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Dialogic learning

Dialogic learning is a pedagogical framework that centers on the use of purposeful, reciprocal dialogue to facilitate knowledge construction, critical thinking, and collaborative problem-solving among learners and educators, in contrast to unidirectional transmission models of instruction.^[1]^[2] Originating from sociocultural theories emphasizing the social mediation of cognition, it posits that understanding arises through the dynamic interplay of perspectives in verbal interactions, enabling learners to refine ideas via exploratory talk and collective reasoning.^[3] Key principles include fostering inclusive participation, probing for deeper insight, and building cumulatively on contributions, as articulated in frameworks like Robin Alexander's dialogic teaching model.^[4] Empirical evidence from randomized controlled trials indicates measurable gains in student attainment, particularly in reasoning and subject knowledge, with interventions showing sustained effects when implemented with fidelity.^[5] Defining characteristics encompass a shift from interrogative, closed questioning to open-ended discourse that promotes reasoning chains and metacognitive awareness, though challenges in scaling arise from teacher training demands and classroom management needs.^[6]^[7]

Definition and Core Concepts

Fundamental Definition

Dialogic learning refers to the educational process in which knowledge is co-constructed through egalitarian dialogues among participants, who collectively advance their understanding by sharing perspectives and challenging assumptions.^[8] This approach positions learners as active protagonists rather than passive recipients, emphasizing reciprocal interactions that foster critical thinking and conceptual development over rote transmission.^[8] Unlike traditional instruction dominated by teacher-led monologues, dialogic learning relies on open-ended talk to scaffold higher-order reasoning, with empirical evidence showing gains such as accelerated progress in subjects like English and science following structured dialogic interventions.^[8] At its core, dialogic learning operates through principles of collectivity, reciprocity, and cumulativeness, where discussions build sequentially on prior contributions to deepen comprehension.^[8] Participants engage in exploratory talk—characterized by sharing evidence, evaluating alternatives, and seeking consensus—grounded in social norms that encourage questioning and inclusion.^[8] This causal mechanism, rooted in social interactions, enables learners to internalize knowledge by negotiating meanings in a multi-voiced environment, promoting both cognitive advancement and social cohesion.^[8] Studies indicate that such processes enhance reasoning skills by shifting from individual recall to collaborative inquiry, with observable improvements in academic performance tied to the quality and equality of dialogue.^[8] Fundamentally, dialogic learning aligns with sociocultural theories positing that language and interaction serve as primary tools for cognitive growth, as individuals appropriate ideas through dialogic exchanges within their zone of proximal development.^[8] It incorporates dialogic orientation—openness to diverse viewpoints—and aims to cultivate capacities for ongoing collaborative learning beyond immediate contexts.^[9] This framework underscores causal realism in education, where learning outcomes emerge from the dynamics of interpersonal exchange rather than isolated instruction, supported by evidence from classroom implementations yielding measurable enhancements in critical faculties.^[9]^[8]

Distinction from Monologic and Traditional Instruction

Dialogic learning fundamentally differs from monologic and traditional instruction in its emphasis on interactive, multi-voiced exchanges that co-construct knowledge, rather than unidirectional transmission from teacher to learner. In monologic pedagogy, the teacher maintains singular authority, delivering predefined content through lectures or direct explanations, with students positioned as passive recipients who reproduce information with minimal input or challenge.^[10] This approach, rooted in authoritative discourse as described by Mikhail Bakhtin, prioritizes the conveyance of "correct" knowledge via textbooks and scripted responses, often limiting class time to curriculum coverage and suppressing diverse student perspectives.^[10]^[11] In contrast, dialogic pedagogy, drawing from Bakhtin's concepts of polyphony and heteroglossia, distributes authority by valuing student voices in exploratory discussions, where the teacher acts as a facilitator rather than a judge.^[10] Knowledge emerges through collective reasoning, questioning, and response chains—such as initiation-response-follow-up sequences that extend beyond rote recall into critical analysis—fostering active participation and deeper comprehension.^[12] Traditional instruction, often monologic in practice, relies on patterns like high teacher talk (up to 74% in some classrooms) and evaluative feedback that reinforces compliance over collaboration.^[12] Empirical distinctions highlight dialogic methods' superiority in promoting higher-order thinking and equity; for instance, exploratory dialogue encourages widening and deepening ideas through pluralistic input, unlike adversarial or mere conversational talk that may lack rigor or teacher-directed monologism that constrains innovation.^[12] Studies informed by Bakhtinian theory show dialogic classrooms enhance student agency and heteroglossic engagement, countering monologism's tendency toward uniform, autonomous discourse that marginalizes learner-initiated meaning-making.^[10]^[13] While traditional models efficiently cover material, they risk superficial retention, whereas dialogic processes, though time-intensive, build causal understanding through causal realism in peer interactions—evident in improved outcomes for critical reasoning when multiple viewpoints clash and resolve.^[12]

Key Mechanisms and Causal Processes

Dialogic learning primarily unfolds through social interactions that enable the collaborative construction of knowledge, distinct from individualistic or transmissive models. At its core, this process draws on Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, where learning emerges from dialogue within the zone of proximal development (ZPD)—the gap between what a learner can achieve alone and with guided support from peers or more capable others.^[2] Scaffolding in these interactions provides temporary cognitive assistance, such as prompting clarification or alternative viewpoints, which learners internalize over time, transforming external social speech into self-regulating inner speech.^[14] This internalization causally drives cognitive advancement by bridging developmental gaps through shared meaning-making, as evidenced in studies showing improved reasoning when dialogue replaces rote instruction.^[15] Negotiation and argumentation serve as pivotal mediating mechanisms, allowing participants to contest assumptions, refine ideas, and integrate diverse perspectives into coherent understandings.^[16] In negotiation, interlocutors adjust positions based on mutual feedback, fostering cognitive dissonance resolution and schema reconstruction; argumentation extends this by demanding evidence-based justification, which strengthens logical structures in thought.^[17] These processes create "dialogic spaces"—open forums for exploratory talk—where cumulative exchanges build collective knowledge, leading to deeper retention and transfer compared to monologic exposition, as meta-analyses of dialogic interventions demonstrate gains in critical thinking metrics.^[18]^[19] Causally, these mechanisms enhance socio-emotional dimensions alongside cognition, as dialogue promotes empathy through perspective-taking and reduces egocentric biases, thereby amplifying motivational engagement and long-term schema stability.^[2] Empirical evidence from classroom implementations links such interactions to measurable outcomes, including elevated vocabulary depth in language learners and creative problem-solving in diverse groups, via pathways of increased verbal fluency and reflective reasoning.^[20]^[21] Unlike passive reception, the active reciprocity in dialogic processes ensures causal efficacy by aligning social inputs directly with individual cognitive restructuring, though effectiveness varies with group dynamics and facilitator expertise.^[22]

Historical Development

Ancient and Pre-Modern Origins

Dialogic learning's roots in ancient Greece are exemplified by the Socratic method, a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue developed by the philosopher Socrates (c. 469–399 BCE) to stimulate critical thinking and illuminate underlying ideas through questioning rather than direct instruction.^[23] This approach, known as elenchus, proceeded by posing probing questions to interlocutors, revealing inconsistencies in their assumptions and fostering self-examination, as preserved in Plato's writings.^[24] Plato (c. 428–348 BCE), Socrates' student, formalized these practices in his dialogues, such as The Republic and Meno, where characters engage in back-and-forth exchanges to explore ethical, metaphysical, and epistemological questions, laying groundwork for collaborative knowledge construction.^[25] He established the Academy around 387 BCE, an institution centered on dialectical inquiry where students debated ideas under philosophical guidance, influencing subsequent educational models.^[26] Aristotle (384–322 BCE), Plato's pupil, advanced dialogic elements through his Peripatetic school at the Lyceum (founded 335 BCE), emphasizing empirical discussion and logical disputation during ambulatory sessions to refine concepts in natural philosophy and ethics.^[27] These Greek traditions prioritized dialogue as a causal mechanism for refining understanding, predating and shaping later Western pedagogy, though direct transmission waned until medieval revivals.^[28] In ancient China, Confucius (551–479 BCE) employed dialogic methods in teaching, structuring exchanges that began from professed ignorance to provoke reflection and ethical insight, as recorded in The Analects, where master-disciple interactions modeled relational learning through questioning and analogy.^[29] Similarly, in ancient India, the Upanishads (c. 700–300 BCE) depict guru-shishya (teacher-disciple) dialogues, such as in the Chandogya Upanishad, where oral exchanges between sages and students probed metaphysical truths, emphasizing experiential inquiry over rote transmission.^[30] Pre-modern developments in medieval Europe revived these dialogic forms through scholasticism, particularly the disputatio, a formalized debate in universities from the 12th century onward, where scholars like Anselm of Canterbury (1033–1109) used dialectical reasoning to reconcile authorities and resolve theological questions via structured argumentation.^[31] By the 13th century, figures such as Thomas Aquinas integrated Aristotelian logic into disputations at institutions like the University of Paris, employing question-response formats to advance knowledge systematically, bridging ancient dialectic with Christian inquiry.^[32] This method, rooted in causal analysis of propositions, persisted as a core pre-modern educational tool until the Renaissance shift toward humanism.^[33]

