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Custody transfer

Custody transfer, also known as fiscal metering, is the process in the oil and gas industry where the ownership of fluids or gases—such as crude oil, refined petroleum products, and natural gas—transfers from one party to another through precise measurement at designated metering points.^[1]^[2] These transfers occur at key locations, including wellsites to pipelines, pipelines to storage facilities, or cargo ships to refineries, ensuring accurate quantification of volume and quality for financial transactions.^[3]^[2] The significance of custody transfer lies in its role in preventing financial disputes and losses, as even minor measurement inaccuracies—such as 0.1%—can result in substantial daily costs for large-scale operations involving millions of barrels or cubic meters.^[3] For instance, a 1% discrepancy in measuring 500,000 barrels of crude oil could result in a significant financial loss for either the buyer or seller, underscoring the need for high repeatability, traceability, and compliance with legal metrology requirements.^[2]^[4] Payments and taxation are directly tied to these measurements, making the process a critical junction for fair trade and regulatory oversight, often involving independent verification by both parties using separate instruments.^[1]^[3] Technologies employed in custody transfer metering prioritize precision and reliability, including ultrasonic flow meters, Coriolis mass flow meters, and turbine meters, which measure flow rates, temperature, pressure, and fluid quality in real time.^[1]^[2] These systems must adhere to international and national standards, such as the International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML) R117 for dynamic measuring systems of liquids other than water, and the American Petroleum Institute (API) Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards (MPMS), particularly Chapter 5.8 for ultrasonic meters.^[5] In regions like the United States, oversight by bodies such as the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) further enforces these protocols to maintain integrity across global supply chains.^[2]

Fundamentals

Definition and Principles

Custody transfer refers to the process by which the physical possession and legal ownership of liquids or gases, such as crude oil, natural gas, or liquefied natural gas (LNG), are transferred from one party to another, typically involving precise measurement to quantify the volume or mass for determining commercial value.^[6] This transaction, often synonymous with fiscal metering, ensures that payment is based on the accurately assessed quantity of the commodity exchanged between buyers and sellers.^[7] The core objective is to establish a verifiable record at the point of handover, minimizing financial discrepancies in high-value trades.^[8] The underlying principles of custody transfer are rooted in fundamental physical laws, including the conservation of mass and energy, which underpin the metering processes to maintain consistency in quantity assessments across transfers.^[9] Measurements must demonstrate metrological traceability to international standards, such as the International System of Units (SI), through an unbroken chain of calibrations linking local instruments to primary references, ensuring global comparability and reliability.^[10] Fiscal metering plays a critical role in preventing disputes by providing impartial, auditable data that supports equitable valuation and compliance with trade agreements.^[11] Custody transfer emerged in the 19th century alongside the standardization of oil trade, as the petroleum industry grew from manual barrel measurements to more systematic quantification methods to facilitate expanding commercial exchanges.^[12] In its basic workflow, the process spans from extraction or refining through transportation—via pipelines, tankers, or trucks—to delivery at the receiving facility, with the "point of transfer" serving as a defined metered boundary where ownership legally shifts.^[13] This structured handover is essential in sectors like oil and gas, where it underpins billions in annual transactions.^[14]

Importance and Applications

Custody transfer plays a pivotal role in the oil and gas industry, where it underpins high-value transactions involving the handover of hydrocarbons between parties, ensuring accurate quantification to prevent financial disputes. The economic stakes are substantial, as even minor measurement inaccuracies can result in significant losses; for instance, a 0.1% error in crude oil measurement at a flow rate of approximately 2 million barrels per day equates to an over- or under-measurement of 2,057 barrels daily, costing approximately $216,000 per day at a $105 per barrel spot price, or over $78 million annually.^[6] Globally, these transactions contribute to billions in annual revenue, with the oil and gas custody metering systems market alone valued at $11.2 billion in 2024 and projected to grow due to increasing demand for precise measurement in energy trade.^[15] In the North Sea oil sector, for example, a 0.1% uncertainty across annual production equates to about $90 million in potential revenue impact (as of 2012).^[16] Key applications of custody transfer span the energy value chain, including upstream operations for wellhead allocation and production monitoring, midstream for pipeline and transportation handoffs, and downstream for refinery intake and distribution.^[17] In upstream settings, it facilitates accurate allocation of output from individual wells to partners or for fiscal reporting. Midstream uses ensure reliable transfers during storage, processing, and transport, such as at compressor stations or loading facilities. Downstream applications support inventory management and quality assurance at terminals and refineries, while non-fiscal uses extend to process control for optimizing operations and reducing lost and unaccounted-for volumes.^[18] Custody transfer is also critical at LNG terminals, where it verifies liquefied volumes during loading and unloading to maintain contractual integrity.^[19] In the petroleum sector, custody transfer is exemplified by crude oil handoffs at ports, where tankers deliver to onshore storage, enabling precise billing and compliance.^[20] For natural gas, it occurs at compressor station handoffs, measuring flow to determine volumes sold between producers and transporters.^[21] In the chemicals industry, similar principles apply to bulk liquid transfers, such as petrochemicals from production facilities to distributors, ensuring accountability for high-value commodities like solvents or polymers.^[22] On a global scale, custody transfer metering is regulated by authoritative bodies including the American Petroleum Institute (API) through standards like MPMS Chapter 5.8 for ultrasonic flow meters, and the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) via ISO 17089-1 for ultrasonic meters in closed conduits, which emphasize class 1 and 2 accuracy for fiscal applications.^[23] These frameworks support the vast majority of international hydrocarbon trade, where metering ensures transparency and trust in transactions exceeding trillions in value annually, with over 90% of seaborne crude oil movements relying on such verified systems.^[8]

Regulatory and Contractual Aspects

Legal Requirements

Custody transfer operations are governed by international standards that ensure measurement accuracy and fairness in the trade of hydrocarbons. The International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML) Recommendation R 117 establishes requirements for dynamic measuring systems used in the custody transfer of liquids other than water, including hydrocarbon liquids and liquefied gases such as LPG, specifying accuracy classes such as 0.3 for high-precision applications to guarantee verifiable and traceable measurements.^[24] Similarly, ISO 5168 provides procedures for evaluating uncertainties in fluid flow measurements, which is essential for custody transfer to quantify and minimize errors in volumetric or mass determinations. In the United States, the American Petroleum Institute (API) Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards (MPMS) outlines detailed protocols for custody transfer of petroleum liquids and natural gas fluids, emphasizing calibration, proving, and reporting to maintain integrity, with enforcement supported by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) for metrological traceability. In the European Union, Directive 2014/32/EU on measuring instruments (MID) mandates conformity assessments, accuracy thresholds, and legal verification for devices used in commercial transactions, including custody transfer metering systems. Among OPEC member countries, Saudi Arabia's SAES-Y-101 standard regulates the design, installation, and operation of custody metering stations for hydrocarbon gases, aligning with international norms for fiscal accuracy. Nigeria's Upstream Petroleum Measurement Regulations similarly require certified metering equipment and periodic verification for production allocation and custody transfer.^[25] Non-compliance with these regulations can result in significant enforcement actions, including civil penalties that can reach up to $1,393 per day for initial violations of measurement rules, escalating to higher amounts such as $69,635 per day for knowing or continued violations, as adjusted for inflation under U.S. federal rules (43 CFR § 3163.2, as of 2024), as well as potential trade restrictions or contract terminations in international contexts.^[26] To uphold standards, third-party audits are mandated, involving independent verification of metering systems, calibration records, and performance data to ensure ongoing compliance and traceability.^[8] Post-2020 developments have integrated digital metering and cybersecurity into legal frameworks, with updates like the U.S. Transportation Security Administration (TSA) directives requiring cybersecurity risk management plans for critical pipeline infrastructure, including digital flow measurement systems, to protect against tampering that could compromise custody transfer integrity.^[27] These requirements tie directly into contractual specifications, where parties must demonstrate adherence to ensure enforceable agreements.

