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Common buzzard

The Common buzzard (Buteo buteo) is a medium-sized bird of prey in the family Accipitridae, measuring 40–58 cm in length with a wingspan of 109–136 cm and weighing 427–1,364 g, notable for its highly variable plumage ranging from dark brown to rufous or pale morphs across individuals and subspecies.^[1]^[2] Widespread across the Palearctic from Europe to northwestern China and parts of northern Africa and Asia, it occupies diverse habitats including woodland edges, moorlands, pastures, agricultural landscapes, and coastal areas, often nesting in trees or on cliffs while hunting over open ground.^[1]^[2] As an opportunistic carnivore, it primarily feeds on small mammals like rabbits and rodents, supplemented by birds, carrion, earthworms, and insects, employing techniques such as soaring on thermals or perching to spot prey.^[1]^[2] Breeding from March to May, pairs are typically monogamous and territorial, laying 2–4 eggs in a nest of sticks, with incubation lasting 33–38 days and fledging at 50–60 days; many populations are resident, though northern ones migrate short to long distances to winter in Africa or the Indian subcontinent.^[1]^[2] The global population comprises 2–3.5 million mature individuals and is increasing overall, classified as Least Concern by the IUCN, though it faces localized threats from persecution, poisoning, collisions with infrastructure, and habitat loss due to agricultural intensification.^[2]

Taxonomy

Etymology and classification history

The term "buzzard" originates from the Middle English "bosart," derived from Old French "busart" or "busard," which referred to a type of hawk or harrier, ultimately tracing back to Latin "buteo," a word imitating the bird's shrill cry.^[3] The common buzzard was first formally described by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae in 1758, under the binomial name Falco buteo within the genus Falco, which at the time encompassed a broad array of diurnal birds of prey. The species was later reassigned to the genus Buteo, established by French naturalist Bernard Germain de Lacépède in 1799 through tautonymy, reflecting morphological affinities with New World hawks characterized by broad wings and soaring flight.^[4] During the 19th century, ornithologists increasingly recognized the common buzzard as a core member of the Buteo lineage within the family Accipitridae, influenced by comparative studies of Old World and New World forms. Key revisions included the establishment of the subfamily Buteoninae by Nicholas Aylward Vigors in 1824, with Buteo as the type genus, emphasizing anatomical similarities among buzzards and allies. In modern taxonomy, the common buzzard is classified in the order Accipitriformes, formalized by Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot in 1816 and upheld by phylogenetic analyses confirming its placement in Accipitridae based on molecular and morphological data.^[5]

Subspecies and taxonomic debates

The common buzzard (Buteo buteo) is recognized as comprising 6–8 subspecies by most authorities, though this varies with taxonomic treatments that elevate certain forms to full species status; these subspecies exhibit geographic variation primarily in size, plumage coloration, and tail patterns, adapted to diverse Palearctic environments from Atlantic islands to central Asia. Key examples include the nominate B. b. buteo, which inhabits western Europe and Madeira with variable brown, black, or white plumage and minimal rufous tones; B. b. vulpinus (Steppe buzzard), found from Finland eastward to the Yenisey River and south to the Caucasus and central Asia, characterized by smaller size, rusty underparts, and faintly barred tails; and B. b. arrigonii, restricted to Corsica and Sardinia, featuring medium-brown upperparts and heavy streaking on underparts. Other notable subspecies are B. b. rothschildi in the Azores, with medium-brown upperparts and dark-brown underparts; B. b. insularum in the Canary Islands, similar to arrigonii but slightly larger; and B. b. menetriesi in the southern Crimea, Caucasus, eastern Turkey, and northern Iran, which is larger than vulpinus but shares its rusty tones. The form in the Cape Verde Islands (B. bannermani), displaying dark-rufous brown plumage, a distinct tail pattern, and absence of a pale upperwing panel, is treated as a subspecies of B. buteo by some authorities but elevated to full species status (Cape Verde buzzard, B. bannermani) by others, including the IOC World Bird List, based on genetic and morphological isolation.^[6] Taxonomic debates center on the monophyly of B. buteo, with evidence suggesting incomplete lineage sorting and gene flow across forms, complicating subspecies boundaries.^[7] In particular, the eastern subspecies B. b. vulpinus and B. b. menetriesi (collectively the Steppe buzzard) have been proposed for elevation to full species status (B. vulpinus) based on differences in vocalizations (mewing calls versus the miawing of western forms), genetics (though divergence is low, indicating recent radiation), and migratory behavior (long-distance migration to sub-Saharan Africa and southern Asia versus partial or no migration in buteo). Studies from the 2020s, including phylogenetic analyses of the genus Buteo, question the overall monophyly of B. buteo due to shared haplotypes across purported subspecies and hybridization in overlap zones, such as Central Europe where buteo and vulpinus intergrade. Recent genetic research provides insights into post-glacial recolonization patterns within subspecies. A 2024 study of Irish populations, which went extinct around 1900 and recolonized since the 1960s, identified four mitochondrial haplotypes matching those in Britain, indicating multiple founding events from British sources linked to continental Europe, with neutral and non-neutral processes influencing current diversity.^[8] Hybridization occurs in overlap areas like Central Europe, where morphological intermediates between buteo and vulpinus are common, further blurring taxonomic lines.^[9]