20th-Century Foundations

Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory, formulated between 1924 and 1934, provided an early 20th-century foundation for dialogic learning by arguing that cognitive development occurs through social interactions, particularly collaborative dialogue within the zone of proximal development—a conceptual space where learners achieve tasks beyond independent capacity via guidance from more knowledgeable others.^[34] Vygotsky emphasized language as a tool for internalizing social processes, with empirical observations from child studies showing how joint problem-solving dialogues scaffold higher mental functions like reasoning and self-regulation.^[3] His ideas, initially suppressed in the Soviet Union due to political constraints, gained wider recognition posthumously and influenced later dialogic models by establishing causal links between interpersonal exchange and intrapersonal growth.^[35] John Dewey's progressive education framework, advanced in publications such as Democracy and Education (1916) and Experience and Education (1938), integrated dialogic elements by promoting inquiry-based classrooms where students engage in shared discussions to test ideas against experience, fostering democratic habits and reflective thinking.^[36] Dewey's laboratory school experiments at the University of Chicago from 1896 to 1904 demonstrated that cooperative dialogues in real-world projects enhanced problem-solving over rote memorization, with data from student outcomes indicating improved adaptability and social intelligence.^[37] This approach prioritized causal realism in learning, viewing dialogue as a mechanism for reconstructing knowledge through empirical testing rather than passive absorption. Mikhail Bakhtin's dialogism, developed in essays from the 1920s to 1970s and published in collections like The Dialogic Imagination (1975), theorized that human understanding emerges from the tension and interplay of multiple voices in discourse, rejecting monologic authority in favor of polyphonic interactions.^[38] Applied to education, Bakhtin's framework highlighted how utterances gain meaning through responsive addressivity, with analyses of literary and conversational data showing dialogue's role in challenging dominant narratives and promoting authentic expression.^[39] His ideas, rooted in linguistic and philosophical critiques, laid groundwork for viewing classroom talk as a site of ideological contestation, influencing subsequent pedagogical shifts toward open-ended, multi-voiced exchanges. Paulo Freire's critical pedagogy, detailed in Pedagogy of the Oppressed (written 1967–1968), formalized dialogic action as a liberatory process where educators and learners co-investigate generative themes through problem-posing dialogues, enabling conscientization—the critical perception of social realities.^[40] Drawing from adult literacy programs in Brazil during the 1960s, Freire's method rejected the "banking" model of education, with field evidence from participant transformations illustrating how horizontal dialogues disrupted hierarchical knowledge transmission and spurred action-oriented learning.^[41] While Freire's Marxist orientation introduced emancipatory aims, his empirical focus on dialogue's causal efficacy in empowerment resonated across educational contexts, bridging psychological and socio-political dimensions of 20th-century thought.

Post-1980s Evolution and Global Spread

In the early 2000s, British educational researcher Robin Alexander formalized the concept of dialogic teaching as a structured pedagogical approach emphasizing collective hypothesis-testing through talk, building on sociocultural theories to enhance student engagement and reasoning in classrooms.^[42] This framework, refined through empirical studies and teacher training programs, contrasted with prior monologic traditions by prioritizing open-ended questions, uptake of student ideas, and extended chains of reasoning, with initial implementations in UK primary schools demonstrating improved academic outcomes by 2004.^[43] Concurrently, in Spain, sociologist Ramón Flecha advanced dialogic learning via the CREA research group, focusing on egalitarian interactions in "dialogic spaces" such as literary gatherings that integrate peer dialogue with expert input to foster inclusion among marginalized communities, including Roma families, with principles codified in successful educational actions by the late 1990s.^[44] These developments marked a shift from theoretical foundations to scalable practices, supported by interdisciplinary research linking dialogue to cognitive and social gains.^[3] By the 2010s, dialogic pedagogy evolved to incorporate digital tools and address diverse contexts, as seen in Rupert Wegerif's explorations of internet-mediated reasoning dialogues that extend Bakhtinian polyphony into virtual environments, enabling asynchronous global exchanges. Systematic analyses of classroom discourse patterns intensified, revealing variations in dialogic density across subjects and revealing causal links to higher-order thinking via prolonged teacher-student intersubjectivity.^[45] In higher education, adaptations emphasized reflexive practices for intercultural competence, with professional development models training faculty to sustain exploratory talk amid standardized curricula pressures.^[46] The global spread accelerated post-2010, with implementations in non-Western contexts adapting core mechanisms to local needs; for instance, kindergartens in Finland and the United Arab Emirates employed dialogic patterns to bridge cultural differences in early literacy, showing higher student participation rates compared to traditional instruction.^[47] In China, online dialogic teaching in media literacy courses cultivated global awareness among university students, evidenced by pre-post surveys indicating enhanced critical perspectives on international issues.^[48] Thailand's higher education trials integrated dialogic methods to boost classroom interaction, yielding measurable impacts on student agency and knowledge co-construction by 2023.^[49] Flecha's successful actions, including dialogic gatherings, extended to Latin America and Europe, reducing educational inequalities in over 1,000 schools by promoting family-school dialogues grounded in egalitarian principles.^[50] These adaptations underscore dialogic pedagogy's portability, though challenges persist in scaling amid varying institutional priorities and teacher preparation levels.^[3]

Theoretical Frameworks

Socio-Cultural and Linguistic Theories

Socio-cultural theories of dialogic learning emphasize the foundational role of social interactions in cognitive development, positing that knowledge construction occurs through collaborative dialogue rather than isolated individual effort. Lev Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory, developed in the 1930s, argues that higher mental functions arise from interpersonal processes, where learners internalize cultural tools like language via guided participation with more capable peers or adults.^[51] Central to this is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), introduced by Vygotsky around 1930–1934, which delineates the span between independent performance and potential achievement through scaffolded dialogue, enabling learners to transcend current capabilities via joint problem-solving and verbal mediation.^[51] Empirical extensions of Vygotsky's framework, such as Neil Mercer's exploratory talk model from the 1990s onward, demonstrate how such interactions foster reasoning by requiring learners to justify ideas and challenge assumptions collectively.^[2] Mikhail Bakhtin's dialogism, articulated in works from the 1920s to 1940s, extends socio-cultural perspectives by conceptualizing dialogue as inherently polyphonic, involving the clash and hybridization of diverse voices without hierarchical resolution. Unlike Vygotsky's dialectical emphasis on synthesis through mediation, Bakhtin's approach highlights ongoing tension and "addressivity" in utterances, where meaning is co-constructed in response to others' perspectives, informing dialogic pedagogies that prioritize open-ended discourse over convergent outcomes.^[52] This polyphony aligns with educational applications where classroom talk incorporates multiple social languages and genres, as Wertsch noted in 1998, enabling learners to navigate cultural "patternings" through ventriloquizing others' ideas.^[53] Linguistic theories integrate with these frameworks by framing language as both a semiotic tool and a social practice constitutive of learning. Vygotsky's progression from external social speech to internalized private speech, observed in children's development studies from the early 20th century, illustrates how dialogic exchanges transform communicative language into regulatory thought processes.^[2] Bakhtin and Vološinov's linguistic ideas, developed in the 1920s, further posit that signs and words gain meaning dialogically through ideological struggles in social contexts, influencing dialogic education by underscoring how utterances respond to prior and anticipated voices, thus shaping learners' discursive competence and worldview.^[52] These theories collectively reject monologic transmission models, evidenced in analyses showing dialogic talk enhances linguistic flexibility and conceptual depth, as provisional language use sustains exploratory spaces for idea refinement.^[54]

Critical and Emancipatory Theories

Critical and emancipatory theories position dialogic learning as a mechanism for critiquing power structures and fostering liberation from systemic oppression, emphasizing dialogue not merely for knowledge exchange but for transformative praxis. Paulo Freire's critical pedagogy, developed in the context of Brazilian literacy campaigns in the 1960s, rejects the "banking model" of education—where teachers deposit facts into passive students—and advocates problem-posing dialogue to cultivate conscientização, or critical consciousness, enabling participants to name and challenge their realities.^[40] In Pedagogy of the Oppressed (first published in Portuguese in 1968 and English in 1970), Freire describes this as horizontal, reciprocal interaction uniting reflection and action to humanize both educators and learners, drawing on Marxist influences to target class and cultural domination.^[40]^[55] Empirical applications of Freirean dialogic methods, such as in adult literacy programs, have shown short-term gains in participant engagement and awareness, but long-term emancipatory impacts remain contested due to methodological limitations and contextual dependencies, with outcomes often conflated with ideological mobilization rather than measurable social change.^[56] Critics, including adult educator John Ohliger, highlight how Freire's blend of Christian humanism and Marxism complicates neutral implementation, potentially prioritizing confrontation over evidence-based reasoning and risking indoctrination in unequal settings.^[55] This approach's dominance in education academia reflects systemic left-leaning biases, where uncritical endorsement prevails despite sparse causal data linking dialogic critique to broad liberation, as opposed to reinforced groupthink.^[57] Jürgen Habermas's theory of communicative action (1981) extends emancipatory dialogic learning by distinguishing it from strategic action oriented toward success; instead, it prioritizes uncoerced discourse under "ideal speech conditions"—equality, sincerity, and norm-free validity claims—to achieve mutual understanding and emancipation from distorted communication.^[58] In educational contexts, this manifests as classroom dialogues scrutinizing power asymmetries to build rational consensus, influencing models like those integrating Habermas with Freire for reflexive subject formation.^[59] However, real-world dialogic practices often devolve into strategic maneuvers due to inherent hierarchies, undermining Habermas's presuppositions and yielding limited evidence of scalable emancipation beyond theoretical ideals.^[60] Jacques Rancière's emancipatory education, articulated in The Ignorant Schoolmaster (1987), aligns with dialogic principles by assuming universal equality of intelligence, where teachers provoke self-teaching through explication rather than explication, using dialogue to verify rather than transmit knowledge.^[61] This counters Freirean emphasis on guided critique, focusing causal realism on individual assumption-breaking, though empirical studies remain anecdotal, highlighting persistent gaps in validating these theories' transformative claims against traditional instruction's outcomes.^[62]

Inquiry-Based and Communicative Models

Inquiry-based models within dialogic learning emphasize student-driven exploration facilitated by structured dialogue, where learners pose questions, investigate phenomena, and collectively refine understandings through reciprocal interaction. These models draw on principles of guided inquiry, such as the 5Es instructional framework (engage, explore, explain, elaborate, evaluate), which integrates dialogic talk to scaffold cognitive processes during cooperative science tasks.^[63] In this approach, teachers shift from monologic transmission to prompting exploratory discussions that balance individual inquiry with group consensus-building, fostering deeper conceptual grasp as evidenced in Year 5 science classrooms where dialogic exchanges during matter investigations enhanced student agency and evidence-based reasoning.^[64] Theoretical underpinnings highlight a causal link between dialogic scaffolding—such as questioning chains and peer rebuttals—and inquiry outcomes, with empirical scaffolding principles derived from Vygotskian zones of proximal development adapted for inquiry contexts.^[65] Communicative models frame dialogic learning as egalitarian exchanges aimed at co-constructing knowledge via consensus-oriented discourse, rooted in the premise that learning emerges from interactive communication rather than isolated cognition. This approach posits that successful dialogs require mutual understanding and perspective-taking, as articulated in frameworks where participants engage in "sharing words" to transform personal experiences into collective insights.^[66] Unlike instrumental communicative acts focused on persuasion, these models prioritize transformative dialogue, where egalitarian participation—often in peer groups—drives instrumental learning endpoints like skill acquisition, with studies showing enhanced outcomes in diverse educational settings through repeated dialogic gatherings.^[8] Causal mechanisms involve iterative feedback loops in communication, enabling learners to negotiate meanings and resolve dissonances, as supported by research linking communicative methodologies to improved oral competence and prosocial behaviors in early childhood contexts.^[67] Integration of inquiry-based and communicative elements often occurs in hybrid models, such as dialogic SSS (socio-scientific issues) frameworks for teacher preparation, which combine investigative questioning with communicative deliberation to address real-world problems, yielding measurable gains in critical thinking via evidence from pre-service educator cohorts.^[68] These models underscore that dialogic efficacy depends on power-balanced interactions, where inquiry prompts communicative depth, though implementation requires deliberate structuring to avoid devolving into unstructured talk, as critiqued in analyses of classroom discourse patterns.^[69] Empirical validation from meta-level reviews confirms modest but positive effects on knowledge construction when communicative norms guide inquiry processes, prioritizing verifiable dialogue over rote exchange.^[1]

Pedagogical Applications

Classroom Formats and Structures

In dialogic learning, classroom formats emphasize structured yet flexible arrangements that prioritize reciprocal talk, collective knowledge-building, and extended reasoning over monologic instruction. Common structures include whole-class dialogues, small-group exploratory sessions, and seminar-style inquiries, each adapted to subject matter and age group to maximize student agency in co-constructing understanding.^[70]^[45] Socratic seminars represent a foundational format, involving students seated in concentric circles—an inner group for active dialogue and an outer for observation and rotation—to dissect texts or ethical dilemmas through open-ended questions. Participants reference evidence, build on peers' contributions, and refine ideas via probing without teacher dominance, typically lasting 30-60 minutes per session to cultivate evidence-based argumentation. This structure, rooted in ancient practices but formalized in modern education since the mid-20th century, has been implemented in secondary classrooms to enhance textual analysis and civil discourse.^[71]^[72] Philosophy for Children (P4C) employs a community of inquiry format, where 8-12 students in a circle respond to philosophical stimuli like narratives or dilemmas posed by a facilitator. Discussions unfold in phases: initial idea-sharing, reasoned elaboration, and reflective synthesis, with ground rules ensuring inclusivity and no premature judgment. Originating in the 1970s under Matthew Lipman, this structure spans primary to higher education, fostering metacognition through 45-90 minute sessions that integrate dialogue with self-assessment. Empirical applications show it promotes conceptual clarity in diverse settings, though outcomes vary with facilitator training.^[73]^[74] Small-group discussions, often comprising 3-6 students, facilitate exploratory talk where participants hypothesize, justify claims with evidence, and challenge assumptions to resolve controversies, contrasting with disputational or cumulative patterns that stifle depth. These 10-20 minute segments, frequently bridged to whole-class debriefs, support scaffolded progression from peer negotiation to broader synthesis, as seen in collaborative reasoning protocols applied in science and social studies since the 1990s. Teachers structure them with prompts and roles to mitigate dominance by vocal members, yielding gains in reasoning when paired with teacher monitoring.^[75]^[76] Whole-class dialogic structures, as outlined in Robin Alexander's framework developed through UK trials from 2004 onward, replace closed initiation-response-feedback chains with cumulative chains of talk—teachers posing contingent questions to extend pupil ideas across 20-40 minute segments. Principles include reciprocity (mutual listening), supportiveness (risk-free challenge), and purposefulness (linked to curricular goals), implemented in primary mathematics and literacy to elevate reasoning over recall. This format requires physical rearrangements like semicircles for eye contact and has been scaled in teacher professional development programs, though fidelity depends on resisting default to recitation under time pressures.^[42]^[4]

Types of Dialogic Interactions

Dialogic interactions in educational contexts are often categorized by their discursive qualities and cognitive demands, with Neil Mercer's framework providing a foundational typology that differentiates between disputational talk, cumulative talk, and exploratory talk. Disputational talk involves displays of individual opinions with disagreement and limited constructive challenge, where speakers prioritize winning arguments over shared understanding, resulting in minimal advancement of collective knowledge.^[77]^[78] This type, observed in unstructured peer debates, correlates with lower learning gains due to its adversarial nature without resolution mechanisms.^[79] Cumulative talk, in contrast, features uncritical agreement and repetition of shared views, where participants build consensus by adding supportive statements without challenging or extending ideas rigorously.^[80]^[77] Prevalent in teacher-dominated recitations or group affirmations, it fosters social cohesion but risks superficial understanding, as evidenced in studies of primary classroom interactions where it predominates over more analytic forms.^[81]^[78] Exploratory talk represents the most productive dialogic interaction, characterized by critical engagement where participants share knowledge, challenge contributions constructively, and seek evidence-based resolutions while grounding claims in reasoned alternatives.^[82]^[79] Empirical analyses, such as those in collaborative problem-solving tasks, demonstrate that exploratory talk enhances reasoning and problem resolution, particularly when guided by explicit "ground rules" for dialogue, like those promoting evidence evaluation.^[77]^[83] Beyond these peer-oriented types, teacher-led interactions like Socratic questioning constitute another key form, involving iterative probing to expose assumptions and elicit justifications, distinct from monologic lecturing by its reliance on student responses to drive inquiry.^[84]^[85] In classroom applications, such as Socratic seminars, this method fosters individual accountability and collective scrutiny, though its efficacy depends on teacher skill in balancing guidance with open-endedness, as unstructured variants can devolve into dominance by vocal participants.^[86]^[72] Hybrid forms, integrating exploratory peer talk with Socratic facilitation, appear in dialogic pedagogies to scaffold transitions from rote exchange to deeper argumentation.^[12]

Instrumental Versus Exploratory Approaches

Instrumental approaches in dialogic learning utilize dialogue as a structured tool to achieve predetermined educational outcomes, such as acquiring specific knowledge or skills aligned with curricular goals.^[87] These methods often involve teacher-led questioning techniques, like the Socratic method, to guide students toward predefined understandings, critiquing traditional instruction for its lack of engagement while still prioritizing efficiency in reaching endpoints.^[88] For instance, in epistemological instrumental dialogic pedagogy, interactions focus on problem-solving or concept clarification to enhance academic performance, treating dialogue as interchangeable with other instructional formats when needed.^[87] Proponents argue this enhances deep comprehension compared to rote learning, though it may limit genuine student agency by subordinating open exchange to instrumental ends.^[89] In contrast, exploratory approaches emphasize dialogue as an end in itself, fostering unfinalized inquiry, critical puzzlement, and emergent knowledge construction without fixed objectives.^[87] Non-instrumental variants, such as ontological dialogic pedagogy, center on students' existential interests and personal becoming, where interactions generate new questions rather than converge on preset answers, promoting intrinsic motivation and creativity.^[88] Exploratory talk, as defined by Mercer in 2004, exemplifies this through collaborative reasoning where participants challenge ideas constructively to co-build understanding, often yielding unpredictable insights.^[90] These methods prioritize student subjectivity and ecological free-range dialogue, avoiding manipulation toward specific conclusions, though they risk inefficiency in standardized assessments.^[91] The distinction highlights tensions in dialogic practice: instrumental methods integrate more readily into institutional constraints, evidenced by applications in subjects like mathematics for targeted skill development, while exploratory ones align with philosophical ideals of education as life, potentially better suiting non-cognitive growth but challenging scalability.^[87] Empirical contrasts remain limited, with instrumental approaches showing gains in measurable outcomes like test scores, per studies on dialogic teaching frameworks, whereas exploratory benefits appear in qualitative accounts of enhanced critical thinking.^[8] Critics of instrumentalism note its potential to foster illusory participation, as leading questions can mask monologic control, whereas exploratory risks superficiality without structured guidance.^[92]