Contractual Specifications

Contracts in custody transfer outline the specific terms under which ownership of hydrocarbons or other fluids transfers between buyers and sellers, with a strong emphasis on measurement protocols to ensure accurate quantification of volume, quality, and energy content. These agreements typically define the metering point location, often at the flange of the loading arm or ship manifold during loading or unloading operations, aligned with Incoterms such as FOB (Free on Board) or CIF (Cost, Insurance, and Freight). For instance, in LNG transfers, the metering point is positioned on the main loading or unloading pipe to capture sub-cooled fluid near the custody transfer boundary.^[28] Responsibility allocation is a core contract element, delineating duties for measurement systems between parties; under FOB terms, the buyer oversees ship-based measurements like volume, temperature, and pressure, while the seller manages terminal-side sampling and analysis, with roles reversing for CIF arrangements. The seller typically bears the onus of proving meter accuracy through calibration and testing, though both parties retain verification rights to foster mutual trust. Dispute resolution clauses commonly mandate good-faith negotiations, followed by escalation to legal remedies if needed, and often involve retaining gas or fluid samples for a contract-specified period—such as several weeks—to facilitate independent investigation.^[28]^[29] Common specifications include tolerance bands for measurement accuracy, such as ±0.25% overall uncertainty for liquid custody transfers and similar thresholds for natural gas to minimize financial discrepancies. Independent verification by a neutral third-party surveyor is standard, encompassing calibration checks for instruments like chromatographs and gauges, with master meters required to achieve four times the accuracy of operational ones. Force majeure provisions address measurement failures due to unforeseen events, allowing agreed-upon contingencies like secondary gauges or alternative protocols to prevent default. These elements align briefly with broader legal standards for fiscal metering.^[30]^[6]^[28] Negotiation aspects focus on selecting base measurement methods—such as tank gauging for LNG—versus alternatives like in-line flow metering for smaller-scale operations, alongside cost-sharing arrangements for equipment installation, calibration, and surveyor fees. Parties often debate calibration frequency, quality estimation techniques (e.g., incorporating ageing factors), and adjustments for boil-off gas in energy calculations to balance operational feasibility and precision.^[28] Standard contracts provide templates for these specifications; the GIIGNL LNG Custody Transfer Handbook outlines protocols for LNG, including energy transfer formulas like E = V_LNG × D_LNG × GCV_LNG adjusted for displaced gas, with rounding to six significant digits. For natural gas trades, the ISDA North American Gas Annex specifies measurement in MMBtu at delivery points, emphasizing compliance with transporter quality and pressure requirements during title transfer.^[28]^[29]

Measurement Systems Overview

Core Components

Custody transfer metering systems rely on a suite of primary hardware elements to ensure precise measurement and control during the transfer of hydrocarbons or other fluids between parties. At the core are flowmeters, which quantify the volume or mass of the fluid passing through the system, often integrated with provers such as master meters or volumetric provers to verify meter accuracy in situ.^[6]^[31] Shut-off valves, typically configured as double block and bleed assemblies, facilitate safe isolation and prevent bypass errors during proving operations.^[6] Data acquisition systems, including flow computers and Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) integrations, collect and process signals from sensors to compute flow rates and totals in real time.^[31]^[32] Auxiliary components support the reliability and integrity of these primary elements by mitigating operational risks. Filters and strainers remove contaminants and entrained gases that could introduce metering errors, ensuring clean fluid flow through the system.^[6]^[31] Pressure relief devices protect against overpressure conditions, while tamper-proof seals secure critical junctions to prevent unauthorized access or manipulation.^[31] These elements collectively maintain system performance under varying process conditions. Software plays a pivotal role in managing custody transfer operations beyond hardware. It enables real-time monitoring of flow parameters, issuing alerts for anomalies via diagnostic tools integrated with flow computers.^[6] Automated reporting generates standardized calculations for transfer quantities, compliant with industry protocols, and facilitates integration with Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) systems for seamless billing and inventory management.^[31]^[32] System integration emphasizes redundancy to achieve high availability, such as dual metering runs and backup flow computers, ensuring uninterrupted measurement during maintenance or failures.^[6] These configurations support the overall goal of meeting stringent accuracy targets in fiscal transfers.^[6]

Accuracy and Uncertainty

In custody transfer metering, accuracy refers to the closeness of the agreement between the result of a measurement and the true value of the measurand, while uncertainty quantifies the dispersion of values that could reasonably be attributed to the measurand, typically expressed as an expanded uncertainty U = k \cdot u_c, where u_c is the combined standard uncertainty and k = 2 provides approximately 95% confidence coverage.^[33]^[34] These concepts are foundational to ensuring reliable fiscal measurements in fluid transfers, such as oil and natural gas, where even small deviations can lead to significant financial implications. Sources of error in custody transfer systems are categorized as systematic or random. Systematic errors arise from identifiable biases, such as calibration drift, installation effects, or deviations in pressure and temperature that alter flow conditions, whereas random errors stem from unpredictable variations like flow turbulence or measurement noise.^[34]^[35] For fiscal metering applications, typical uncertainty targets range from ±0.15% to ±0.5% of the measured value to minimize economic risk, though values up to ±1% may be acceptable depending on the contract and fluid type.^[35]^[34] Traceability ensures measurement reliability by establishing an unbroken chain from the custody transfer meter to national metrology institutes, such as NIST in the United States, through accredited calibration laboratories using standards like gravimetric or master meter methods.^[36]^[34] Uncertainty budgets, as outlined in the Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement (GUM), systematically combine contributions from all sources—such as flow rate, density, pressure, and temperature—via root-sum-square methods, accounting for correlations to yield the overall u_c.^[33]^[34] Key performance metrics for assessing accuracy include repeatability, which measures the closeness of successive measurements under identical conditions and is typically targeted at ≤0.2% to ≤0.5% standard deviation; linearity, evaluating consistent performance across the flow range, often within ±0.5% to ±1.0%; and proving intervals, during which meters are verified against reference standards, with frequency determined by performance criteria, regulations, and contracts, often every few months or based on meter drift thresholds as per API MPMS Chapter 4.^[34]^[35]^[37] These metrics, aligned with standards like API MPMS Chapter 4, help maintain system integrity over time.^[35]

Metering Technologies

Differential Pressure Flowmeters

Differential pressure flowmeters measure fluid flow by creating a constriction in the pipe that causes a pressure drop, which is then used to calculate the flow rate based on Bernoulli's principle of conservation of energy. This principle states that an increase in fluid velocity through the restriction results in a corresponding decrease in pressure, with the differential pressure \Delta P directly related to the flow velocity. Common primary elements include orifice plates, venturi tubes, and flow nozzles, each designed to produce a measurable pressure differential while minimizing permanent energy loss. The volumetric flow rate Q is calculated using the formula Q = C A \sqrt{\frac{2 \Delta P}{\rho}}, where C is the empirically determined discharge coefficient, A is the cross-sectional area of the constriction, \Delta P is the measured differential pressure, and \rho is the fluid density.^[38]^[39] In custody transfer applications, differential pressure flowmeters are widely used for measuring clean liquids and gases, such as natural gas in pipelines or refined petroleum products, due to their reliability and compliance with international standards. The ISO 5167 series provides detailed specifications for the geometry, installation, and flow calculations of these devices, ensuring consistency and traceability in measurements for orifice plates, nozzles, and venturi tubes. These meters typically achieve an accuracy of ±0.5% to 1% of the flow rate when properly installed and calibrated, making them suitable for high-value transactions where precise volume determination is critical. However, they require extensive straight pipe runs—often 20 to 50 pipe diameters upstream and 5 to 10 downstream—to develop a fully developed flow profile and avoid errors from turbulence or velocity distortions.^[39]^[40]^[41] The primary advantages of differential pressure flowmeters in custody transfer include their low cost relative to other technologies and the absence of moving parts, which enhances durability and reduces maintenance needs in long-term pipeline installations. They are particularly effective for single-phase, subsonic flows in clean media, as specified in ISO 5167, and can be integrated with temperature and pressure compensation systems to account for fluid property variations. On the downside, their performance is highly sensitive to installation quality, with deviations in straight run lengths or upstream disturbances potentially increasing uncertainty beyond acceptable levels for fiscal metering. Additionally, they are prone to inaccuracies from fouling or erosion in fluids containing particulates, limiting their use to relatively clean process conditions.^[42]^[43]^[44]

Turbine Flowmeters

Turbine flowmeters operate on the principle of a fluid stream causing a multi-bladed rotor to rotate at a speed proportional to the fluid velocity, with the rotor's angular frequency generating an electrical signal via magnetic pickups that corresponds to the volumetric flow rate. The flow rate Q is determined by the equation Q = k \cdot f, where k is the meter calibration factor (pulses per unit volume) and f is the frequency of the pulse output from the sensor.^[45]^[46] In custody transfer applications, turbine flowmeters are particularly suited for measuring low-viscosity liquids such as refined petroleum products, providing high accuracy of ±0.25% over a specified range when properly calibrated and installed, along with a pulse output that interfaces directly with totalizers and flow computers for volume accumulation.^[47]^[45] They play a key role in inferring volume from velocity measurements in these transfers. Compliance with standards like API MPMS Chapter 5.3 ensures their reliability for liquid hydrocarbon metering in fiscal applications. These meters offer advantages including a high turndown ratio of up to 20:1, enabling measurement across a wide range of flow rates without significant loss of accuracy, and robust performance in clean fluid environments with minimal pressure drop.^[48] However, they are susceptible to wear from particulates or abrasives in the fluid, which can degrade the rotor blades and affect long-term accuracy, necessitating clean service conditions and regular maintenance to avoid erosion or bearing failure.^[45] Common applications include aviation fuel loading at terminals and natural gas measurement in pipelines, where their precision supports accurate billing and allocation in custody transfers of hydrocarbons.^[45]^[49]

Positive Displacement Flowmeters

Positive displacement (PD) flowmeters operate by trapping fixed volumes of fluid within internal chambers and mechanically displacing them through the meter as the fluid flows. Common designs include oval gear meters, where two intermeshing oval-shaped gears rotate to capture and transfer fluid between their lobes, and piston meters, which use reciprocating pistons to draw in and expel measured volumes of fluid. The volumetric flow rate Q is calculated as Q = V \times N, where V is the known volume displaced per revolution or cycle, and N is the number of revolutions or cycles per unit time, typically measured by a mechanical or electronic counter.^[50]^[51] In custody transfer applications, PD flowmeters are preferred for measuring viscous liquids such as crude oil and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), where they provide direct volumetric measurement essential for accurate fiscal transactions. These meters achieve typical accuracies of ±0.15% of reading under controlled conditions, making them suitable for high-value transfers in pipelines, tankers, and loading/unloading operations. Their ability to handle fluids with viscosities up to 1000 cP or higher ensures reliable performance in scenarios where other meter types may falter due to fluid properties.^[52]^[6] PD flowmeters excel in batching and filling operations due to their precise volumetric capture, offering excellent repeatability for discrete quantity measurements in custody transfer. However, they are susceptible to slippage—fluid leaking past internal seals—which reduces accuracy in low-viscosity fluids below 10 cP, and they require robust sealing mechanisms to minimize this effect and maintain pressure integrity. Additionally, these meters demand regular maintenance to prevent wear on moving parts and filtration to avoid contamination.^[51]^[50] Standards governing PD flowmeters in custody transfer, such as API Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards (MPMS) Chapter 5.2, specify requirements for gear-type displacement meters, including calibration, proving procedures, and performance in liquid hydrocarbon service to ensure traceability and accuracy. These meters are commonly applied in truck unloading systems for crude oil and LPG, where compliance with API MPMS 5.2 facilitates standardized volumetric assessment. Temperature compensation is often integrated to adjust measured volumes for thermal expansion effects in these applications.^[53]^[54]^[55]

Coriolis Flowmeters

Coriolis flowmeters operate on the principle of the Coriolis effect, where a fluid flowing through a vibrating tube experiences an inertial force that causes a measurable deflection. The meter consists of one or more U-shaped or straight tubes that are driven to oscillate at their resonant frequency by an electromagnetic driver, creating a sinusoidal vibration. As fluid enters the tube, the Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the direction of flow and vibration, resulting in a phase shift between the inlet and outlet sections of the tube; this shift, denoted as Δt, is detected by sensors and is directly proportional to the mass flow rate, calculated as m = K × Δt, where K is a meter-specific constant determined during calibration.^[56]^[57]^[58] In custody transfer applications, Coriolis flowmeters provide significant advantages due to their ability to directly measure mass flow and fluid density without requiring external compensation for temperature, pressure, or composition changes, eliminating the need for separate density meters and simplifying system design. They achieve high accuracy, typically ±0.1% for liquid mass flow, enabling precise fiscal metering even for multiphase or variable fluids. Additionally, these meters output multiple parameters—including temperature and volume flow— from a single device, supporting compliance with international standards such as ISO 10790, which provides guidelines for their selection, installation, calibration, performance evaluation, and operation in closed conduits. Recent advancements include Emerson's Micro Motion G-Series, introduced in November 2023, which offers compact dual-tube designs with high accuracy and flexible installation options suitable for custody transfer applications.^[59]^[57]^[58]^[60] Despite these benefits, Coriolis flowmeters have limitations that must be considered for custody transfer, including higher initial costs—ranging from $5,000 to $8,000 for a 1-inch meter, increasing with size—and a notable pressure drop that varies with flow rate and tube design, potentially requiring larger pipe sizing or parallel installations for high-volume applications. They are particularly well-suited for custody transfer of fluids with varying composition, such as blends or those prone to phase changes, where direct mass and density measurements ensure accuracy without recalibration for compositional shifts.^[59]^[58] Common applications in custody transfer include the metering of hydrocarbon blends, where density variations from mixing are directly accounted for, and LNG boil-off gas measurement, where the meter's stability in cryogenic conditions and insensitivity to two-phase flow support efficient transfer with minimal losses. These meters are widely adopted in oil and gas fiscal metering due to their robustness in handling slurries, gases, and non-Newtonian fluids under demanding conditions.^[59]^[58]

Ultrasonic Flowmeters

Ultrasonic flowmeters measure fluid flow rates using acoustic waves propagated through the medium, making them suitable for non-intrusive custody transfer applications in pipelines. These devices operate primarily via two principles: the transit-time method, which is predominant in custody transfer for clean fluids like natural gas and liquids, and the Doppler method, used for fluids containing particles or bubbles. In the transit-time approach, ultrasonic pulses are transmitted alternately upstream and downstream between transducers mounted on the pipe, with the time difference caused by the flow velocity enabling calculation of the flow rate.^[61]^[62] The transit-time principle relies on the difference in propagation times, Δt = t_down - t_up, where the flow velocity v along the acoustic path is given by v = \frac{L \cos \theta \cdot \Delta t}{2 t^2}, with L as the path length between transducers, θ as the angle of the acoustic path relative to the flow direction, and t as the average transit time (approximating t_up ≈ t_down). The volume flow rate Q is then derived as Q = v · A / cos θ for a single path, where A is the cross-sectional area, though multipath configurations integrate velocities across multiple chords to compute an accurate average. This method assumes a speed of sound much greater than flow velocity, ensuring high precision in homogeneous flows. The Doppler method, in contrast, detects frequency shifts from reflections off suspended particles, suitable for less clean fluids but less common in strict custody transfer due to variability in particle concentration.^[61]^[6] In custody transfer, ultrasonic flowmeters excel with clamp-on (non-intrusive) or wetted (inline) designs for large-diameter pipes (typically 6 inches or larger), achieving accuracies of ±0.5% to ±1% under AGA Report No. 9 standards for natural gas measurement. These standards outline multipath configurations (e.g., 4-20 paths) to average velocity profiles, minimizing errors from flow disturbances like bends or valves. Advantages include bidirectional flow detection, absence of pressure drop (unlike orifice plates), and low maintenance due to no moving parts, enabling clean installations in high-flow gas pipelines. However, they require straight runs (up to 50 pipe diameters) for profile stability and are sensitive to gas composition changes affecting sound speed, necessitating periodic calibration.^[63]^[6]^[64] Multipath ultrasonic meters are widely adopted for gas custody transfer at compressor stations and export terminals, handling high flow rates up to thousands of scfm with turndown ratios exceeding 100:1, as validated by AGA Report No. 9 testing protocols that ensure uncertainty below 0.5% for fiscal metering. Their non-obstructive nature supports integration with sampling for composition analysis, enhancing overall system reliability in large-scale hydrocarbon transport.^[63]^[65]