Description

Physical characteristics

The common buzzard (Buteo buteo) is a medium-sized raptor measuring 40–52 cm in length with a wingspan of 110–140 cm.^[1] Adults typically weigh between 0.55 and 1.3 kg, reflecting a robust build suited to its predatory lifestyle.^[10] Sexual dimorphism is evident, with females approximately 5–10% larger than males in body size and mass, an adaptation common in raptors that may facilitate role division during breeding.^[11] Anatomically, the species features broad wings that enable efficient soaring on thermals, conserving energy during long flights over varied terrains.^[12] The tail is relatively short and square-tipped, aiding precise maneuvering when pursuing prey in dense woodland environments.^[12] Its hooked bill, averaging 2–2.4 cm in length, is designed for tearing flesh from captured animals.^[1] Strong talons, capable of exerting significant grip force, allow the bird to seize and subdue small to medium-sized vertebrates.^[13] The skeletal structure is notably robust, with reinforced trunk bones supporting powerful perching and sudden pounces on prey, a key adaptation distinguishing Buteo species for opportunistic hunting in forested or semi-wooded areas.^[13] Muscular development in the legs and wings further enhances this capability, enabling bursts of speed during attacks. In the wild, common buzzards have an average lifespan of 8–10 years, though maximum recorded longevity reaches 28.8 years; in captivity, individuals can exceed 30 years.^[14]^[15] Cruising flight speeds range from 40–50 km/h, while dives can attain up to 100 km/h to intercept prey.^[16]

Plumage variation and molt

The common buzzard (Buteo buteo) displays considerable plumage polymorphism, with coloration varying continuously along a light-to-dark gradient rather than forming discrete categories.^[17] This variation is traditionally described using three morphs: light (rufous-tailed with pale underparts), intermediate (mixed tones with partial streaking), and dark (overall sooty brown with heavy dark streaking on the breast and dark head).^[18] The dark morph is uncommon, occurring at frequencies below 10% in central European populations such as those in Germany and the Netherlands.^[19] Distinctive underside patterns include a barred tail with a dark terminal band and pale carpal patches on the underwing, which are more prominent in lighter morphs.^[18] Regional differences in plumage are linked to subspecies and habitat, with paler forms predominant in open steppe environments, as seen in B. b. vulpinus.^[1] In contrast, darker individuals are more frequent in forested areas. Age-related changes are subtle; juveniles exhibit more uniform streaking on the underparts and paler overall tones compared to adults, with plumage darkening gradually by about 6% in lightness from first to later years, though individual morph assignment remains stable over time.^[17] Within local populations, coloration can vary by up to 20% in terms of feather lightness, reflecting genetic and environmental influences.^[17] The molt cycle is annual and primarily post-breeding, commencing in May or June after nesting concludes and extending through October or November in European populations, with a duration of approximately 5–6 months.^[20] During this period, flight feathers are replaced, starting with the primaries in a distal-to-proximal sequence, though the process is incomplete annually, with adults replacing about 64% of primaries, 49% of secondaries, and 88% of rectrices.^[20] Juveniles undertake a partial first molt in their second calendar year, beginning with body feathers in November of the first year and flight feathers in March–April, retaining 2–5 outer primaries and some secondaries until subsequent cycles; this initial molt is symmetrical but becomes asymmetrical and less predictable in adults after the second year.^[21] In southern European areas, molt onset is earlier in females (often within 30 days of chick hatching) than in males, potentially tied to local prey availability and non-migratory behavior.^[20]

