuts
Oct 25, 2025 · Discover why kola nuts are sacred in West Africa. From weddings ... The kola nut tradition varies beautifully across Africa: Among the ...The Sacred Kola Nut: One Of... · Regional Flavors Of... · Kola Nuts In The Modern...
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Global Kola Nuts Gross Production by Country - ReportLinker
In 2023, Nigeria led global kola nut production, followed by Ivory Coast, Cameroon, Ghana, Sierra Leone, and Benin. Nigeria's production was 126,120.
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Nuts, edible: kola nuts (Cola spp.), fresh or dried, whether or not ...
In 2023, global trade of kola nuts reached $18.7M, with Nigeria as top exporter and Bahrain as top importer. Trade grew 113% from 2022.
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The little-known nut that gave Coca-Cola its name - BBC
Sep 23, 2016 · In West Africa, the kola nut's native habitat, people have long chewed them as stimulants. That's because the nuts contain caffeine and ...
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A Global Estimation of Potential Climate Change Effects on ...
Oct 22, 2024 · The projected changes in crop suitability across Africa pose multifaceted challenges. The substantial decrease in Cola acuminata suitability ...
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Category:Cola acuminata - Wikimedia Commons
Nov 3, 2023 · Schott & Endl. The Plant List link: Cola acuminata (P.Beauv.) ... IUCN conservation status. Least Concern. Common name. Expand. English ...
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[PDF] Review Article THE CHALLENGES OF KOLANUTS PROCESSING ...
In recent years, kolanuts are exported to Europe and North America for flavouring kola drinks and for use in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals.