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Dimethoate

Dimethoate is a synthetic organothiophosphate compound (C₅H₁₂NO₃PS₂) classified as an organophosphate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, employed as a contact and systemic insecticide to control a wide array of insect pests and mites on agricultural crops.^[1]^[2] It targets species including aphids, leafhoppers, beetles, weevils, and mites through disruption of nerve impulse transmission via cholinesterase inhibition, enabling both foliar application and uptake by plant tissues for protection against sucking and chewing insects.^[3]^[4] Commonly used on crops such as broccoli, corn, soybeans, alfalfa, and fruits, dimethoate supports resistance management in integrated pest control strategies, with annual U.S. application approximating 1.8 million pounds of active ingredient.^[3]^[5] Despite its efficacy, dimethoate poses notable risks due to its toxicity profile, exhibiting acute and chronic effects in mammals through cholinesterase suppression, which can manifest as neurological symptoms, reproductive impairments, and developmental anomalies in exposed organisms.^[6]^[7] In humans, occupational or environmental exposure has been linked to hematological alterations, immune disruption, and potential long-term neurobehavioral changes, prompting regulatory scrutiny and risk assessments by agencies like the EPA.^[8]^[9] Ecologically, it demonstrates high hazard to aquatic species, causing teratogenesis, behavioral disruptions, and mortality via bioaccumulation and persistence in water bodies, which has led to restrictions in certain applications to mitigate off-target impacts.^[10]^[7]

Chemical Properties and Mechanism

Molecular Structure and Physical Properties

Dimethoate is an organophosphorus compound with the molecular formula C₅H₁₂NO₃PS₂ and a molar mass of 229.3 g/mol.^[1] Its systematic name is O,O-dimethyl S-[2-(methylamino)-2-oxoethyl] phosphorodithioate, featuring a central phosphorus atom bonded to two methoxy groups, a sulfur atom linked to a methylcarbamoylmethyl chain, and another sulfur completing the dithioate structure.^[11] This configuration distinguishes it from simpler organophosphates by incorporating both thioester and amide functionalities, contributing to its stability and reactivity as an insecticide prodrug.^[12] The compound appears as a white to grey crystalline solid at room temperature.^[13] Key physical properties include a melting point of 51–52 °C and a boiling point of 117 °C at 0.01 kPa.^[14] Its density is 1.28–1.3 g/cm³, and it exhibits low volatility with a vapor pressure of 0.001 Pa at 25 °C.^[14]^[15]

Property	Value
Solubility in water	25 g/L at 21 °C
Partition coefficient (log K_ow)	0.78 at 20 °C
Flash point	107 °C (closed cup)

Dimethoate shows moderate water solubility and high solubility in organic solvents such as methanol and acetone, facilitating its formulation as emulsifiable concentrates.^[14]^[4] These properties influence its environmental persistence and application efficacy in agricultural settings.^[12]

Mode of Action and Toxicology Basics

Dimethoate functions as an organophosphate insecticide primarily by inhibiting the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE), which is essential for terminating nerve impulses in insects through the hydrolysis of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. This inhibition leads to the accumulation of acetylcholine at cholinergic synapses, resulting in continuous stimulation of the postsynaptic membrane, disruption of nerve transmission, and ultimately paralysis and death of target pests such as aphids, mites, and flies.^[1]^[16] As a phosphorothionate compound, dimethoate is an indirect AChE inhibitor; it undergoes oxidative desulfuration in vivo, primarily via cytochrome P450 enzymes, to form its active metabolite omethoate, which binds covalently to the serine residue in the AChE active site, preventing enzyme reactivation.^[17]^[12] In terms of toxicology, dimethoate exhibits moderate acute toxicity to mammals through the same cholinergic mechanism, causing overstimulation of the parasympathetic and central nervous systems. The oral LD₅₀ for dimethoate in rats ranges from 150 to 414 mg/kg body weight, with clinical signs including piloerection, hunched posture, tremors, and lacrimation preceding death.^[18]^[19] Acute human exposure symptoms encompass miosis (pinpoint pupils), blurred vision, headache, excessive salivation, sweating, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, muscle fasciculations, and in severe cases, hypotension progressing to distributive shock and respiratory failure, even with supportive care.^[1]^[20] Dermal absorption is lower, with an LD₅₀ exceeding 2000 mg/kg in rabbits, but inhalation or ocular exposure can still provoke cholinergic effects.^[12] Chronic exposure to dimethoate may lead to delayed neuropathy due to potential inhibition of neuropathy target esterase (NTE), though this is less pronounced than with other organophosphates; subchronic studies in rodents show effects like reduced body weight and cholinesterase depression at doses above 1-5 mg/kg/day.^[18] Antidotal treatment involves atropine to counteract muscarinic effects and pralidoxime to reactivate AChE, emphasizing the need for rapid decontamination and monitoring of plasma cholinesterase levels as a biomarker of exposure.^[12]^[19]

History and Development

Invention and Early Commercialization

Dimethoate, an organophosphate insecticide, was first described in scientific literature by researchers E. J. Hoegberg and J. T. Cassaday in 1951, following earlier reports of related compounds around 1950.^[12] Their work at American Cyanamid involved the synthesis of O,O-dimethyl S-(N-methylcarbamoylmethyl) phosphorodithioate through the reaction of the sodium salt of O,O-dimethyldithiophosphoric acid with N-methylchloroacetamide, marking a key advancement in systemic insecticides capable of plant uptake and translocation to control sucking pests.^[1] This development built on post-World War II research into organophosphates, aiming to create broad-spectrum agents effective against aphids, mites, and flies while offering advantages over contact-only pesticides.^[21] The compound was patented in the early 1950s by American Cyanamid, which recognized its potential for agricultural use due to its systemic properties and relatively low mammalian toxicity compared to earlier organophosphates like parathion. Commercial production began shortly thereafter, with dimethoate introduced to the market in 1956 as a versatile insecticide for crops such as fruits, vegetables, and cereals.^[22] Early formulations were primarily emulsifiable concentrates, facilitating foliar application and initial adoption in the United States and Europe, where it rapidly gained traction for managing pests resistant to older chemicals.^[21] By the late 1950s, American Cyanamid expanded commercialization through licensing and sales under trade names like Cygon, emphasizing dimethoate's role in integrated pest management before that term's formalization.^[4] Global production scaled up, with early estimates indicating thousands of tons annually by the 1960s, driven by demand for effective control of leafhoppers and other sap-feeding insects in high-value crops. This period established dimethoate as a cornerstone of mid-20th-century agrochemical innovation, though subsequent scrutiny revealed environmental persistence concerns not fully anticipated at launch.^[21]

Evolution of Formulations and Usage

Dimethoate was first synthesized and described in 1951, with commercial introduction occurring in 1956 as a broad-spectrum organophosphate insecticide developed by American Cyanamid.^[12] Initial formulations primarily consisted of emulsifiable concentrates (typically 40% active ingredient), wettable powders, and dusts, enabling foliar sprays at application rates of 0.3 to 0.7 kg active ingredient per hectare for control of aphids, mites, thrips, and leafhoppers on crops such as fruits, vegetables, cotton, and cereals.^[12] Granular formulations and ultra-low volume (ULV) concentrates emerged shortly thereafter to facilitate soil incorporation or aerial application, reducing drift and improving systemic uptake through plant roots and leaves, which enhanced efficacy against chewing and sucking pests.^[12] By the 1960s and 1970s, usage expanded globally, including livestock dips for cattle grubs and public health applications against houseflies at concentrations of 10 to 25 g/liter, reflecting its versatility as both contact and systemic agent with a half-life allowing residual protection of 7 to 14 days.^[12] However, early reports of acute human poisonings, such as the first documented agricultural case in 1960 involving olive orchard spraying, prompted initial label precautions for protective equipment and re-entry intervals.^[12] Formulations remained largely unchanged technically (93-95% purity with minor impurities like O,O-dimethyl S-methylphosphorodithioate), but admixture with synergists or other pesticides increased to counter emerging resistance in target insects.^[12] Regulatory scrutiny intensified from the 1980s onward due to concerns over acetylcholinesterase inhibition, environmental persistence, and residues exceeding tolerances, leading to phased restrictions. In the United States, all non-agricultural uses were canceled in 2000, followed by prohibitions on apple, grape, and several vegetable crops in 2005 to mitigate dietary exposure risks.^[19] Recent developments include low-volatile organic compound (VOC) liquid formulations patented in 2012 to comply with emission standards, and ongoing reviews, such as the U.S. EPA's 2024 proposed interim decision emphasizing buffer zones and pollinator protections.^[23] In Australia, suspensions for berry crops were proposed in 2023 amid health residue detections, reflecting a broader shift toward integrated pest management reducing reliance on dimethoate in favor of less toxic alternatives.^[24] These changes have curtailed overall usage volumes, with agricultural applications now limited to high-value crops under strict pre-harvest intervals of 7 to 21 days.^[3]

Uses and Efficacy

Agricultural Applications

Dimethoate serves as a systemic organophosphate insecticide and acaricide applied foliarly to agricultural crops for controlling piercing, sucking, and certain chewing pests through contact, ingestion, and translaminar action.^[25] It is registered for use on field crops such as corn, soybeans, wheat, and cotton; vegetable crops including broccoli; fruit trees like citrus, apples, and grapefruit; and other commodities like olives, tobacco, and grain legumes.^[3]^[26] Approximately 1.8 million pounds of active ingredient are applied annually in the United States using ground or aerial equipment, often at rates tailored to pest pressure, such as 0.25 to 1 pound per acre depending on the crop and target species.^[5] Target pests include aphids, leafhoppers, mites, thrips, whiteflies, psyllids, scales, leaf miners, and certain beetles or weevils that feed on crop juices, with efficacy stemming from its inhibition of acetylcholinesterase in insects.^[27]^[28] It provides broad-spectrum control but is less effective against heavy-chewing insects like caterpillars unless sufficient plant tissue is ingested, limiting its utility to sap-feeding arthropods.^[25] In integrated pest management, dimethoate contributes to resistance mitigation by rotating with other chemical classes, as evidenced by its role in suppressing aphid populations on soybeans and wheat where alternatives may be costlier or less reliable.^[27]^[26] Application typically occurs at crop emergence or early infestation stages via spray equipment calibrated for uniform coverage, with pre-harvest intervals varying by crop—such as 7 days for wheat or 14 days for citrus—to minimize residues.^[29]^[30] Efficacy trials demonstrate mortality rates of 50-60% against larval stages of certain pests when applied at labeled rates, though outcomes depend on factors like pest resistance status and environmental conditions.^[31] Its cost-effectiveness supports adoption on large-acreage row crops, where it remains a key tool despite regulatory scrutiny on non-target impacts.^[26]