Similar species

The common buzzard (Buteo buteo) can be confused with several other raptors due to overlapping plumage variations and similar soaring flight styles, particularly within the genus Buteo. In Europe, the primary look-alikes include the rough-legged buzzard (Buteo lagopus), which is larger, with length of 46–60 cm and wingspan of 120–150 cm, and paler overall with heavily feathered legs extending to the toes, a white tail tipped with a broad black subterminal band, and longer wings that create a distinct flattened "hand" silhouette in flight; the European honey-buzzard (Pernis apivorus), which is slimmer with a longer neck and more pointed wings, often mimicking the common buzzard's brown plumage but distinguished by its narrower, more elongated head and a longer, rounded tail lacking the common buzzard's short, broad, square-ended tail; and the much smaller common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus, 32-39 cm), a falcon that hovers actively while hunting rather than soaring like buzzards.^[22]^[23]^[24] Diagnostic features for field identification emphasize structural and pattern differences. The common buzzard typically shows prominent black carpal patches on the underwing, a rounded tail with fine barring, and a more compact body shape compared to the rough-legged buzzard's conspicuous white-uppertail coverts and less bold carpal patches, especially in adult males; size overlaps exist (common buzzard 40-58 cm), but the rough-legged's bulkier build and paler head aid separation. Against the honey-buzzard, the common buzzard's broader wings and shorter tail provide key contrasts, with underwing patterns showing denser, more uniform streaking rather than the honey-buzzard's cleaner, barred appearance; vocalizations also differ, with the common buzzard's mewing "pee-oo" call being sharper and more frequent than the honey-buzzard's whistling notes. The kestrel is readily distinguished by its smaller size, pointed wings, and hovering foraging behavior, lacking the buzzard's gliding flight.^[25]^[26]^[27] Regionally, identification challenges vary. In Asia, the common buzzard may be mistaken for the Himalayan buzzard (Buteo refectus), which shares similar size and plumage but has a more uniformly dark underbody and straighter trailing edge to the wings in flight. In Africa, where the common buzzard occurs as a winter visitor, confusion arises with migrant steppe buzzards (Buteo buteo vulpinus, a subspecies) and closely related species like the mountain buzzard (Buteo oreophilus), which exhibit paler, more rufous tones and finer tail barring; forest buzzards (Buteo trizonatus) add complexity with their darker, barred underparts.^[1]^[28] Field identification tips focus on plumage, structure, and behavior observed in flight or perched. Soaring common buzzards display a shallow dihedral with hands held slightly forward, contrasting the rough-legged buzzard's more pronounced wrist bend and the honey-buzzard's slacker wing angle; perched birds show the common buzzard's shorter, stouter legs versus the feathered, longer tarsi of the rough-legged. Common misidentifications in European surveys often involve pale morph common buzzards being logged as rough-legged in winter (up to 20% confusion in some volunteer counts due to vagrancy) or juvenile honey-buzzards as common buzzards during migration, highlighting the need for multiple views including underwing and tail details.^[24]

Distribution and habitat

Geographic distribution

The common buzzard (Buteo buteo) has a broad breeding distribution across the Palearctic region, spanning most of Europe from Iceland and the British Isles eastward to the Urals and Caucasus Mountains, extending into Asia as far as [Lake Baikal](/page/Lake Baikal) in Siberia and south to the Himalayas and northern Iran, with additional populations in northwest Africa from Morocco to Tunisia.^[1]^[2] In Europe, the species is particularly widespread, occupying diverse landscapes from Scandinavia to the Mediterranean, while Asian populations favor temperate forests and steppes. Recent expansions include the recolonization of Ireland, where the bird was believed extinct by 1900 due to persecution and habitat loss but has re-established breeding populations since the 1960s, primarily through natural dispersal from Britain.^[8] During winter, northern and eastern populations undertake partial migration, with birds from Scandinavia and much of the former Soviet Union moving to southern Europe, the Sahel region of Africa, and southward to South Africa, as well as the Middle East and Indian subcontinent.^[2]^[1] Southern and western populations are largely resident, though some individuals may shift to milder areas within their range. Vagrant records occur sporadically outside the core range, including in the Faroe Islands and parts of sub-Saharan Africa such as Cameroon and Gambia.^[2] Historically, the common buzzard's range expanded post-glacially across Europe and Asia following the retreat of ice sheets around 10,000–12,000 years ago, allowing colonization of newly available habitats from southern refugia.^[29] Local extinctions, such as in Ireland before 1900, reflect human impacts like gamekeeping, but recoveries have been notable in some areas, such as Ireland and the United Kingdom, where populations have increased over the past three decades due to reduced persecution and habitat management.^[8]^[30] Global population estimates stand at approximately 2–3.5 million mature individuals (as of 2018), with Europe accounting for about 75% (882,000–1,230,000 breeding pairs); densities are among the highest in the United Kingdom, reaching up to 22 pairs per 100 km² in central southern England.^[2]^[31]

Habitat preferences

The common buzzard (Buteo buteo) inhabits a diverse array of environments across its range, favoring landscapes that combine wooded areas with open ground suitable for hunting and nesting. Preferred habitats include open woodlands, forest edges, farmland mosaics, moorlands, and semi-open rural areas, where it can exploit both cover and visibility for prey detection. It avoids densely urbanized regions lacking suitable trees and extreme arid deserts without vegetation structure, as these lack the necessary nesting and perching opportunities.^[2]^[32] Nesting sites are typically selected in mature trees, such as birches or other deciduous species, often within 30-90 meters of forest openings or woodland edges to balance seclusion and access to foraging areas rich in small mammals. The species shows high adaptability to human-modified landscapes, utilizing hedgerows, plantations, and agricultural field margins for breeding, provided there is proximity to prey-abundant open spaces. In Europe, breeding pairs occur commonly in mixed farmland-woodland habitats, highlighting its reliance on such heterogeneous environments.^[32]^[2]^[33] The common buzzard occupies altitudinal ranges from sea level to approximately 2,000 meters in montane forests and occurs in climates spanning temperate to subtropical zones, with a tolerance for mild winters that support year-round residency in much of its European distribution. Agricultural intensification, including habitat fragmentation and loss of semi-natural features like hedgerows, has been linked to reduced suitability in some areas, as noted in studies of landscape changes affecting raptor nesting success.^[2]^[34]