Liquid Custody Transfer

Measurement Modes

In liquid custody transfer, the primary measurement modes are continuous metering and batch metering, which differ in their approach to quantifying fluid volumes during ownership transfers. Continuous metering provides real-time flow measurement using inline flowmeters, enabling ongoing monitoring and totalization for high-throughput applications such as pipeline transport or marine loading.^[66] This mode is particularly effective for steady-state operations where fluids like refined petroleum products or light crude oils are transferred without interruption.^[67] Batch metering, by contrast, involves totalizing the volume over discrete transfer periods, often at the completion of a shipment or loading event, and is commonly applied in scenarios like truck or rail deliveries from terminals.^[66] It relies on techniques such as positive displacement provers or cumulative readings from meters, ensuring discrete accountability for smaller to medium volumes.^[67] The choice between continuous and batch modes is influenced by flow rate and contractual requirements, with continuous metering favored for high flow rates in pipeline or marine applications to maintain efficiency and accuracy.^[67] Hybrid approaches integrate continuous metering with tank gauging systems for enhanced verification, where flowmeter data is cross-checked against level measurements in storage tanks to reconcile discrepancies and ensure fiscal compliance.^[68] These systems, often governed by standards like API MPMS Chapter 3, Section 6, combine dynamic flow data with static volume assessments for robust custody transfer in variable conditions.^[68] Key factors influencing mode selection include fluid type and throughput volume; for instance, continuous metering suits low-viscosity liquids in pipeline settings, while batch methods are preferred for higher-viscosity fluids or lower-volume transfers to minimize metering disruptions.^[67] Overall, these modes provide the strategic framework for subsequent volume and mass determinations, aligning measurement with operational and regulatory demands without delving into specific computational adjustments.^[66]

Volume and Mass Determination

In liquid custody transfer, volume determination begins with the measurement of the gross observed volume (GOV), which represents the total volume of petroleum liquids, including sediment and water, at the observed temperature and pressure conditions during transfer. This observed volume is then adjusted to standard conditions to account for thermal expansion and compressibility effects, yielding the gross standard volume (GSV) through the formula V_{\text{standard}} = V_{\text{observed}} \times \text{CTL} \times \text{CPL}, where CTL is the correction factor for liquid thermal expansion based on the fluid's API gravity and temperature deviation from base, and CPL is the correction for pressure on liquid. These corrections ensure accurate quantification for fiscal purposes, as outlined in the American Petroleum Institute (API) Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards (MPMS) Chapter 12.^[69] The standard base conditions for these adjustments in API standards are a temperature of 60°F (15.56°C) and a pressure of 14.696 psia, providing a consistent reference for volume normalization across transactions. To derive the net standard volume (NSV) for billing, sediment and water content—typically measured via sampling—is subtracted from the GSV after applying a correction factor to account for their volume at standard conditions, preventing overestimation of the transferable liquid hydrocarbon content. This process adheres to API MPMS Chapter 12.2 for calculation procedures.^[70] Mass determination in liquid custody transfer is computed as m = \rho \times V, where m is the mass, \rho is the density at standard conditions (often derived from API gravity measurements), and V is the net standard volume. Density values are obtained through laboratory or online methods compliant with API MPMS Chapter 9 and ASTM D1298, ensuring the mass reflects only the pure liquid product.^[71]^[72] For real-time applications, online analyzers such as densitometers and Coriolis meters enable continuous density and volume adjustments during transfer, integrating data from flowmeters to compute corrected volumes and masses instantaneously while meeting custody transfer accuracy requirements per API MPMS Chapter 5.8. These tools often incorporate inputs from sampling for density verification to maintain precision.^[73]

Sampling and Quality Analysis

In liquid custody transfer, sampling ensures that the extracted samples accurately represent the bulk petroleum stream's composition and quality, which is essential for fair valuation between parties. Sampling methods are broadly categorized into spot and continuous techniques. Spot sampling involves manual collection using probes as outlined in ASTM D4057, where samples are taken at specific points such as the middle or bottom of a tank to capture potential stratification, though this method risks non-representativeness if not performed under well-mixed conditions. Continuous sampling, often preferred for high-volume transfers, employs automatic systems that proportionally extract fluid over time, such as slipstream setups where a bypass loop diverts a small, consistent portion of the main flow for compositing. These automatic samplers, governed by API MPMS Chapter 8.2 and updated in Chapter 8.3 (3rd ed., 2025), enhance representativeness by integrating multiple aliquots into a single composite sample proportional to flow rate, minimizing variability from intermittent grabs.^[54] Key analysis parameters from these samples determine the petroleum's commercial value and compliance. API gravity, a measure of density relative to water, is assessed via hydrometer (ASTM D1298) or digital density meter (ASTM D4052) methods, influencing pricing as higher gravity indicates lighter, more valuable crude. Sulfur content, critical for refining and environmental regulations, is quantified using X-ray fluorescence per ASTM D4294, with limits often below 0.5% by weight for low-sulfur grades. Basic sediment and water (BS&W) content, representing impurities, is evaluated through centrifuge extraction (ASTM D4006 or D96), where typical contractual limits for custody transfer crude are less than 0.5% to ensure pipeline acceptability.^[74] Quality assurance protocols maintain sample integrity throughout the process. A chain of custody documentation tracks sample handling from collection to analysis, recording transfers, seals, and storage conditions to prevent tampering or contamination, as recommended in petroleum measurement guidelines.^[75] Laboratories performing these analyses must be accredited to ISO/IEC 17025, ensuring competence in calibration, method validation, and traceability for reliable results in fiscal applications.^[76] These quality determinations directly impact custody transfer economics by adjusting the reported volume. For instance, BS&W is deducted from the gross observed volume to yield net oil volume, such as subtracting 1% for a sample with 1% BS&W content, per API MPMS Chapter 12 calculations. This adjustment, alongside brief use in volume corrections for density variations, ensures payment reflects only merchantable petroleum.

Temperature and Pressure Compensation

In liquid custody transfer, temperature and pressure compensation adjusts measured volumes to standardized conditions, 60°F (15.56°C) and atmospheric pressure, to account for thermal expansion and compressibility effects on hydrocarbon density and volume. This process ensures accurate billing and minimizes discrepancies between buyer and seller by applying correction factors derived from empirical algorithms.^[77] Temperature measurement in custody transfer systems primarily employs resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) or thermocouples, selected for their precision and reliability in dynamic flow environments.^[78] RTDs, often platinum-based, offer superior accuracy (±0.1°C) and stability over thermocouples, making them preferred for high-value transfers where errors could impact revenue significantly.^[79] Corrections for temperature deviations use the correction for temperature on liquid (CTL) factor from API MPMS Chapter 11.1, calculated as:

\text{CTL} = \exp\left(-\alpha \Delta T \left(1 + 0.8 \alpha \Delta T\right)\right)

where \alpha is the fluid's coefficient of thermal expansion and \Delta T is the difference from the base temperature of 60°F (15.56°C). These factors are tabulated or computed via software compliant with the standard, reducing observed volumes for warmer liquids and increasing them for cooler ones to reflect standard conditions.^[80] Pressure compensation addresses the density changes due to hydrostatic head and, for volatile liquids like light crudes or refined products, vapor pressure influences that could lead to underreporting if unadjusted.^[45] For volatile liquids, vapor pressure nomographs estimate equilibrium vapor pressure at operating conditions, aiding in corrections to prevent evaporation losses during transfer.^[81] The operating pressure measured at the meter is used directly to compute the correction for pressure on liquid (CPL) factor in API MPMS Chapter 11.1, typically near unity for low-pressure systems but essential for high-pressure pipelines.^[82] Instrumentation for these measurements emphasizes averaging multiple sensors over the transfer period to capture representative conditions, as instantaneous readings may vary due to flow turbulence or stratification.^[83] Redundant sensors, often dual RTDs or thermocouples, provide failover reliability and enable continuous validation, ensuring compliance with custody transfer accuracy thresholds of ±0.5°C.^[84] These averaged values serve as inputs to overall volume calculations in custody transfer protocols.^[78] The primary standards governing these compensations are API MPMS Chapter 11.1 for algorithmic procedures and ASTM D1250 for petroleum-specific correction tables, harmonized to support international trade in hydrocarbons.^[77]