Empirical Evidence

Studies on Cognitive and Academic Outcomes

A randomized controlled trial conducted by Robin Alexander and colleagues in 2015–2016 involving approximately 5,000 Year 5 students across 78 UK schools evaluated a 20-week dialogic teaching intervention aimed at enhancing classroom talk. The intervention group showed gains equivalent to two additional months of progress in English and science, and one month in mathematics, compared to controls, with effect sizes of 0.15 for English (p=0.05), 0.09 for mathematics (p=0.19), and 0.12 for science (p=0.04).^[4]^[93] Disadvantaged students eligible for free school meals exhibited larger benefits, achieving two months' additional progress across all subjects, including a significant effect in mathematics (effect size 0.16, p=0.03).^[93] A 2024 meta-analysis of 72 studies using three-level modeling found a moderate positive correlation (r=0.22) between dialogic teacher talk—characterized by open questions, uptake, and extended student contributions—and students' academic achievement in K–12 settings, robust across subjects, grades, and regions, whereas monologic talk showed no significant association.^[94] Earlier interventions, such as Mercer and Sams's 2006 Thinking Together program in Year 5 mathematics, reported larger effect sizes for reasoning gains (0.59), though overall academic effects from dialogic approaches tend to be small to moderate and vary by implementation fidelity.^[93] A 2025 meta-analysis by Xie and Lin on dialogic programs in pre-primary and primary schools confirmed positive effects on achievement, particularly in literacy and numeracy, though specific magnitudes were moderated by program duration and teacher training. These findings suggest dialogic methods support knowledge consolidation and test performance when integrated with structured content delivery. On cognitive outcomes, dialogic teaching has been linked to improvements in higher-order skills, including reasoning and explanation. Video analyses from the Alexander RCT revealed intervention classrooms with significantly more student extended contributions (e.g., 35.53 vs. 6.22 in mathematics) and explanatory talk (e.g., 35 vs. 0 instances of justify/analyze), fostering deeper processing over rote recall.^[93] Complementary studies, such as those on Philosophy for Children, indicate small gains in reading comprehension (effect size 0.12) tied to enhanced critical thinking, with benefits amplified for lower-achieving pupils.^[93] However, cognitive gains appear contingent on sustained practice, as short-term exposures yield inconsistent results in meta-reviews.^[21] Empirical evidence thus positions dialogic learning as a supplement to direct instruction for promoting analytical skills, rather than a standalone accelerator of raw academic metrics. Studies on dialogic teaching, particularly through interactive groups and dialogic literary gatherings, have reported enhancements in social outcomes such as prosocial behaviors, including solidarity and friendship among peers.^[8] For instance, participation in dialogic literary gatherings over 10 weeks led to increased prosocial actions in experimental groups compared to controls, with reductions in peer exclusion, especially benefiting students with disabilities.^[8] Similarly, interactive groups—a dialogic approach emphasizing peer dialogue—have promoted inclusion and democratic values, particularly among immigrant students, by fostering support networks and reducing social isolation.^[8] Exploratory research on dialogic book reading strategies in after-school settings suggests potential benefits for social-emotional skills in young elementary students, such as improved emotional expression and peer interaction, though quantitative effect sizes were not reported and the design was pre-post without controls.^[95] Systematic reviews of dialogic reading literature indicate positive associations with social-emotional development, including empathy and collaboration, alongside language gains, but emphasize the need for larger-scale trials to confirm causality amid small sample sizes in primary studies.^[96] Evidence for non-cognitive outcomes like motivation and self-efficacy is more equivocal. In mathematics-focused interactive groups, students exhibited heightened self-efficacy and positive attitudes, attributed to dialogic exchanges building confidence through peer validation.^[8] However, randomized trials of dialogic literary argumentation in high school settings found no significant changes in motivational beliefs or writing self-efficacy over an academic year, despite correlations between transactional writing beliefs and self-efficacy post-intervention.^[97] Comparisons of dialogic pedagogy with multimodal approaches like VARK in biology instruction yielded no significant differences in self-efficacy scores, suggesting limited unique impact on these constructs.^[98] Overall, while social outcomes show consistent qualitative support, non-cognitive effects lack robust meta-analytic confirmation, with many studies relying on small, context-specific samples prone to implementation variability and potential researcher bias toward dialogic methods in education research.^[8]^[96] Larger, controlled longitudinal studies are needed to disentangle dialogic contributions from confounding factors like teacher enthusiasm.^[97]

Methodological Rigor and Meta-Analyses

A 2024 meta-analysis of 32 quasi-experimental studies on dialogic teaching and learning programs in pre-primary and primary schools found significant positive effects on teacher professional development, teacher-child interactions, child talk, and overall child outcomes, with effect sizes moderated by study design and program features such as duration and fidelity.^[99] Similarly, a 2018 meta-analysis of 38 studies on shared storybook reading, emphasizing dialogic techniques, reported positive impacts on children's word learning, moderated by the extent of dialogic questioning, exposure to word tokens, and the number of words assessed, though effects were smaller without repeated readings or explicit vocabulary focus.^[100] The Education Endowment Foundation's 2017 randomized controlled trial (RCT) of dialogic teaching, involving over 4,800 Year 5 pupils across 36 UK schools, demonstrated modest gains equivalent to two additional months' progress in English and science, and one month in mathematics, relative to controls receiving standard professional development.^[5] These findings align with broader syntheses, such as a 2008 meta-analysis of 16 dialogic parent-child book reading interventions yielding a mean effect size of 0.47 standard deviations on language outcomes, indicating consistent but small-to-moderate benefits across contexts. However, effect sizes vary widely (e.g., 0.2-0.5 SD in classroom-based studies), potentially due to inconsistent operationalization of "dialogic" elements like open-ended questioning versus exploratory uptake.^[99] Methodological rigor in dialogic learning research remains uneven, with many studies relying on quasi-experimental designs lacking randomization, which introduces selection bias and confounds causal inference, as evidenced by the moderate AMSTAR quality rating (6/11) in recent meta-analyses.^[101] Coding of classroom dialogue poses further challenges, including subjectivity in categorizing talk as "dialogic" (e.g., distinguishing authentic uptake from procedural questioning), low inter-rater reliability without standardized schemes, and granularity issues where fine-grained analysis overlooks broader contextual factors like teacher fidelity or student prior knowledge. Small sample sizes, short intervention durations (often under 10 weeks), and reliance on proximal measures (e.g., immediate post-tests) limit generalizability, while potential publication bias favors positive results from exploratory pedagogies, underrepresenting null or negative findings in peer-reviewed literature.^[102] High-quality RCTs like the EEF trial mitigate some issues through blinding assessors and active controls, but even these note implementation variability and Hawthorne effects from observed classrooms.^[93] Overall, while meta-analytic evidence supports efficacy under controlled conditions, the field's multi-disciplinary nature and definitional ambiguity necessitate more standardized, long-term RCTs to establish causal robustness beyond correlational associations.

Criticisms and Limitations

Practical Implementation Challenges

Implementing dialogic learning requires teachers to shift from traditional transmissive roles to skilled facilitators of open-ended discussion, a transition fraught with demands on professional development. Empirical studies indicate that many educators lack adequate training in dialogic techniques, such as prompting extended student reasoning or handling diverse viewpoints without dominating discourse, leading to inconsistent application.^[103] ^[104] For instance, teachers often struggle with the cognitive load of simultaneously monitoring participation, probing responses, and maintaining focus, which can result in reversion to familiar interrogative patterns rather than genuine collective knowledge-building.^[105] This challenge is compounded by self-assessment biases, where instructors overestimate their dialogic efficacy despite classroom observations revealing superficial exchanges.^[104] Structural constraints in educational settings further hinder adoption. Large class sizes, common in public secondary schools, limit opportunities for equitable participation, as quieter students may be sidelined in favor of vocal peers, undermining the dialogic goal of inclusive intersubjectivity.^[106] Time pressures from packed curricula and standardized testing priorities exacerbate this, rendering sustained dialogue sessions impractical amid demands for coverage of content.^[103] Research from Czech lower secondary contexts highlights how entrenched classroom norms—such as teacher-centered authority—resist change, with dialogic efforts often devolving into pseudo-dialogue due to institutional inertia and inadequate support for norm establishment.^[107] Moreover, assessment systems geared toward individual outputs struggle to capture dialogic competencies like collaborative reasoning, creating misalignment between pedagogical intent and evaluative reality.^[108] Student-related barriers include varying readiness levels and engagement patterns. In diverse classrooms, disparities in prior knowledge or linguistic proficiency can stall productive dialogue, as less-prepared participants withdraw or dominate off-topic, requiring disproportionate teacher intervention.^[109] Studies note fears among teachers of student resistance or loss of classroom control, particularly when attempting exploratory talk in subjects like mathematics, where procedural certainty clashes with open inquiry.^[103] Overcrowding amplifies these issues, as evidenced in empirical observations where teacher inexperience leads to uneven participation and diminished learning gains.^[106] Despite these obstacles, targeted interventions like professional learning communities have shown modest success in mitigating them, though scalability remains limited by resource constraints.^[108]

Theoretical and Ideological Flaws

Dialogic learning's theoretical foundations, particularly in Vygotsky's sociocultural theory and Bakhtin's dialogism, emphasize knowledge co-construction through social mediation and polyphony of voices, yet these assumptions encounter scrutiny for underemphasizing innate cognitive mechanisms and the causal primacy of direct instruction in establishing foundational facts. Empirical analyses of classroom implementations reveal persistent gaps between theoretical ideals and observed practices, such as insufficient rational argumentation where students proffer unsubstantiated opinions without elaboration, justification, or cumulative uptake, undermining the purported mechanism of knowledge advancement via dialogue.^[110] This flaw arises from an overly optimistic model presuming reciprocal exchanges inherently generate coherence and depth, neglecting prerequisites like prior factual knowledge and explicit training in evidential reasoning, which overload working memory in heterogeneous groups and result in fragmented rather than synthetic understanding.^[111] Semantic ambiguities further expose theoretical vulnerabilities, as divergent interpretations of terms during dialogue produce "noise" that impedes mutual comprehension and goal-directed learning, contradicting claims of dialogue as a reliable scaffold for proximal development.^[110] Critics contend this reflects a broader constructivist bias in dialogic models, which prioritize intersubjective negotiation over objective verifiability, potentially conflating social consensus with epistemological validity and sidelining causal realities of domain-specific expertise acquisition. Multiple conceptualizations of dialogic practice—spanning Accountable Talk, Thinking Together, and dialogic teaching—exacerbate definitional vagueness, hindering falsifiable theorizing and empirical rigor in assessing core claims about dialogue's generative power.^[112] Ideologically, dialogic pedagogy's valorization of equitable voice distribution aligns with progressive anti-hierarchical ethos, yet invites risks of epistemic relativism by equating diverse perspectives without hierarchical weighting by evidence or expertise, fostering environments where subjective narratives compete unmoored from verifiable data. In post-truth contexts marked by over 8,000 documented misleading statements from political figures since 2016, this stance—while intending democratic empowerment—can inadvertently amplify falsehoods and cynical doubt if teacher mediation fails to enforce truth-oriented norms, thus comforting rather than challenging relativistic erosion of shared facts.^[113] Such underpinnings, rooted in literary dialogism rather than causal educational psychology, often embed unexamined commitments to process egalitarianism, marginalizing content mastery and authority structures essential for scalable knowledge dissemination, particularly in disciplines demanding cumulative scientific or historical accuracy.^[114] This ideological tilt, prevalent in academia's constructivist traditions, privileges exploratory pluralism over instrumental precision, potentially biasing implementations toward ideological conformity under guise of inclusivity.^[115]

Comparative Efficacy Against Direct Instruction

A meta-analysis of 207 studies on Direct Instruction (DI) curricula, spanning 1966 to 2016, found consistently positive and statistically significant effects on cognitive outcomes such as reading, mathematics, and language, with educationally meaningful effect sizes averaging around 0.34 to 0.84 across domains, outperforming alternative approaches in head-to-head comparisons within the evaluated programs.^[116] In contrast, empirical research on dialogic pedagogy, while demonstrating benefits for critical thinking and exploratory talk in specific interventions, relies heavily on smaller-scale or qualitative studies, with fewer randomized controlled trials directly pitting it against DI.^[19] Direct comparisons in mathematics instruction highlight DI's advantages for novices and skill mastery, supported by over 100 studies including 26 randomized trials showing superior efficiency and broad applicability across student demographics, whereas dialogic models emphasize conceptual depth through student-led discussion but lack equivalent rigorous evidence of superior achievement gains.^[117] For instance, a randomized trial involving 5,000 fourth-grade students exposed to dialogic teaching principles over 20 weeks yielded gains equivalent to two months' additional progress in subject tests compared to baseline practices, which often included monologic elements akin to simplified DI, yet this did not isolate pure DI as the control.^[19] Syntheses like John Hattie's Visible Learning assign classroom discussion—a core dialogic element—an effect size of 0.82, suggesting strong potential for achievement when effectively implemented, surpassing DI's 0.59; however, these aggregates blend contexts and do not resolve debates where unguided dialogic approaches underperform DI in foundational knowledge acquisition, particularly for disadvantaged learners.^[118] ^[119] Recent debates underscore that while dialogic methods may enhance engagement and higher-order skills in exploratory settings, DI demonstrates greater reliability for scalable, measurable outcomes, with methodological critiques noting dialogic research's predominance of non-experimental designs vulnerable to implementation variability.^[120] Overall, evidence favors DI for efficiency in core competencies, with dialogic approaches showing promise as supplements rather than replacements, contingent on teacher fidelity and student prior knowledge.

Controversies and Debates

Teacher Authority and Power Dynamics

In dialogic learning, teacher authority transitions from a directive, knowledge-transmitting role to a facilitative one, where educators guide rather than dictate discourse to promote student co-construction of understanding. This shift aims to equalize power dynamics by encouraging reciprocal dialogue, challenging hierarchical structures inherent in traditional pedagogy. However, theoretical analyses reveal inherent tensions, as teachers retain institutional power—such as grading and classroom management—which can subtly coerce student consent or conformity, even in ostensibly egalitarian settings.^[121]^[122] Practical implementation often exposes complications, with teachers struggling to relinquish control without reverting to evaluative patterns that limit student agency. In observed Czech secondary classrooms, for example, educators frequently steered discussions toward curriculum-aligned answers, using phrases that discouraged independent thinking, such as implying students already "know everything," thereby maintaining authority under the guise of dialogue. Similarly, in a graduate literacy seminar, student participation surged in the teacher's absence, with self-selection in turns increasing, highlighting how presence alone constrains freedom and reinforces dominance. These dynamics suggest that dialogic methods may inadvertently perpetuate power imbalances, particularly pressuring less assertive or minority students to conform to mainstream norms.^[111]^[121] Critics argue that undermining teacher authority to foster openness risks classroom disorder, inefficient knowledge transmission, and domination by vocal participants, as reciprocal exchange demands time and skills not all students possess. Sarid (2014) proposes that authentic authority requires "openness" in three dimensions—epistemic, interpersonal, and procedural—to balance facilitation with responsibility, yet empirical observations indicate frequent lapses into monologic control due to curricular pressures. While proponents view this redistribution as empowering, evidence from dialogic spaces shows benefits like enhanced creativity alongside hazards such as off-task talk or unequal voice, necessitating explicit training to navigate power without chaos.^[123]^[124]^[111] Proponents of dialogic learning assert that it advances educational equity by shifting from teacher-centered monologic instruction to participatory dialogue, which amplifies voices of marginalized students and fosters inclusive classrooms.^[125] This approach is claimed to counteract exclusionary patterns in traditional initiation-response-evaluation (IRE) sequences that disadvantage minority and low-socioeconomic-status (SES) groups.^[3] Empirical support includes a 2018 randomized controlled trial involving 2,493 fourth-grade students in England, where a 20-week dialogic teaching intervention yielded a two-month progress equivalent in mathematics specifically for students eligible for free school meals, a proxy for low SES.^[126] Despite these claims, social class significantly influences participation and outcomes in dialogic settings. Lower-SES students often exhibit reduced frequency and depth of engagement in classroom discussions, attributable to disparities in linguistic repertoires and familiarity with dialogic norms.^[127] Research highlights that socioeconomic background shapes the enactment of dialogic pedagogy, with working-class and minority students facing barriers from cultural mismatches, such as limited exposure to elaborated speech codes that facilitate extended argumentation.^[128] For instance, analyses of pupil identity and perceived ability in dialogic contexts reveal that lower social class correlates with diminished participation, potentially reinforcing achievement gaps unless interventions explicitly scaffold verbal skills. Critiques of equity claims emphasize that dialogic methods may inadvertently perpetuate inequalities by presupposing cultural capital—habits of verbal fluency and critical discourse—more prevalent among middle-class students.^[129] While some studies challenge deterministic views of socioeconomic habitus, suggesting dialogic interactions can mitigate SES effects through inclusive practices, structural limitations persist, including risks of assimilation where disadvantaged perspectives are subordinated to dominant norms.^[130] ^[131] Successful adaptations, such as dialogic literary gatherings in diverse settings, have shown promise in enhancing outcomes for vulnerable groups, but require teacher training to address class-based power dynamics explicitly.^[132] Overall, while dialogic learning holds potential for equity when tailored, unaddressed class influences can hinder its realization, underscoring the need for hybrid approaches integrating explicit skill-building.^[3]

Risks of Political Bias and Indoctrination

Dialogic learning's emphasis on open-ended discussions facilitated by educators carries inherent risks of introducing political bias, as teachers—who surveys indicate disproportionately identify as liberal or Democratic—may subtly steer conversations toward preferred ideological outcomes through selective questioning or validation of aligned viewpoints.^[133]^[134] For instance, in handling controversial topics, teachers' "talk moves"—such as revoicing or extending certain student contributions—can amplify dominant perspectives while marginalizing dissent, perpetuating myside bias where participants favor information aligning with preexisting beliefs rather than engaging evidence critically.^[135]^[136] Foundational models of dialogic pedagogy, particularly those derived from Paulo Freire's Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1970), explicitly reject educational neutrality, framing dialogue as a tool to foster "critical consciousness" against systemic oppression, which critics contend embeds Marxist-inspired ideology and risks indoctrination by prioritizing narratives of power imbalances over objective knowledge transmission.^[137] Freire's approach, influential in critical pedagogy, posits education as inherently political, aiming to politicize learners toward liberation from perceived oppressors, yet empirical critiques highlight its failure to equip students with foundational skills, instead fostering resentment and ideological conformity under the guise of empowerment.^[138] In practice, this has manifested in policy backlash, such as Brazil's 2019-2022 efforts under President Jair Bolsonaro to remove Freire's methods from curricula, viewing them as vehicles for leftist indoctrination that subvert traditional values and promote subversive thinking.^[139] These risks are compounded in unstructured dialogic settings, where power dynamics favor the facilitator's worldview, potentially suppressing conservative or contrarian views amid academia's documented left-leaning skew, leading to echo chambers rather than genuine pluralism.^[140] Over two-thirds of Republicans perceive U.S. public schools as promoting liberal viewpoints, a concern echoed in studies of classroom discourse where ideological manipulation occurs via selective topic framing or dismissal of opposing evidence.^[134] Without rigorous safeguards like predefined factual anchors or balanced source exposure, dialogic methods can devolve into vehicles for worldview reinforcement, undermining their purported goal of fostering independent reasoning.^[141]

Recent Developments

Digital and Technology-Integrated Dialogic Methods

Digital technologies extend dialogic learning by enabling scalable, persistent interactions that mimic traditional Socratic or collaborative dialogues while overcoming spatial and temporal constraints of in-person settings. Platforms such as learning management systems (LMS) with integrated forums, like Moodle or Canvas, support asynchronous discussions where learners engage in threaded exchanges, fostering collective knowledge construction through peer questioning and response.^[142] Synchronous tools, including video conferencing software like Zoom, facilitate real-time debates and group inquiries, with features such as breakout rooms allowing smaller dialogic subgroups to explore subtopics before reconvening.^[143] Web 2.0 technologies, including wikis, blogs, and social media-like interfaces, promote user-generated content in dialogic contexts, where learners co-edit artifacts or comment iteratively to refine ideas. A 2020 study on technology-aided dialogic teaching in eighth-grade classrooms demonstrated that such tools, when paired with teacher scaffolding, enhanced student agency by encouraging ownership of inquiry processes, with participants showing increased initiative in posing and pursuing questions.^[144] In out-of-school environments, Web 2.0-based approaches have been used for thought experiments, integrating multimedia prompts to stimulate exploratory dialogue, as explored in a 2025 analysis.^[145] Generative AI (GenAI) chatbots represent an emerging method for personalized dialogic engagement, simulating Socratic questioning to probe learner reasoning. Customized GenAI tools, such as those employing large language models, have been applied in science education to support argumentation, where the AI acts as a neutral interlocutor, challenging assumptions and eliciting evidence-based responses; a 2025 study found this approach improved multiple perspectives in student discourse compared to non-AI baselines.^[146] Similarly, AI-powered oral assessment platforms like Socratic Mind use adaptive questioning to evaluate and deepen comprehension, with 2025 trials indicating gains in higher-order cognitive skills through iterative, one-on-one-like dialogues.^[147] However, efficacy depends on structured prompts to avoid superficial exchanges, as unstructured AI interactions risk reinforcing rote recall over genuine inquiry.^[148] Empirical evidence on these methods remains preliminary but points to conditional benefits. A scoping review of classroom dialogue with digital tech identified patterns where tools amplify exploratory talk when aligned with dialogic principles, though implementation varies by teacher training.^[142] Technology-mediated dialogic discussions have shown promise in elevating reading comprehension via text-based exchanges, per a 2022 efficacy trial.^[149] Mixed-reality tools, blending virtual environments with dialogue, boosted teacher self-efficacy in fostering student interactions in a 2025 experiment.^[150] Overall, while digital methods scale dialogic opportunities, causal impacts hinge on design fidelity to core principles like open-ended questioning, with ongoing research needed to quantify long-term learning outcomes against traditional formats.^[151]

Applications in Specialized Contexts

In medical education, dialogic learning facilitates the development of person-centered care by emphasizing co-constructed faculty programs that encourage reflective, non-hierarchical dialogues between educators and trainees on patient experiences. A 2019 study implemented such a program in graduate medical education, where faculty and residents collaboratively explored clinical narratives, resulting in enhanced empathy and relational skills among participants.^[152] Similarly, dialogic strategies have been integrated into planned curricula to promote interprofessional reflection, with evidence from 2022 research indicating improved learner outcomes in handling complex cases through regular teacher-learner discussions outside traditional hierarchies.^[153] In legal education, dialogic pedagogy counters the predominantly monologic structure of traditional Socratic seminars by fostering multi-voiced exchanges that amplify student perspectives and critical analysis. A 2024 analysis highlighted intentional classroom adjustments, such as structured peer dialogues, to increase dialogic talk, leading to greater equity in participation and deeper engagement with legal reasoning in law school settings.^[154] This approach has also been adapted for teaching legal English in digital environments, where asynchronous and synchronous dialogues enhance argumentative skills and cultural competence among non-native speakers preparing for professional practice.^[155] Within corporate and organizational training, dialogic learning underpins mentoring and development initiatives that prioritize egalitarian conversations to drive adaptive change and collective knowledge building. Dialogic mentoring models, as outlined in professional literature, structure episodic interventions to facilitate peer opposition and viewpoint integration, yielding measurable improvements in team problem-solving and innovation in business contexts as of 2010 onward.^[156] In organizational development, dialogic methods emphasize appreciative, generative talks over directive instruction, with applications in change management processes documented in practitioner frameworks that report higher employee buy-in and sustained behavioral shifts compared to top-down approaches.^[157] In vocational higher education, such as technical and professional programs, dialogic interactions in classroom environments support skill acquisition through teacher-student and peer negotiations, particularly in subjects requiring practical application like engineering or trades, where a 2023 study observed enhanced critical thinking via real-world problem dialogues.^[158] These specialized adaptations demonstrate dialogic learning's versatility in bridging theoretical knowledge with domain-specific expertise, though efficacy often hinges on facilitators' training to mitigate dominance by dominant voices.

Ongoing Research and Future Directions

Recent empirical studies have explored dialogic learning's integration with artificial intelligence, such as AI-guided dialogic reading compared to parent-led approaches, revealing potential for scalable interventions in early literacy but highlighting needs for clearer distinctions in scaffolding mechanisms.^[159] Research on child-robot interactions has demonstrated hybrid approaches fostering dialogic skills, with evidence of improved engagement though limited by small-scale trials.^[160] In out-of-school settings, Web 2.0 tools combined with thought experiments have shown enhanced student awareness and participation, addressing gaps in traditional classroom dialogues.^[145] Ongoing investigations emphasize dialogic teaching's role in developing higher-order skills, including a 2025 study linking it to creative thinking via mechanisms like perspective-taking and idea elaboration, supported by quasi-experimental designs in secondary education.^[21] Professional development programs using dialogic methods for teachers, such as mixed-reality tools, have reported gains in self-efficacy and practical application, though long-term retention requires further longitudinal data.^[150] Efforts in early childhood and collaborative high school settings continue to document improved learning outcomes and oral competence, with meta-analyses underscoring modest but consistent effects beyond rote instruction.^[67]^[161] Future directions prioritize rigorous assessment of dialogic interventions' sustainability and replicability, advocating for advanced tools to measure social impacts like inclusion for students with special needs.^[8] Expansion into small-group and Internet-age adaptations, including local large language models for personalization, aims to balance pedagogical alignment with ethical safeguards against bias.^[162] Researchers call for more comparative empirical work against direct instruction baselines, focusing on causal pathways in diverse socioeconomic contexts to mitigate risks of uneven efficacy.^[163] Emerging trends involve dialogic feedback in language teaching and conflict-affected classrooms, with calls for interdisciplinary studies integrating neuroscience to validate cognitive gains.^[164]^[165]