Behavior

The Common buzzard exhibits diurnal activity patterns, remaining active from dawn until dusk, with hunting peaks typically occurring in the early morning and late afternoon.^[35] Individuals spend much of the day soaring over open ground or perching to scan for prey, covering territories through these routines while roosting communally or solitarily in trees or cliffs at night. Activity levels decrease during adverse weather conditions, such as rain, which limits visibility and foraging efficiency.^[36] Socially, the common buzzard is largely solitary or forms stable pairs outside of breeding periods, maintaining year-round territoriality where resident pairs defend core areas against intruders, displacing non-breeders into marginal habitats.^[37] Pair bonds are often long-term, with assortative mating by plumage morph contributing to their stability and duration spanning multiple years.^[19] Juveniles may engage in play behaviors, including aerial acrobatics, to develop hunting skills within their natal territories.^[35]

Migration and movements

The common buzzard (Buteo buteo) exhibits partial migration, with northern and eastern populations undertaking seasonal movements while western and southern ones remain largely resident. Individuals from Nordic regions, such as Sweden and Estonia, typically depart breeding grounds in late August to early November, peaking in September–October, and return from early March to late April. In contrast, populations in milder climates, including much of western Europe, show minimal displacement, with many birds staying within their natal areas year-round.^[38]^[9]^[30] Migratory routes are predominantly overland, following thermal corridors and mountain ranges, with eastern subspecies like the steppe buzzard (B. b. vulpinus) funneling through key bottlenecks such as the Strait of Gibraltar, where spring passage involved several thousand individuals in the 1960s and 1970s, though numbers have declined by nearly 80% by the early 2000s due to shifts in wintering ranges. Scandinavian birds often head southwest across continental Europe, with some undertaking sea crossings over the North Sea or Baltic; average migration distances range from 1,000 to 3,000 km, as evidenced by ring recoveries from Estonian breeders wintering in France, Poland, and Iberia. Recent GPS tracking of a steppe buzzard individual confirmed stopover use in Iberia during southward journeys, highlighting refueling sites amid longer overland segments.^[39]^[40]^[9]^[41]^[42] Movements are influenced by weather conditions, including favorable winds and thermals for soaring flight, as well as food availability, with irruptive dispersal occurring in years of prey scarcity to exploit better foraging opportunities. Ringing data from the UK indicate that 20–50% of individuals undertake some southward movement, often short-distance, though most juveniles remain within 20 km of natal sites. These patterns underscore the species' flexibility, balancing residency with adaptive migration to optimize survival across variable environments.^[38]^[43]^[30]^[44]

Vocalizations and displays

The common buzzard (Buteo buteo) possesses a varied vocal repertoire primarily consisting of plaintive mewing calls, often rendered as "pee-oo" or "pee-yow," which serve as the species' most characteristic sound. These calls are typically delivered during flight or near the nest and function as alarm signals to deter intruders or alert mates and offspring to potential threats. Juveniles produce higher-pitched variants of these mews as begging calls to solicit food from parents, differing in tone and intensity from adult vocalizations. In flight, individuals may emit softer, cat-like mews, particularly in subspecies such as the steppe buzzard (B. b. vulpinus), which can sound shorter and more nasal compared to the nominate form.^[1]^[45]^[46] Vocalizations play a key role in display functions, especially during the breeding season when birds become more vocal overall. Territorial calls, often sharper and more insistent versions of the mewing note, are used to defend breeding areas against rivals, accompanying aggressive postures like raised feathers and wing-beating during disputes. Courtship involves elaborate aerial displays known as sky-dancing, where males soar high, perform steep dives, and circle while emitting repeated mewing calls to attract females; these displays may culminate in synchronized flight with the pair. In territorial chases, buzzards engage in pursuit flights, sometimes incorporating wing-spreading or clapping motions to intimidate opponents, though physical contact like talon-locking is rare.^[1]^[47] Acoustic analysis reveals that common buzzard calls generally span a frequency range of approximately 0.6–7 kHz, with the primary mewing alarm call featuring a descending pitch from around 1.3 kHz to 0.6 kHz and lasting approximately 0.7 seconds. Call volume and pitch vary by context, becoming louder and more prolonged in defensive situations compared to routine communication. Subspecies differences include harsher, more croaking tones in forms like B. b. vulpinus during nest interactions. These vocal signals are integral to social communication, often occurring alongside visual displays in group contexts such as foraging areas.^[48]^[49]^[46]