Gas Custody Transfer

Measurement Approaches

In gas custody transfer, measurement approaches primarily rely on inferential methods, which derive volume or mass flow by multiplying flow rate by time, using devices such as orifice plates, turbine meters, or ultrasonic meters to infer flow from parameters like pressure differential or velocity.^[85] Direct methods, such as Coriolis mass flowmeters that measure mass flow without inferring from other variables, are less common but applied in scenarios requiring high accuracy independent of density variations.^[85] These approaches ensure quantifiable transfer of natural gas, often targeting an uncertainty of ±1% for energy content in fiscal applications.^[85] For pipelines, continuous measurement is standard, employing real-time flow computers integrated with supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems to monitor and record parameters like flow rate, pressure, and temperature without interruption.^[78] In contrast, intermittent measurement suits storage facilities, such as underground reservoirs or compressed natural gas (CNG) tanks, where volume is assessed periodically through level gauging or weighing to account for batch transfers rather than steady flow.^[78] This distinction supports efficient allocation in dynamic pipeline networks versus static storage operations. Selection of measurement approaches depends on gas type and pressure regime; dry gases (primarily methane) favor inferential volumetric meters for their stability, while wet gases containing condensates require robust designs to handle multiphase flow without liquid dropout.^[85] High-pressure transmission lines (typically 500-1,500 psi) necessitate meters compliant with standards like AGA Report No. 3 for orifice plates or AGA 9 for ultrasonics, prioritizing durability under compression, whereas lower-pressure distribution systems may use turbine meters for cost-effectiveness. Integration often involves multi-run systems with redundant metering runs—such as primary and backup lines—to provide failover and maintain measurement integrity during maintenance, as recommended in API MPMS Chapter 21.1 for electronic gas flow measurement.^[78] Real-time reconciliation via flow computers calculates energy transfer on-site, while post-transfer audits use stored data (up to 35 days) for verification against contractual standards.^[85] Unlike liquid custody transfer, gas measurement emphasizes compressibility corrections using factors like supercompressibility to adjust for pressure and temperature effects on volume, as gases expand or contract significantly under varying conditions.^[85] Composition variability, including hydrocarbons and impurities like CO2, further requires ongoing analysis to determine heating value, introducing complexity absent in liquids where density is more stable.^[85]

Volume and Mass Units

In gas custody transfer, volume measurements are standardized to ensure consistency across transactions, typically reported in standard cubic meters (Sm³) or standard cubic feet (SCF). The Sm³ is defined as the volume occupied by one cubic meter of gas at a temperature of 15°C, an absolute pressure of 101.325 kPa, and zero humidity, as specified in ISO 13443 for natural gas reference conditions.^[86] In North American contexts, the SCF represents one cubic foot of gas at 60°F (15.56°C) and 14.73 psia (101.56 kPa) absolute pressure, aligning with federal regulations for gas measurement.^[87] Mass quantities are expressed in kilograms (kg) for metric systems or pounds (lb) for imperial systems, providing a pressure- and temperature-independent basis for trade.^[88] To convert measured (actual) gas volumes to standard conditions, the real gas law adjustment incorporates the compressibility factor (Z) to account for non-ideal behavior. The formula is:

V_\text{std} = V_\text{actual} \times \frac{P_\text{actual}}{P_\text{std}} \times \frac{T_\text{std}}{T_\text{actual}} \times \frac{Z_\text{std}}{Z_\text{actual}}

where V_\text{std} is the standard volume, V_\text{actual} is the measured volume, P denotes absolute pressure, T is absolute temperature, and subscripts indicate actual or standard conditions; Z values are calculated using detailed gas composition.^[89] This correction is essential in custody transfer to normalize volumes for billing and allocation, particularly for compressible flows in pipelines.^[90] Mass flow rates in gas custody transfer are derived by multiplying the standard volume flow rate by the gas density at standard conditions, where density is computed from composition and thermodynamic models. Alternatively, mass can be obtained from energy content divided by the mass-specific heating value to prevent double-counting when energy-based contracts are used, as total energy equals mass times heating value per unit mass.^[91] Key standards governing these calculations include AGA Report No. 8, which details methods for determining the Z-factor and density for natural gas mixtures in metering applications, and ISO 12213, providing international guidelines for compression factor computations in fiscal measurement.^[92] For orifice plate metering, AGA Report No. 3 integrates these factors into flow rate equations for accurate custody transfer.^[93]

Gas Sampling Techniques

Gas sampling techniques in custody transfer aim to collect representative samples from flowing natural gas streams to accurately determine composition for billing and quality assurance purposes. These methods ensure that the sample reflects the true vapor-phase composition at the sampling point, minimizing biases from flow dynamics or phase changes. Common approaches include spot, composite, and continuous sampling, each tailored to operational needs such as pipeline monitoring or allocation.^[94] Isokinetic sampling probes are widely used to extract gas at the same velocity as the main stream, preventing over- or under-sampling of components and ensuring representativeness. These probes are typically positioned in the center one-third of the pipe diameter, at least five pipe diameters downstream from disturbances like bends or valves, to avoid turbulence and contaminants. For composite sampling over time, small aliquots are collected at regular intervals—either time-based or flow-proportional—into a cylinder, providing an average composition over periods like a month, with systems achieving accuracy within ±1 BTU/scf for heating value. Slipstream sampling enables continuous collection by diverting a small side stream through a loop, often using differential pressure across the probe for constant flow, suitable for remote analyzers or ongoing custody transfer monitoring.^[94]^[95]^[94] In wet gas streams, challenges arise from potential phase separation, where entrained liquids or aerosols can distort the sample if not excluded at line conditions. Membrane-tipped probes separate phases within the pipeline to sample only the gas phase, while external separation risks altering composition due to pressure drops. To prevent condensation from Joule-Thomson cooling or drops below the hydrocarbon dew point, heated lines and regulators maintain the sample at least 20–50°F above the dew point throughout transport, often using multi-stage regulation with reheating for high-pressure or supercritical gases.^[96]^[94]^[96] Standards guide these practices to ensure reliability. GPA Standard 2166 outlines procedures for obtaining natural gas samples for gas chromatography analysis, including spot and composite methods suitable for C6+ hydrocarbons, emphasizing representative vapor-phase collection. API MPMS Chapter 14.1 provides guidelines for collecting, conditioning, and handling samples in custody transfer, specifying probe placement, heating requirements, and avoidance of multi-phase flow to maintain compositional integrity. These samples are subsequently used for composition analysis to calculate energy content.^[97]^[98] Sample integrity during transport to the laboratory is verified through pressure and temperature logging, which documents conditions to detect any deviations like condensation or leaks, as required by regulations such as DOT CFR-49, with cylinders tagged for traceability including sampling method and location.^[94]

Density and Composition Determination

In gas custody transfer, density and composition determination are critical for deriving mass flow rates and energy content, ensuring accurate fiscal metering of natural gas streams. These properties are assessed through laboratory analysis of sampled gas or real-time online instrumentation, with composition serving as the foundation for density calculations. Gas sampling provides the representative input for both offline and online methods. Density of natural gas is typically calculated from its molar mass, pressure, temperature, and compressibility using the equation