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[PDF] Dialogic SSS Inquiry-Based Model for Language Teacher Preparation
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[69]
Collaboration between Mathematicians and Mathematics Educators
Jun 26, 2023 · We describe the three principles that underpin dialogical inquiry: motivation, power balance and a process for solving disagreements. These ...
[70]
Dialogic Teaching | Research Starters - EBSCO
Dialogic teaching emphasizes learning through dialogue, where students actively engage in conversations with teachers and peers, rather than passive lecture- ...<|separator|>
[71]
Socratic Seminar Teaching Strategy | Facing History & Ourselves
May 12, 2020 · In a Socratic Seminar activity, students help one another understand the ideas, issues, and values reflected in a text through a group discussion format.Missing: dialogic | Show results with:dialogic
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Classroom teaching techniques – Socratic Circles - Teacher Magazine
May 30, 2022 · Sometimes referred to as a 'fishbowl discussion' or 'Socratic seminar', this teaching technique is focused on students interacting with one ...
[73]
Philosophy for Children (P4C): a dialogic pedagogy for creative ...
Dec 31, 2019 · Philosophy for Children (P4C): a dialogic pedagogy for creative conversations · think about what's said · listen to others carefully · imagine how ...
[74]
A philosophy for children approach to professional development of ...
Ample evidence demonstrates that dialogic teaching is conducive to the achievement of desirable learning ... Internal goods of teaching in philosophy for children ...
[75]
Collaborative reasoning: A dialogic approach to group discussions
... small group discussions of controversial issues. from their readings. Texts ... The study highlights the potential of a dialogic learning environment ...
[76]
[PDF] Talking to Think in Small Group and Whole-Class Discussion
Small group discussions allow me to gather my ideas and build upon them...to ... Dialogic learning: Talking our way into understanding. In T. Dragonas ...
[77]
The emergence of inclusive exploratory talk in primary students ...
ET is distinguished from other types of peer talk, such as cumulative talk, in ... disputational talk, which is characterized by disagreements and ...
[78]
[PDF] The significance of educational dialogues between primary school ...
One of their key ideas was the concept of. Exploratory Talk, in which ... In contrast to Disputational Talk, Cumulative Talk characterizes dialogue in which.
[79]
Students' use of exploratory talk to exercise critical thinking - PMC
Sep 4, 2020 · The aforementioned three-item typology of talk, namely, disputational talk, cumulative talk and exploratory talk, was used as the frame of ...
[80]
Mercer and Wegerif's (1999) three talk types. - ResearchGate
... Disputational Talk, Cumulative Talk, and Exploratory Talk. They are defined in Figure 1. ... View in full-text. Similar publications. Figure 1. Figure Phase ...
[81]
Full article: Dialogic practices in primary school classrooms
Dec 24, 2018 · ... disputational talk was thought to be the least educationally productive. Some educational value was attributed to cumulative talk, as it was ...<|separator|>
[82]
Three types of talk - Co.Innovation Consulting
Feb 11, 2025 · Exploratory Talk: Exploratory talk sits between the extremes of cumulative talk and disputational talk. When engaging in exploratory talk ...
[83]
The importance of talk rules - and how to make them work for your ...
Oct 20, 2020 · Disputational talk might make for entertaining (if maddening) ... As a basis for pooling ideas and creative ideation, cumulative talk can be useful ...
[84]
The Socratic Dialogue and teacher education - ScienceDirect.com
The dialogic skills the Socratic Dialogue employs are listening, formulating and reformulating, asking for clarification, checking for understanding, following ...
[85]
The Socratic Method: Fostering Critical Thinking
The Socratic Method involves a shared dialogue between teacher and students. The teacher leads by posing thought-provoking questions. Students actively engage ...
[86]
[PDF] Socratic Circles are a Luxury - ScholarWorks@UARK
form of Socratic seminar on their motivation for learning (Doctorial dissertation). ... students learn the art of dialogic learning? 13. Do you see the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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[PDF] Dialogue on Dialogic Pedagogy - ERIC
The epistemological instrumental dialogic pedagogy is characterized by the use of dialogue between the teacher and the students and among the students to ...
[88]
dialogicpedagogy [licensed for non-commercial use only] / Dialogic Pedagogy
### Summary of Instrumental Dialogic Pedagogy and Contrast with Exploratory/Non-Instrumental Approaches
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15 - Mapping Dialogic Pedagogy: Instrumental and Non ...
The instrumental dialogic pedagogies criticize the conventional institutionalized education for its inefficiency to engage students into deep understanding of ...
[90]
Learning to Argue Through Dialogue: a Review of Instructional ...
Sep 4, 2021 · Effects of dialogic learning on value-loaded critical thinking. ... Influence of a teacher's scaffolding moves during child-led small-group ...
[91]
The non-instrumental approaches to dialogic pedagogy
Jun 30, 2010 · The non-instrumental approaches to dialogic pedagogy, Epistemological non-instrumental dialogic pedagogy (Epistemological II), Ecological ...
[92]
[PDF] 15 Mapping Dialogic Pedagogy: Instrumental and Non-instrumental ...
logical non-instrumental dialogic pedagogy approaches define “genuine dialogue” as critical and puzzlement-based, while this is not neces- sary in the ...
[93]
[PDF] Dialogic Teaching - ERIC
The intervention was delivered by Cambridge Primary Review Trust and the University of York, with training led by Robin Alexander. Although there is strong ...
[94]
The relationship between teacher talk and students' academic ...
Towards dialogic teaching: Rethinking classroom talk. (2017). R. Alexander. Developing dialogic teaching: Genesis, process, trial. Research Papers in Education.
[95]
Using dialogic reading strategies to promote social-emotional skills ...
Oct 13, 2018 · This article describes an exploratory mixed-methods case study that examines the use of dialogic book reading strategies in promoting social-emotional skills ...
[96]
[PDF] The story so far: A systematic review of the dialogic reading literature
A comprehensive and systematic review of the literature focusing on the impact of DR on language, literacy, social-emotional and other cognitive outcomes for ...
[97]
Dialogic literary argumentation and close reading: effects on high ...
Jul 31, 2023 · Journey into dialogic pedagogy. New York: Nova Science Publishers ... The interplay between motivation, self-efficacy, and approaches to studying.
[98]
(PDF) Efficacy Of Dialogic And Vark Pedagogies On Science ...
May 19, 2022 · Dialogic and VARK pedagogies on improving students' self-efficacy in Biology. Dialogic Pedagogy. Dialogic pedagogy is an interactive discussion ...<|separator|>
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2024.104823
[100]
https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000512
[101]
https://www.socialsystemsevidence.org/articles/673cb9adf53aa3003b20108a-are-dialogic-teaching-and-learning-programs-effective-in-pre-primary-and-primary-schools-a-meta-analysis
[102]
Theoretical Promises and Methodological Troubles Capturing ...
Feb 14, 2020 · This project divides itself neatly in half: the first six chapters trace the theory of dialogic pedagogy, including the history of discourse, ...Missing: critiques | Show results with:critiques
[103]
[PDF] Exploring Teachers' Perceptions, Attitudes, and Practical Challenges
Dialogic teaching engages students in joint knowledge construction, but teachers may be reluctant to adopt it due to fear of losing face or student challenges.
[104]
[PDF] on challenges and teachers' assessments of their own performance
This study takes up the issue of using dialogue in education by examining the initial challenges faced by 29 teachers learning to facilitate dialogue in teacher ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[105]
[PDF] CHALLENGES IN CONSTRUCTING DIALOGIC PRACTICES
Jun 30, 2024 · ABSTRACT. The study examines the challenges faced by the teachers in constructing dialogic practices in the classroom.
[106]
[PDF] 26 Challenges with Dialogic Teaching of Critical-Thinking Skills
several challenges to implementing dialogic teaching in the classroom. Obstacles include overcrowded classrooms and inexperience or inability of teachers to ...
[107]
Troubles with dialogic teaching - ScienceDirect
This paper examines dialogic teaching in Czech lower secondary schools and shows how Czech teachers use forms of dialogic teaching in their practice.
[108]
[PDF] The Implementation and Impact of Dialogic Teaching in Higher ...
The findings show that the dialogic teaching implementation was complex and influenced by teacher stance, classroom norms and students' perspectives. A positive ...Missing: critiques | Show results with:critiques<|control11|><|separator|>
[109]
[PDF] The challenge of inclusive dialogic teaching in public secondary ...
In this paper, we focus on inclusion as a dialogical process to be adopted and developed by teachers and students alike in any classroom. The idea of inclusive ...
[110]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lcsi.2014.04.001
[111]
(PDF) Troubles with dialogic teaching - ResearchGate
Dec 11, 2015 · This paper examines dialogic teaching in Czech lower secondary schools and shows how Czech teachers use forms of dialogic teaching in their practice.
[112]
Full article: Dialogic education for classroom teaching: a critical review
The purpose of this paper is to critically review several well-known models of dialogic education to uncover some of their shared features as well as ...
[113]
[PDF] Whose discourse? Dialogic pedagogy for a post-truth world
Abstract. If, as evidence shows, well-founded classroom dialogue improves student engagement and learning, the logical next step is to take it to scale.Missing: global | Show results with:global
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Controversies and consensus in research on dialogic teaching and ...
Jan 6, 2020 · Scholarly interest in dialogic pedagogy and classroom dialogue is multi-disciplinary and draws on a variety of theoretical frameworks.
[115]
Dialogic Pedagogy for Social Justice: A Critical Examination
Aug 10, 2025 · This essay examines claims for and against dialogical pedagogy for increasing social justice.Missing: relativism | Show results with:relativism
[116]
The Effectiveness of Direct Instruction Curricula: A Meta-Analysis of ...
Jan 7, 2018 · Quantitative mixed models were used to examine literature published from 1966 through 2016 on the effectiveness of Direct Instruction.
[117]
Dialogic and Direct Instruction: Two Distinct Models of Mathematics ...