Diet and foraging

Hunting techniques

The common buzzard primarily employs perch-hunting as its main foraging strategy, scanning for prey from elevated sites such as trees, poles, or fence posts while remaining relatively stationary to conserve energy.^[50] This sit-and-wait approach is predominant, accounting for the majority of observed behaviors during wintering periods, with flying activities (including soaring and hovering) comprising only about 5.8% of sightings. Soaring searches involve circling at heights up to 100 m to detect movement over open terrain, often transitioning into low-quartering flights or stoops for pursuit.^[50] Ground walking or standing is occasionally used in dense cover or snowy conditions to flush hidden prey.^[51] Birds rely on surprise dives and terrain features like hedges or ridges to ambush targets. Individual hunts often last 5-30 minutes from detection to capture, influenced by prey density and site changes that increase attack frequency.^[52] Key adaptations include exceptional eyesight, estimated at 8 times human visual acuity, enabling detection of small prey like rodents from altitudes of several hundred meters.^[53] Talons provide a powerful grasp, exerting up to 200 psi of force to secure struggling victims, comparable to related Buteo species.^[54] In winter, buzzards shift toward scavenging, frequently exploiting roadkill such as rabbits or small mammals along highways to supplement live hunting when conditions limit active foraging.^[55] These techniques primarily target small mammals and birds, adapting to local availability.^[56]

Prey spectrum

The common buzzard (Buteo buteo) is an opportunistic predator with a broad prey spectrum that varies regionally and seasonally, primarily consisting of small to medium-sized vertebrates, supplemented by invertebrates and carrion during periods of scarcity. Across its European range, mammals dominate the diet, comprising 50-70% of consumed items by number, though their biomass contribution can be lower due to the prevalence of larger avian prey. Diet analyses from regurgitated pellets and nest remains consistently reveal this adaptability, with over 30 prey species identified in single studies, reflecting the bird's generalist foraging strategy.^[57]^[58] Mammals form the core of the diet, often accounting for 57-73% of prey items, including voles (Microtus spp.), rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), shrews (Sorex spp.), and moles (Talpa europaea). Small rodents like field voles and bank voles are particularly important, representing up to 52% of items in forested and agricultural areas. Regional shifts occur, with higher proportions of hares (Lepus spp.) in open steppe-like habitats (4-11% of biomass), compared to more diverse small mammal intake in forests. In vole-scarce regions like Ireland, rabbits and rats become primary, comprising a significant portion of biomass.^[57]^[58]^[59]^[60] Birds constitute 10-24% of the diet by number but up to 60% of biomass due to their larger size, with opportunistic captures of pigeons (Columba livia), gamebirds like pheasants (Phasianus colchicus), and passerines such as jays (Garrulus glandarius), thrushes (Turdus spp.), and corvids. These are more prominent in areas with abundant avian populations, such as woodlands or farmlands.^[57]^[58]^[60] Reptiles and amphibians make up 5-15% of the diet in warmer or wetland-influenced regions, including lizards, slow-worms (Anguis fragilis), frogs (Rana temporaria), and toads (Bufo bufo). These are more frequently taken in southern or coastal areas, comprising up to 19% in some Norwegian studies.^[58]^[59] Invertebrates and other items, such as earthworms, insects, and carrion, account for 10-20% during lean periods or in suboptimal habitats, serving as supplementary food when vertebrate prey is scarce. Seasonal variations favor mammals, especially small rodents, in winter (up to 80-90% in Scottish moors), while breeding seasons may see increased avian and reptilian intake. Pellet analyses from multiple sites confirm these patterns, highlighting the buzzard's reliance on locally abundant resources.^[56]^[57]^[59]