\rho = \frac{M P}{Z R T}

where \rho is density, M is molar mass derived from composition, P is pressure, T is temperature, R is the universal gas constant, and Z is the compressibility factor.^[99] Gravimetric methods, involving precise weighing of gas mixtures in known volumes, are used primarily for preparing reference standards in laboratory settings to validate other techniques.^[100] More commonly in custody transfer, density is derived chromatographically by first analyzing composition and applying thermodynamic models.^[101] Gas composition is determined using gas chromatography, which quantifies major hydrocarbons (methane through hexanes), inert gases, CO₂, and H₂S with high precision.^[102] This compositional data enables calculation of the gross calorific value (GCV) through summation of individual component heating values, as specified in ISO 6976, which also supports density and relative density computations from mole fractions. For real-time applications, online tools such as Raman spectroscopy analyze gas composition non-invasively via molecular vibrational spectra, allowing continuous density estimation without physical sampling.^[103] Coriolis meters provide direct density measurement by detecting fluid mass in vibrating tubes, offering robust performance for gas streams in fiscal systems.^[104] These approaches achieve measurement uncertainties below 0.5%, meeting fiscal metering requirements for energy billing.^[105] In high-pressure natural gas systems, supercompressibility adjustments are applied via the compressibility factor Z to account for deviations from ideal gas behavior, using detailed equations of state in standards like ISO 12213. This correction ensures density accuracy across varying operating conditions, preventing errors in mass determination.^[106] As of 2025, the increasing practice of blending hydrogen into natural gas pipelines for decarbonization introduces additional challenges to density and composition determination in custody transfer. Hydrogen's lower density and different thermodynamic properties require recalibration of meters (e.g., ultrasonic flowmeters may need path-specific adjustments), updated composition analysis to include H₂ mole fractions, and revisions to standards like AGA Report No. 8 for Z-factor calculations in blends up to 20% hydrogen by volume. Coriolis meters remain effective for mass-based measurements, but overall uncertainty targets may rise without new dedicated protocols, as ongoing research addresses transferability of calibrations from pure natural gas.^[107]^[108]

Best Practices and Standards

Calibration and Proving Procedures

Calibration and proving procedures are essential standardized processes in custody transfer to verify the accuracy of flow meters, ensuring reliable measurement of transferred volumes or masses of hydrocarbons. These procedures involve comparing the meter's indicated output against a known reference standard under controlled conditions, as outlined in the American Petroleum Institute's Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards (API MPMS).^[109] Proving establishes a meter factor that corrects for any discrepancies, maintaining compliance with contractual accuracy requirements typically targeting uncertainties below 0.5%.^[35] Common proving types include master meter proving and volumetric tank proving. In master meter proving, the custody transfer meter (duty meter) is compared in series to a higher-accuracy reference meter, often with at least ten times the precision of the duty meter, to determine performance differences.^[109] This method, detailed in API MPMS Chapter 4.5, is versatile for various fluids and flow rates. Volumetric tank proving, governed by API MPMS Chapter 4.4, collects the fluid in a certified tank of known volume and compares it directly to the meter's reading, providing a static reference suitable for lower flow applications.^[109] The frequency of proving is typically specified in contracts, such as quarterly intervals for crude oil or natural gas liquids (NGLs) meters, or after maintenance, installation, or significant flow changes.^[110] Key procedures during proving encompass zero-flow tests, linearity checks, and meter factor determination. Zero-flow tests confirm the meter registers no output when fluid flow is absent, verifying start-stop integrity.^[109] Linearity checks evaluate performance across the operational range, usually from 10% to 100% of rated capacity, through multiple prover runs at varying flows to ensure consistent accuracy.^[109] The meter factor (MF) is calculated as:

MF = \frac{\text{Volume passed through prover}}{\text{Volume indicated by meter}}

This factor is applied to subsequent measurements for correction, with API MPMS requiring at least three repeatable runs (e.g., within ±0.02% variation) for validity.^[109] Documentation is critical for traceability and auditability, including certificates from calibrations linked to the International System of Units (SI) via national standards bodies like the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).^[109] Electronic proving reports, as per API MPMS Chapter 4.8, record run data, environmental conditions, and calculated factors, often integrated into supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems for real-time logging.^[109] Recent advances enhance efficiency, such as in-situ proving using compact or pipe provers that calibrate meters without full system shutdown, reducing operational downtime in pipeline applications.^[111] Post-2015 developments include digital twin simulations, which model meter behavior virtually to predict and verify performance under diverse conditions, supporting proactive maintenance in custody transfer stations.^[112]

Common Challenges and Mitigation

One prevalent challenge in custody transfer systems is fouling and particulate buildup in flow meters, which leads to measurement drift and reduced accuracy over time. Contamination from impurities in crude oil or gas can cause zero and span drift, resulting in consistent under-reading or over-reading of volumes, potentially leading to financial discrepancies in high-volume transfers.^[113]^[114] Cybersecurity threats pose significant risks to data integrity in custody transfer, where hackers can manipulate metering data or disrupt systems, as seen in ransomware attacks on energy infrastructure. These incidents can halt operations and compromise transaction records, exacerbating trust issues between parties.^[115]^[116] Environmental factors, such as vibration from nearby equipment or pipelines, also challenge system reliability by inducing mechanical stress on sensors and meters, leading to erratic readings and accelerated wear. In unstabilized crude applications, these combined with fluid variability further complicate accurate measurement.^[117]^[118] To mitigate fouling and particulates, automated cleaning cycles integrated into meter designs periodically flush lines to prevent buildup, while redundant sensors provide backup readings to cross-verify primary data and minimize downtime. For cybersecurity, blockchain technology establishes immutable audit trails for transaction data, ensuring tamper-proof records and enhancing traceability.^[35]^[115] A notable case study is the response to the 2021 Colonial Pipeline ransomware attack, where operators swiftly isolated affected systems and collaborated with federal agencies to recover assets, underscoring the need for rapid incident response protocols in custody transfer networks.^[119] Best practices include adopting risk-based proving intervals, which adjust calibration frequency based on operational risk assessments rather than fixed schedules, and personnel training aligned with ISO 5168 standards for orifice plate measurements to ensure consistent application. Hybrid metering systems, combining technologies like ultrasonic and Coriolis meters, enable real-time verification and reduce single-point failures.^[120]^[121] Emerging solutions leverage AI for anomaly detection in flow data, identifying irregularities such as leaks or tampering early to bolster security and operational reliability in custody transfer processes.^[115]

Specialized Calculations

Energy Transfer Formulas for LNG

In LNG custody transfer, the energy transferred is determined by calculating the product of the mass or volume of LNG and its gross calorific value (GCV), with adjustments for operational factors such as displaced gas and heel. The fundamental formula for energy E in mass terms is E = m \times GCV, where m is the mass of LNG in kilograms and GCV is the gross calorific value in megajoules per kilogram (MJ/kg). Equivalently, in volumetric terms, E = Q \times \rho \times GCV, where Q is the volume in cubic meters (m³) and \rho is the density in kg/m³. This calculation derives from the LNG composition, which typically consists of 85-95% methane along with smaller amounts of ethane, propane, and other hydrocarbons, analyzed via gas chromatography. The GCV, also known as the superior calorific value, is computed at standard conditions of 0°C and 101.325 kPa using ISO 6976, yielding values around 54 MJ/kg for typical LNG. Density \rho is determined from composition and thermodynamic data per ISO 6578, often employing the Enhanced Revised Klosek and McKinley method for accuracy within 0.1-0.15% across relevant temperatures (100-135 K). ISO 10976 provides the overarching framework for these measurements in custody transfer, ensuring uniform practices for quantity and energy computation on LNG carriers.^[122] Adjustments are applied for boil-off gas reintegration and heel management to account for vaporization and residual LNG in tanks. Boil-off gas energy is subtracted or added based on whether it is displaced during unloading or returned, using E_{\text{displaced gas}} = V_{\text{LNG}} \times \frac{273.15}{273.15 + T} \times \frac{p}{1.01325} \times GCV_{\text{gas}}, where T is temperature in °C and p is pressure in bar. Heel is handled by deducting the energy of pre-transfer residuals: E_{\text{heel}} = V_{\text{heel}} \times \rho_{\text{heel}} \times GCV_{\text{heel}}, with iterative composition updates for precision. These corrections, guided by GIIGNL best practices, can affect total energy by up to 0.25% in forced gas return scenarios. For context, 1 million metric tonnes per annum (MMtpa) of LNG equates to approximately 48 petajoules (PJ) of energy, underscoring the scale of transfers where high accuracy is paramount. Custody transfer protocols target an overall energy measurement uncertainty of ±0.2%, achieved through calibrated instrumentation and standardized computations to minimize financial discrepancies.^[123]^[124]