Aug 9, 2025 · We present two instructional models that were specified and refined over the course of those discussions and describe nine key areas that distinguish the two ...
[118]
The Power of Classroom Discussion - SEED PAK
Feb 1, 2019 · Renowned educational researcher John Hattie found that classroom discussion had an effect size of 0.82. But what does that 0.82 represent ...
[119]
Hattie effect size list - 256 Influences Related To Achievement
The work of John Hattie (above) suggests that feedback (with an effect size of 0.73) is well within 'the zone of desired effects' i.e. it makes a significant ...Hattie Ranking: Teaching Effects · Hattie Ranking: Student Effects · ThirdMissing: dialogue | Show results with:dialogue
[120]
PROOF POINTS: Two groups of scholars revive the debate over ...
Jan 22, 2024 · Some studies show inquiry is better. Some studies show direct instruction is better. Many show that students learn the same amount either way.
[121]
[PDF] Power Dynamics between the Teacher and the Students in a ... - ERIC
Apr 27, 2017 · Abstract. This study investigated power relations in a graduate seminar on Literacy learning and knowledge acquisition.
[122]
The role of dialogue in teaching and learning
Feb 27, 2025 · The dialectical relationship between these approaches reveals how traditional pedagogy reinforces existing power structures while problem-posing ...
[123]
The Question of Authority and Power in Dialogical Education
Given both the theoretical and practical complications arising from the use of authority in dialogical education, this article explores the kind of ...
[124]
Blurring the boundaries: Opening and sustaining dialogic spaces
Feb 21, 2024 · Dialogic educators have designed strategies to facilitate dialogic teaching, such as establishing ground rules, employing talk moves, and ...
[125]
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00140
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https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2018.1481140
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Using linguistic ethnography to uncover the mechanisms through ...
Research further indicates that lower SES students participate less frequently in classroom discussion than higher SES students and are less likely to engage ...
[128]
[PDF] Controversies and consensus in research on dialogic teaching and ...
over 200 peer-reviewed articles and chapters, and she ... These beliefs also influenced the way some of them managed dialogic teaching in their classrooms.
[129]
The Strengths and Weaknesses of Dialogic Education: Promoting
Rating 5.0 (1) This places children from lower social classes at a disadvantage from the first day of school as they are already behind, despite this standard being an ...
[130]
Challenging Bourdieu's Theory: Dialogic Interaction as a Means to ...
May 21, 2021 · The results of the review challenge Bourdieu's concept of “habitus,” providing evidence of how socioeconomic status (SES) is not determinant to cultural ...
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https://doi.org/10.1007/s11217-007-9085-8
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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-40779-2
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Political Opinions of K–12 Teachers: Results from a Nationally ...
Nov 16, 2021 · A nationally representative survey of K–12 teachers does not support the idea that America's public school teachers are radical activists.
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Perceptions of US public schools' political leanings and the federal ...
Jun 17, 2025 · Do American public schools promote a biased political perspective—or even indoctrinate students in a certain belief system?
[135]
Navigating controversial discussions: the role of talk moves in ...
Sep 12, 2024 · In this study, we explore how three middle school teachers engaged their students in curriculum-embedded discussions on a controversial topic.
[136]
Examining myside bias on a controversial historical event after ...
Myside bias on controversial historical issues, in which individuals favor the position of their ethnic group, can also jeopardize the peaceful co-existence of ...
[137]
Paulo Freire's Oppressive Pedagogy - National Affairs
Pedagogy of the Oppressed promises to liberate students from oppression, both physical and psychological. But in focusing on oppression, it fails to teach them ...
[138]
Paulo Freire and Brazil's War on Leftist Indoctrination - Fair Observer
Jun 16, 2020 · The influential newspaper O Globo claimed that Freire's methods were too subversive because they encouraged people to think about political and ...
[139]
Paulo Freire's Pedagogy of the Oppressed at Fifty - JSTOR Daily
Sep 30, 2020 · The book has drawn criticism over the years. Brazil's current right-wing government has been doing its best to eradicate Freire's influence ...
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https://gwhatchet.com/2025/10/27/perspective-the-liberal-assumption-has-no-place-in-the-classroom/
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[PDF] Controversies and consensus in research on dialogic teaching and ...
Abstract. Scholarly interest in dialogic pedagogy and classroom dialogue is multi-disciplinary and draws on a variety of theoretical frameworks.
[142]
Classroom dialogue and digital technologies: A scoping review
Mar 20, 2018 · This article presents a systematic scoping review of the literature focusing on interactions between classroom dialogue and digital technology.
[143]
Dialogue, thinking together and digital technology in the classroom
Embedded in a dialogic pedagogy, digital technology can provide valuable support for improving classroom interaction and learning. •. The translation of ...
[144]
Building agency through technology-aided dialogic teaching
This article examines how one teacher helps her eighth-grade students build agency through dialogic teaching supported by technology.Full Length Article · 5. Findings · 5.2. Interactions
[145]
Dialogic teaching in out of school environments through technology ...
Jul 22, 2025 · This study addresses a notable gap in the literature by exploring the integration of innovative strategies—specifically Web 2.0-based ...
[146]
Generative AI as a Dialogic Partner: Enhancing Multiple ...
Jul 18, 2025 · This study investigates the potential of customized generative AI (GenAI) chatbots to foster dialogic learning and argumentation in science ...
[147]
Socratic Mind: Impact Of A Novel Genai-Powered Assessment Tool ...
Sep 18, 2025 · Our findings highlight the promise of AI-mediated dialogue in fostering deeper engagement and higher-order cognitive skills. As higher education ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[148]
Socratic wisdom in the age of AI: a comparative study of ChatGPT ...
Jan 21, 2025 · Socratic tutoring is a teaching method rooted in the philosophies of Socrates, emphasizing dialogue and questioning to nurture critical thinking ...
[149]
The Efficacy of Implementing a Technology-Mediated Dialogic ...
Text-based discussion within a technology-mediated dialogic discussion (T+DLD) has the potential to engage students in higher-level reading comprehension.Missing: integrated | Show results with:integrated
[150]
Exploring the potential of adopting an interactive mixed-reality tool in ...
Jul 3, 2025 · This study discovered that teachers participating in the IMRT-based training tended to exhibit greater self-efficacy in enhancing dialogic ...
[151]
The impact of technology-mediated dialogue on critical thinking in ...
Jul 5, 2025 · This study investigated if and how a structured curriculum that leverages technology affordances to facilitate dialogue was more effective at ...
[152]
A Dialogic Approach to Teaching Person-Centered Care in ... - NIH
We developed and implemented a co-constructed faculty development program to promote dialogic teaching and learning in graduate medical education.Missing: applications | Show results with:applications
[153]
Optimising planned medical education strategies to develop ... - NIH
Dialogic learning involves regular opportunities for teachers and learners to meet in non‐hierarchical settings to reflect on patient experiences. In the wider ...
[154]
"Law Schools as Anti-Dialogic Spaces" by Jennifer M. Cooper
This Article discusses how small, intentional steps increase dialogic talk in law classrooms by including more student voices.
[155]
The Dialogic Dimension of Teaching Legal English in the Digital Era ...
This paper investigates the dialogic dimension of teaching Legal English in the special circumstances imposed by the advent of the digital era, emphasising.
[156]
[PDF] Dialogic Mentoring: Core Relationships for Organizational Learning
As discussed in the literature, dialogues are structured, facilitated, episodic interventions or settings at the collective level. (e.g., Schein, 1993a; see ...
[157]
Dialogic organizational development: shaping change - triangility
Dialogic organizational development is an approach that aims to shape change in companies and organizations through genuine, appreciative conversations. Unlike ...
[158]
Dialogic Interactions in Higher Vocational Learning Environments in ...
Jun 28, 2023 · The study aims to explore students' learning in the vocational classroom learning environment and the teaching practices of vocation-oriented subjects.<|separator|>
[159]
Parent‐led vs. AI‐guided dialogic reading: Evidence from a ...
Jul 18, 2025 · Future research could systematically compare parental scaffolding versus CA scaffolding to clarify these different learning pathways.<|separator|>
[160]
Dialogic Learning in Child-Robot Interaction: A Hybrid Approach to ...
Mar 20, 2025 · Our future work will focus on advancing personalization, adaptiveness, and scalability while maintaining safety and pedagogical alignment.Missing: ongoing | Show results with:ongoing
[161]
(PDF) Improving Learning Outcomes Through Dialogic Teaching in ...
Sep 30, 2025 · PDF | On Jun 30, 2025, Darsan Darsan and others published Improving Learning Outcomes Through Dialogic Teaching in Collaborative Settings ...
[162]
Towards Dialogic Education through Child-Robot Interaction
Jun 23, 2025 · Future directions include expanding to small-group settings, leveraging local LLMs for enhanced personalization, co-design, and early user model ...
[163]
(PDF) Next Generation Research in Dialogic Learning - ResearchGate
Apr 29, 2018 · A small but powerful body of evidence shows that certain forms of classroom discussion can produce learning gains that go beyond the topics actually discussed.
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[PDF] Dialogic feedback in English Language Teaching (ELT) - ERIC
This systematic literature review examines dialogic feedback research in English Language Teaching (ELT) based on 23 empirical studies.
[165]
Hear Me Talks: Story listening and dialogic pedagogy in conflict ...
... dialogic pedagogy in the teaching of conflict. Students participate in three ... The activity challenges traditional classroom power dynamics and ...