Predatory interactions

The common buzzard engages in kleptoparasitism, occasionally stealing food from smaller raptors such as the Eurasian kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) and Barbary falcon (Falco peregrinus pelegrinoides), with documented cases involving prey like lizards and rock pigeons.^[61] This behavior is rare, with only isolated observations reported over decades of monitoring in regions like the Canary Islands.^[61] Common ravens (Corvus corax) may attempt kleptoparasitism on buzzards, prompting defensive responses such as aerial chases or mobbing by buzzards to protect captured prey.^[62] In food webs, the common buzzard experiences moderate dietary overlap with sympatric predators, particularly for small mammals like rodents, which form a core component of its diet.^[63] Niche overlap with the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) reaches approximately 62%, though the buzzard's trophic niche is narrower, focusing more on avian and mammalian prey in open habitats. With other raptors, such as the common kestrel, overlap is high on field rodents, exceeding that with corvids or owls.^[64] Sympatric species like short-toed eagles (Circaetus gallicus) exhibit multidimensional niche partitioning, with buzzards foraging at lower heights and during different times to reduce direct competition over shared small mammal resources.^[65] As a mid-level predator, the common buzzard faces threats from higher-tier predators, particularly during breeding. Eggs and chicks are vulnerable to predation by pine martens (Martes martes) and corvids like crows (Corvus corone), which access nests in trees or cliffs.^[62] Adult buzzards are rarely preyed upon, but northern goshawks (Accipiter gentilis) occasionally target them in intraguild predation, contributing to low mortality rates under 1% in studied populations.^[66] Larger eagles, wildcats (Felis silvestris), and foxes may also pose risks to perched or foraging adults, though such events remain infrequent.^[16] The common buzzard plays a key role in local ecosystems as a rodent controller, preying heavily on small mammals during population peaks to mitigate outbreaks.^[67] In agricultural and forest mosaics, it acts as a top or apex predator in up to 40% of studied habitats, influencing prey dynamics through direct predation and behavioral responses that limit rodent densities by 20-30% in high-abundance cycles.^[57] This top-down regulation supports biodiversity by reducing herbivory pressure on vegetation.^[68]

Reproduction

Breeding season and territories

The breeding season of the common buzzard (Buteo buteo) in most of Europe occurs from March to June, with courtship displays and egg-laying typically beginning in late March or early April as photoperiod increases and prey abundance rises.^[1]^[69] In southern Europe, where winters are milder, breeding commences earlier, often in February, enabling pairs to exploit seasonal food peaks sooner.^[70]^[71] Pairs establish and defend territories year-round, though defense intensifies prior to egg-laying through aerial displays and vocalizations to deter intruders.^[72] Territory size generally ranges from 1 to 5 km² per pair, varying with habitat quality and prey density to ensure sufficient foraging resources.^[71]^[57] Breeding density fluctuates from 0.1 to 8 pairs per 10 km² (1 to 80 pairs per 100 km²) across Europe, with higher concentrations (up to 8 pairs per 10 km²) in prey-rich lowland areas such as those in the UK, where abundant small mammals support closer nesting intervals.^[73] Common buzzards form monogamous pairs that typically reuse territories.^[72]

Nest construction and sites

Common buzzards typically select nest sites in mature woodland, favoring tall trees such as oaks, beeches, pines, and limes at heights ranging from 8 to 29 meters, with an average of about 18 meters, often positioned in the fork of the main trunk for stability.^[74] In open or deforested landscapes, they may utilize cliffs, crags, or even electricity pylons as alternative substrates, particularly in regions where suitable trees are scarce.^[75] Approximately 50% of nests are located within 200 meters of woodland edges, providing proximity to foraging areas while offering concealment from predators.^[76] Nest construction begins 2–4 weeks before egg-laying, typically in March, and involves both sexes working cooperatively over 10–14 days to form a bulky platform.^[77] The male primarily gathers sticks and twigs, while the female arranges them into a broad structure, often reusing and refurbishing old nests from previous seasons or those abandoned by corvids such as crows or rooks, which can constitute a significant portion of sites in shared habitats.^[78] The nest is lined with softer materials including bark, leaves, moss, and grass to create a cup-shaped depression. New nests measure roughly 60–100 cm in diameter and 20–60 cm in depth, though annual additions of branches enhance durability and can expand reused structures to over 1.5 meters across.^[79] These nests are vulnerable to environmental disturbances, with wind and storms causing an estimated 10–20% annual loss in exposed sites, particularly in younger or poorly maintained structures, prompting pairs to repair or relocate within their territory.^[80]

Eggs, incubation, and hatching

The female Common buzzard lays a clutch of 2–4 eggs, with an average of 2.5, though ranges of 1–6 eggs have been recorded across populations.^[1]^[81] The eggs are white, marked with red-brown spots, and measure approximately 56 × 45 mm.^[82]^[30] Eggs are laid at intervals of about 3 days, beginning soon after nest completion in spring.^[81] Incubation commences with the laying of the first egg and lasts 33–38 days until the last egg hatches.^[81]^[30] The female undertakes the majority of incubation duties, spending most of the period on the nest, while the male provides food to support her.^[81] Due to the laying intervals and early onset of incubation, hatching is asynchronous, with chicks emerging over 2–4 days.^[83] Hatching success is typically high at around 91% of eggs, but early mortality affects some broods, often due to predation or environmental factors.^[84] If the initial clutch fails early in the season, pairs may lay a replacement clutch, which is usually smaller and delayed compared to the first attempt.^[1]