Base Load and Peak Shaving Adjustments

In liquefied natural gas (LNG) custody transfer, base load operations involve steady-state calculations to account for continuous vaporization during storage and transfer, ensuring accurate energy quantification under constant throughput conditions. These adjustments correct for the natural boil-off rate, typically ranging from 0.1% to 0.15% of the tank volume per day, which arises from heat ingress into the cryogenic tanks. This rate is influenced by insulation efficiency and ambient conditions, and failure to adjust can lead to discrepancies in transferred volume by up to 0.2% over extended holding periods. The Society of International Gas Tanker and Terminal Operators (SIGTTO) guidelines emphasize monitoring and incorporating these rates to maintain measurement integrity during routine ship-to-shore transfers.^[125] Peak shaving adjustments address short-term storage variations to meet fluctuating demand, particularly by recapturing boil-off gas (BOG) generated during idle periods or high-demand spikes. In these scenarios, BOG—produced at rates of 0.02% to 0.2% per day depending on tank design—is reliquefied or reintegrated into the main flow to minimize losses, with the adjusted transferred volume calculated as V_{adj} = V_{base} + \int BOG_{rate} \, dt, where the integral accounts for cumulative BOG over the storage duration. This method ensures that the energy content reflects operational dynamics, often adding 1-5% to the baseline volume in variable conditions. The Groupe International des Importateurs de Gaz Naturel Liquéfié (GIIGNL) Custody Transfer Handbook outlines protocols for BOG metering and energy correction, integrating it into the overall formula E = (V_{LNG} \times D_{LNG} \times GCV_{LNG}) \pm E_{gas \, to \, ER}, where E_{gas \, to \, ER} represents BOG energy directed to engine room use or recapture systems.^[126]^[125] Key factors influencing these adjustments include the tank heel—the residual LNG volume left after unloading to preserve cryogenic temperatures, typically limited to less than 5% of total capacity—and weather-induced evaporation, which accelerates BOG formation through external heat transfer. Heel management prevents stratification risks, where density mismatches (e.g., up to 20 kg/m³) between incoming LNG and heel can alter composition and require mixing via recirculation. SIGTTO standards mandate density monitoring below 5 kg/m³ differences and heel temperature controls within 1°C to avoid such issues during transfer. Weather effects, such as wind or solar radiation, can increase evaporation by 10-20% in exposed facilities, necessitating real-time BOG rate adjustments per GIIGNL recommendations.^[125]^[126] A representative case involves winter peak demands in regions like New England, where LNG peak shaving facilities provide up to 30% of daily peak gas needs (approximately 2 billion cubic feet per day from 38 plants), requiring 5-10% energy uplift adjustments to account for heightened BOG recapture and vaporization under cold-weather storage. These operations, guided by SIGTTO and GIIGNL protocols, optimize custody transfer by balancing heel retention with BOG integration, reducing overall uncertainty to below 0.5% in energy measurement.^[127]