Chick development and parental care

Upon hatching, common buzzard (Buteo buteo) chicks are covered in white down and remain highly dependent, with eyes opening around day 4. During the nestling phase, lasting 0–40 days, they undergo rapid growth, transitioning from downy altricial young to fully feathered juveniles capable of thermoregulation. Chicks fledge between 40 and 50 days of age, typically attempting their first flight around day 45, though they continue to return to or near the nest site for 2–3 weeks post-fledging while honing flight skills. Full independence is achieved at 80–100 days, marking the end of the post-fledging dependence period when juveniles disperse from parental territories.^[85]^[86]^[87] Parental care is sexually dimorphic, with the female handling most brooding duties during the initial 0–8 days to maintain chick warmth and protection, while the male focuses on hunting and provisioning, delivering a combined total of 200–300 g of prey per day to the brood as nestlings grow. As chicks develop, the female increasingly joins in foraging, achieving parity in prey delivery by around day 25, which allows her to reduce nest attendance to brief periods. Provisioning shifts toward softer, more digestible items for young chicks, such as small mammals, amphibians, earthworms, and insects, contrasting with the harder prey adults consume. The total energy investment in rearing a brood equates to roughly 10 times an adult's daily metabolic needs, reflecting the high demands of growth and protection.^[85]^[88]^[89] Development includes notable milestones, such as initial mobility by day 10 and aggressive interactions among siblings. Sibling aggression, or cainism, arises in approximately 20% of multi-chick clutches due to asynchronous hatching, where older chicks attack and may kill younger ones to reduce competition for limited provisions, often within the first 14–32 days. This behavior enhances survival of the dominant chick under variable food availability but can limit brood size to one or two fledglings.^[90]^[85]

Breeding success and factors

The breeding success of the common buzzard varies regionally but generally yields 0.8 to 1.8 fledglings per breeding pair annually across European populations, reflecting adaptations to fluctuating environmental conditions. Hatching success typically ranges from 60% to 95%, influenced by egg viability and early incubation challenges, while fledging success hovers around 50% to 80%, with many chicks succumbing to starvation or predation before independence. In central Poland, for instance, average productivity stands at 1.3 fledglings per pair, with breeding success rates between 53% and 87% depending on yearly variations.^[57]^[91]^[92] Key factors driving these outcomes include prey availability, which exhibits a strong positive correlation (often exceeding 0.7) with reproductive output, as higher densities of small mammals like voles enable better provisioning and larger broods. Adverse weather, particularly prolonged rain or heavy snow, can reduce hunting efficiency and chick survival by up to 20%, exacerbating food shortages during critical periods. Predation by corvids or larger raptors accounts for approximately 15% of chick losses in monitored nests, while human disturbance, such as recreational activities near nest sites, contributes to 10-15% of breeding failures by prompting nest desertion or increased energy expenditure.^[93]^[94]^[51] Over the long term, productivity in Europe has remained stable at around 1.2 fledglings per pair from 2000 to ~2020, supporting population recovery in many areas despite historical declines from persecution and habitat loss. Recent studies indicate potential shifts in breeding timing due to climate warming, with variable impacts on success (as of 2025). However, fragmented landscapes show reduced output, with lower success rates linked to diminished prey diversity and higher disturbance. In the UK, British Trust for Ornithology monitoring indicates consistent productivity near 1.1 fledglings per pair in recent years (as of 2023), bolstered by improved food resources like recovering rabbit populations.^[57]^[30]

Conservation status

Population trends and threats

The common buzzard (Buteo buteo) is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, with a global population estimated at 2,000,000–3,500,000 mature individuals.^[2] The European population, which comprises approximately 75% of the global range, is estimated at 882,000–1,230,000 breeding pairs.^[2] Overall, the species exhibits stable to increasing population trends globally and in Europe, with suspected increases over the past three generations (approximately 28 years).^[2] In northern regions, such as Ireland, the population has undergone significant expansion since the 1960s, following local extinction around 1900 due to historical persecution; it is now widespread and common across the island, with the greatest recorded increases in distribution and abundance among Irish bird species.^[95]^[8] A 2024 genetic study confirmed recolonization primarily from Britain, identifying four haplotypes in Irish birds matching those in Britain, though potential founder effects and limited genetic diversity may increase vulnerability to future pressures.^[8] Local abundance is reduced in agriculture-intensified areas due to habitat changes and pesticide use, though overall population trends remain stable to increasing; broader farmland bird populations in parts of Europe, including France, have declined by up to one-third in recent decades due to these factors.^[34]^[96] Key threats include unintentional poisoning from rodenticides and pesticides, which affect the species through secondary exposure via contaminated prey.^[2] In the United Kingdom, over 90% of examined dead common buzzards from 2020–2022 contained anticoagulant rodenticides in their livers, with approximately 23% diagnosed as having died from poisoning.^[97] A broader study of 72 UK specimens from 2001–2019 found 86.1% exposure to second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides, though only 2.8% showed hemorrhaging directly attributable to lethal poisoning.^[98] Collisions with human infrastructure pose another significant risk, including vehicles, power lines, and wind turbines; in Germany, common buzzard strikes at wind turbines are concentrated near watercourses, highlighting site-specific vulnerabilities.^[2]^[99] Habitat fragmentation from agricultural intensification and urban development further exacerbates declines by reducing nesting opportunities and prey availability in affected regions.^[2] Illegal persecution, such as shooting and poisoned baits, continues to impact populations locally, particularly in areas with historical conflicts over game protection.^[2]

Conservation measures and monitoring

The common buzzard (Buteo buteo) benefits from robust legal protections across its range. It is safeguarded under the EU Birds Directive (2009/147/EC), which affords general protection to all wild bird species, prohibiting their deliberate killing, capture, or disturbance of nests and eggs unless under strict derogation conditions.^[100] The species is listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which regulates international trade to ensure it does not threaten survival, though commercial trade remains limited due to its stable status.^[101] In most European range states, national laws enforce bans on persecution; for instance, in the United Kingdom, it is protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 (Schedule 1), making intentional harm, nest interference, or sale illegal without a licence. Similar prohibitions exist in countries like Norway, where legal protection has been in place since 1981. Key conservation measures focus on reducing human-induced risks and enhancing habitats. Nest sites are protected within the Natura 2000 network, with 1,297 sites designated across Europe to support breeding populations through habitat management and restricted development.^[100] To address secondary poisoning—a significant threat from anticoagulant rodenticides—EU regulations implemented since 2013 mandate the use of secure, tamper-resistant bait stations for applications in and around buildings, aiming to limit exposure in non-target wildlife like scavenging raptors.^[102] Habitat restoration is promoted via agri-environment schemes, such as the UK's Environmental Land Management schemes, which incentivize farmers to maintain hedgerows, grasslands, and woodland edges that provide essential foraging and nesting opportunities for the buzzard. Monitoring efforts employ multiple techniques to track population dynamics and threats. In the UK, the British Trust for Ornithology (BTO) operates extensive ringing programs, fitting metal rings to capture birds to study migration, dispersal, and survival rates, with data contributing to long-term demographic insights.^[30] Citizen science platforms, including the BTO's BirdTrack app and pan-European tools like eBird, enable widespread reporting of sightings, breeding attempts, and unusual mortality events to inform conservation priorities. Satellite telemetry has been instrumental in revealing short-distance migration routes and identifying risks such as infrastructure collisions, with studies tracking individuals from breeding grounds to wintering areas.^[103] Notable recovery initiatives highlight successful interventions. In Ireland, where the species was extinct by the late 19th century due to persecution and habitat loss, natural recolonization began in the mid-1980s, with the first confirmed breeding pair in 1986; protective legislation and reduced pesticide use have since supported population expansion to several hundred pairs.^[104] At wind energy sites, mitigation strategies include radar-assisted shutdown-on-demand systems, which detect approaching raptors via marine radar and automatically curtail turbine operations to create safe passage corridors, reducing collision risks during migration flyways.^[105]

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[98]
Red kites and buzzards are being killed by misuse of rat poisons
Nov 12, 2024 · More than 90 per cent of dead buzzards tested between 2020 and 2022 had some anticoagulant rodenticides in their livers, and around 23 per cent ...
[99]
Significant Turning Point: Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) Exposure ...
Mar 28, 2024 · These rodents might accumulate higher SGAR concentrations in their body and, consequently, increase high exposure risks of their predators.
[100]
Predicting strike susceptibility and collision patterns of the common ...
Jan 24, 2020 · Our study showed that the buzzard collisions were primarily concentrated at the turbines situated at sensitive distances from the edges of watercourses.
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Buzzard - Buteo buteo - (Linnaeus, 1758) - EUNIS - European Union
Threat status Europe, Least Concern (IUCN) ; EU Population status. Secure ; Protected by, EU Birds Directive and 5 other international agreements ; Natura 2000 ...
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Buteo buteo - CITES
Buteo buteo ... **II** [ORDER listing Falconiformes spp.] Except Caracara lutosa and the species of the family Cathartidae, which are not included in the ...
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[PDF] Exposure of predatory and scavenging birds to anticoagulant ...
Nov 5, 2021 · Starting in 2013 within the European Union, rodenticide baits to be placed indoors or in and around buildings must be in tamper- resistant bait ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Short‐distance migration of the Common Buzzard Buteo buteo ...
Aug 9, 2025 · The Common Buzzard is a partial migrant in Eastern Europe, but its wintering densities are poorly known for this area due to a low number of ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] case of Common Buzzard (Buteo buteo) in Ireland.
Thereafter, from the late 1990's recolonization has been rapid and buzzards are now regular visitors to airfields along the east coast of Ireland. Recovery ...Missing: historical | Show results with:historical
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Radar Assisted Shutdown on Demand Ensures Zero Soaring Bird ...
A security perimeter with observers was aided by a radar system, detecting soaring birds approaching the wind farm. Turbines were to be turned-off when pre- ...