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Mar 9, 2005 · For ex- ample, a repeatability of +/ - 0.1 % in 10 consecutive runs or a repeatability of +/- 0.17% in 15 consecutive runs both meet +/- 0.0 7% ...
[67]
43 CFR 3174.3 -- Incorporation by reference (IBR). - eCFR
(6) API MPMS Chapter 3—Tank Gauging, Section 6, Measurement of Liquid Hydrocarbons by Hybrid Tank Measurement Systems; First Edition, February 2001; Errata ...Missing: approaches | Show results with:approaches
[68]
[PDF] Petroleum Measurement - API
API's Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards (MPMS) covers measurement and calculation procedures for determining tank diameters and volumes, including ...Missing: GOV FVF
[69]
Measurement Terms and Definitions Maritime Petroleum
Custody Transfer Measurement - A measurement which furnishes quantity and ... batch transfer period. Bottom Sample - A spot sample taken from the material ...
[70]
D1298 Standard Test Method for Density, Relative Density, or API ...
May 13, 2025 · This test method covers the laboratory determination using a glass hydrometer in conjunction with a series of calculations, of the density, relative density, ...
[71]
https://www.astm.org/d1298-12br17e01.html
[72]
[PDF] Fundamentals of Mass Measurement ( Coriolis Meters) - ASGMT
The standard describes methods to achieve custody transfer levels of accuracy when a Coriolis meter is used to measure liquid hydrocarbons. Principle of ...
[73]
Understanding Lease Automatic Custody Transfer (LACT) Units in ...
Excessive Water Content: If the crude contains high levels of BS&W (above pipeline specifications, often 0.5% or less), it must be treated or rejected. · H2S ...
[74]
[PDF] Field Sampling Procedures for Fuel and Motor Oil Quality Testing
Apr 8, 2016 · (ASTM) D4057 “Standard Practice for Manual Sampling of Petroleum and Petroleum Products.” 2. Automatic Sampling (not addressed in this ...
[75]
Petroleum Cargo Testing - Bureau Veritas
Bureau Veritas' laboratories are ISO 17025 accredited and work to high internal and external standards to provide the service you need. Certificates for both ...Missing: accreditation | Show results with:accreditation
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https://www.bureauveritas.com.au/petroleum-cargo-testing
[77]
[PDF] Petroleum Measurement - API.org
Automatic temperature measurement is discussed for custody transfer and inventory control for both onshore and marine measurement applications. Temperatures of ...
[78]
Custody Transfer Temperature Measurement API MPMS Ch. 7 - Scribd
Rating 5.0 (2) API MPMS Chapter 7 describes the equipment types, usage, calibration of the various temperature measurements made in custody transfer. Mercury-In-Glass ...
[79]
API 11.1 Calculations & VCF Compliance - Quorum Software
The Microsoft Windows-based application is designed to calculate the Volume Correction Factor (VCF) tables outlined in API MPMS Ch. 11.1.
[80]
[PDF] How to Estimate Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) of Blends
The slope of the distillation plus loss curve (ASTM) at 10% is used as a parameter to make the nomograms. He also shows a chart relating the TVP with RVP for ...
[81]
[PDF] Fundamentals of Liquid Measurement
Correction equations have been developed, as a function of density to correct the fluid to a standard of 60 F. ▫. CTL and CPL factors are actually factors that ...
[82]
Skid Mounted Lease Automatic Custody Transfer (LACT) Systems
A BS&W monitor is primarily used in a LACT system where “off-spec” crude oil is diverted to secondary systems, preventing the off-spec product's sale. One of ...
[83]
[PDF] European MID Directive for Custody Transfer Measuring Instruments
Compliance with this directive is assumed when using the OIML recommendations OIML R117-1 (measuring systems for liquids other than water) and OIML R137-1 (for ...
[84]
[PDF] Fiscal Measurement – Natural Gas
However for the lowest uncertainty in measurement, custody transfer generally takes place at stable, predictable single phase locations or physical discrete ...
[85]
Natural gas — Standard reference conditions - ISO 13443:1996
In stock 2–5 day deliveryISO 13443:1996 specifies standard reference conditions of temperature, pressure, and humidity for measurements and calculations on natural gases and similar ...
[86]
43 CFR Part 3170 Subpart 3175 -- Measurement of Gas - eCFR
(1) API Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards (MPMS) Chapter 14—Natural Gas Fluids Measurement, Section 1, Collecting and Handling of Natural Gas Samples ...
[87]
Mass Flow Rate Units: Understanding Gas Measurement Standards
Jun 5, 2025 · Common mass flow units include kg/hr and lb/hr. Volumetric units like SCFM/SCFH and Nm³/h are also used, but are not true mass flow units.
[88]
[PDF] Aga Nx 19 Calculation Procedure
Finally, the corrected gas volume at standard conditions is calculated using: Vstd = Vmeas * (P / Pstd) * (Tstd / T) * (Zstd / Z) where Vmeas is the measured ...
[89]
Volume Flow Rate in Liquid and Gas Measurement
The above equation gives us the ratio of standardized volumetric flow rate (Qs) to actual volumetric flow rate (Q), for any known pressures and temperatures.
[90]
[PDF] Calculation of Natural Gas Liquids Quantities - ASGMT
The corrections to the meter's indicated volume are grouped together into the. Combined Correction Factor (CCC). NGG = GGG = IG × CCC. (Equation 1) where: NGG = ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[91]
[PDF] COMPARISON OF FIVE NATURAL GAS EQUATIONS OF STATE ...
The AGA 8 equation of state was developed in 1992 to calculate the compressibility factor for a wide range of natural gas mixtures at typical pipeline.Missing: correction | Show results with:correction
[92]
[PDF] AGA 3.1: Orifice Metering of Natural Gas and Other Related ...
1.9.2 Meter Correction Factor ... The compressibility (Z) is an adjustment factor used to account for the deviation from the.
[93]
[PDF] Natural Gas Sampling for Custody Transfer - ASGMT
Sampling can be accomplished by primarily three techniques: spot sampling, continuous composite sampling or continuous on-line sampling systems. The various ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[94]
[PDF] TECHNIQUES OF NATURAL GAS SAMPLING AND COMPOSITE ...
Most samplers will include a port for a hot loop, which keeps the gas flowing through the sample chamber. Single flow sample probes are typically used with the.
[95]
[PDF] considerations for sampling wet, high pressure, and - ASGMT
Sampling wet, high pressure, and supercritical gas requires phase separation membranes, pressure regulation, and maintaining temperature to avoid sample ...
[96]
GPA STD 2166 - Obtaining Natural Gas Samples for Analysis by ...
Jan 1, 2017 · The purpose of this publication is to recommend procedures for obtaining samples from flowing natural gas streams that represent the composition of the vapor ...
[97]
API MPMS 14.1 - Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards ...
May 1, 2016 · The purpose of this standard is to provide a comprehensive guideline for properly collecting, conditioning, and handling representative samples ...
[98]
[PDF] a summary of methods on calculations of gas density - NFOGM
There are four methods of obtaining density for gas : - a) A fixed estimated value (commonly used in compressed air,steam systems and gas supply to consUIOOrs).
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[PDF] Preparation of Primary Standards by Gravimetric Methods - NOAA
Aug 1, 2019 · This document provides the technical procedures for the preparation of primary standards (as compressed gas mixtures) by gravimetric methods. ...<|separator|>
[100]
Metrology for LNG custody transfer and transport fuel applications
The volume of ship tanks is measured (static) using tank level gauging. This measurement method is currently the only established procedure to measure the LNG ...
[101]
About Natural Gas Chromatographs | Emerson US
A gas chromatograph is a reliable method for identifying the compositional analysis of biomethane and monitoring its quality, calorific value and Wobbe index.
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https://www.emerson.com/en-us/automation/measurement-instrumentation/gas-analysis/about-natural-gas-chromatographs
[103]
[PDF] Coriolis Mass Flow Meters for Liquid and Gas Measurement - ASGMT
A Coriolis flowmeter directly measures the mass of fluid flow, without needing temperature or density corrections, and also measures liquid density.
[104]
[PDF] Handbook for uncertainty calculations for gas flow metering stations
Jun 16, 2020 · ISO 5168, “Measurement of fluid flow – Procedures for the evaluation of uncertainties,” ISO ... for custody transfer and allocation measurement,” ...
[105]
Determination of natural gas custody transfer properties
Among the important gas properties associated with custody transfer are heating value, relative density and realgas factor (or supercompressibility factor).
[106]
[PDF] Fundamentals of Meter Provers and Proving Methods - ASGMT
Why companies prove flow meters? The purpose for meter verification or meter proving is to provide accurate measurement which then will minimize losses and.
[107]
What Is Meter Proving and Why It Matters in Custody Transfer
Jul 23, 2025 · A common rule: monthly or quarterly proving for custody transfer meters, especially for crude oil or NGLs. Meters should also be proved after:.Missing: intervals | Show results with:intervals
[108]
Meter Provers | Emerson US
A prover is an automated system that provides on-site calibration to ensure flow meters in service for fiscal and custody transfer applications maintain ...
[109]
[PDF] ABSTRACT-Virtual-Check-Measurement-for-Natural-Gas-Custody ...
Dec 12, 2024 · C-SMART Analytics provides cloud-based, AI and digital twin driven services that automatically alert buyers and sellers to measurement errors ...Missing: proving 2015
[110]
(PDF) Ensuring Accuracy and Reliability in Custody Transfer Gas ...
Mar 26, 2025 · With the deregulation of the natural gas industry, custody transfer and account balancing have become areas for potential cost reduction.<|separator|>
[111]
Tips to Overcome Challenges in Product and Custody Transfers
Apr 13, 2016 · Challenge 1: Interruptions during loading and unloading · Challenge 2: Unplanned Proving · Challenge 3: Not meeting product quality targets.Missing: common | Show results with:common
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How blockchain technology can make custody transfer more secure
Feb 12, 2025 · The combination of blockchain and AI significantly enhances security in metering systems by reducing vulnerabilities to cyber threats and human ...
[113]
The Risk of Russian Cyberattacks on US Energy Infrastructure
Apr 1, 2022 · The interconnectedness of the pipeline's operational sensors with customer custody transfers, shared remote metering, storage operations, and ...
[114]
Custody Transfer Calibration for Maximum ROI - Relevant Industrial
Custody transfer calibration presents many challenges, ranging from equipment drifting to environmental factors and human error. Equipment drift, a common issue ...Missing: mitigations | Show results with:mitigations
[115]
Challenges in Custody Metering System in Unstabilized Crude
Nov 11, 2019 · This paper addresses major challenges and the corresponding mitigation methodologies in the design of a custody metering system in an ...
[116]
The Attack on Colonial Pipeline: What We've Learned & What ... - CISA
May 7, 2023 · On May 7, 2021, a ransomware attack on Colonial Pipeline captured headlines around the world with pictures of snaking lines of cars at gas stations across the ...
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Custody Transfer Risk Assessment - Emerson Automation Experts
Aug 21, 2013 · Custody Transfer in the oil and gas industry refers to the transactions involving transporting physical substance from one operator to another.
[118]
Best Practices for Custody Transfer Flow Measurement
Jun 16, 2025 · Compliance with standards like API, ISO, OIML, AGA, PNGRB. But it's not just about installing a meter. It's about designing an integrated ...<|separator|>
[119]
LNG (as fuel) chemical composition - Queseas
Nov 10, 2022 · Typically LNG consists of 85 to 95-plus percent methane (CH4) which is the simplest hydrocarbon compound. Other compounds in a fewer percent include ethane.
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Understanding Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Units - Enerdynamics
1 million tonnes (LNG) = 48.7 Bcf* (gas) = 1.379 bcm (gas) · 1 Bcf (gas) = 45,000 cubic meters (LNG) · 1 million tonnes per year (mtpa) (LNG) = 48.7 Bcf/year* ( ...
[121]
[PDF] Reducing measurement - Emerson Global
The density of LNG is calculated from the average composition obtained from LNG sampling and gas chromatographic analysis, and from the temperature of the. LNG ...
[122]
[PDF] Guidance for the Prevention of Rollover in LNG Ships - SIGTTO
If the incoming LNG is lighter than the heel in the tank, a bottom filling operation will generally ensure complete mixing of the two LNG grades, with little or ...Missing: adjustments | Show results with:adjustments
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[PDF] LNG CUSTODY TRANSFER HANDBOOK - Snam
The purpose of this handbook is to serve as a reference manual to assist readers to understand the procedures and equipment available and used by the members ...
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[PDF] asgmt 2018 lng custody transfer measurement
ECONOMICS OF LNG PEAK SHAVING. ARE ABOUT AVOIDED PIPELINE CAPACITY CHARGES ... Base-Load. •. Liquefaction or Truck Unloading. •. On-Site Storage.Missing: adjustments SIGTTO