Economic Benefits and Pest Management Role

Dimethoate serves as a cost-effective tool in integrated pest management (IPM) for controlling economically damaging pests, including aphids, spider mites, leafhoppers, asparagus beetles, and citrus psyllid, across diverse crops such as soybeans, corn, wheat, asparagus, brassicas, melons, pears, pecans, and citrus.^[26] Its systemic properties enable foliar or soil application with residual activity, reducing the frequency of treatments compared to contact-only insecticides and aiding resistance management through its organophosphate mode of action (IRAC Group 1B).^[26] In regions like the Midwest, where 25-29% of soybean acres receive insecticide treatments, dimethoate prevents yield losses from pests such as twospotted spider mites, which can devastate crops with tight profit margins.^[26] Economic advantages stem from dimethoate's lower application costs and versatility relative to alternatives; for instance, soybean treatments cost $7.52-7.68 per acre versus $10.19-44.58 per acre for substitutes, while maintaining efficacy against broad-spectrum threats.^[26] In citrus production, particularly in California, where up to 90% of bearing orange acres are treated with insecticides, dimethoate supports high-value yield protection against aphids and leafhoppers without requiring more expensive options.^[26] Similarly, in asparagus (e.g., 88% of Michigan planted acres treated in 2022), it targets beetles and other pests, preserving marketable quality and volume.^[26] Field trials in cotton demonstrate dimethoate's pest management efficacy, reducing thrips (Thrips tabaci) populations by up to 85% at 10 days post-application and contributing to significantly higher yields compared to untreated controls, with a cost-benefit ratio of 1.49 (each unit invested returning 1.49 units).^[32] These outcomes underscore its role in safeguarding production in labor-intensive or export-oriented crops, where pest outbreaks can lead to 20-50% yield reductions without intervention, though benefits vary by regional pest pressure and crop economics.^[26]^[32]

Environmental Impact

Fate in Soil, Water, and Air

Dimethoate degrades moderately in soil primarily through microbial oxidation, hydrolysis, and to a lesser extent photolysis on soil surfaces, though the latter process contributes minimally to overall dissipation. Under aerobic conditions, microbially mediated degradation yields a half-life of approximately 2.2 days, while typical field half-lives range from 4 to 16 days, influenced by soil type, moisture, temperature, pH, and organic content.^[1] ^[33] In sterile soils lacking biodegradation, persistence extends up to 206 days, highlighting microbial activity as the dominant degradation pathway.^[34] Due to its high water solubility (39.8 g/L at 20°C) and weak adsorption to soil particles (Koc values around 20-50), dimethoate exhibits moderate mobility but low overall groundwater leaching potential, as confirmed by standardized models.^[4] ^[35] In water, dimethoate undergoes hydrolysis, photolysis, and biodegradation, with persistence varying widely from 18 hours to 8 weeks based on pH, light exposure, temperature, and microbial presence; it remains relatively stable at pH 2-7 but degrades more rapidly under alkaline conditions or with UV irradiation.^[36] In natural river water, biodegradation dominates, yielding a half-life of about 8 days, indicating non-persistence in the water column.^[37] Photodegradation in water is limited, and in sediment-water systems under dark aerobic conditions, dimethoate dissipates via microbial processes without significant accumulation in sediments.^[35] Its high solubility facilitates dissolution but also promotes eventual breakdown products like omethoate, which may exhibit greater toxicity.^[6] Dimethoate displays low volatility in air, with a vapor pressure of 2.46 × 10^{-4} Pa at 25°C, classifying it as slightly volatile and leading to partitioning between vapor and particulate phases upon atmospheric release.^[35] In moist air, it degrades photochemically to hydrolytic and oxidation products, reducing long-range transport potential, though short-term post-application volatilization can occur during spraying.^[36] Volatilization from soil or water surfaces is not a major dissipation route due to the compound's physicochemical properties and Henry's law constant (1.42 × 10^{-6} Pa m³/mol).^[38] Atmospheric concentrations post-application decline rapidly, with dimethoate detectable for up to 10 days but at diminishing levels.^[12]

Effects on Ecosystems and Non-Target Species

Dimethoate demonstrates acute toxicity to pollinators, with laboratory studies showing LD50 values as low as 0.1-0.4 μg/bee for honeybees (Apis mellifera), rendering it highly hazardous to foraging bees through direct contact or contaminated nectar and pollen.^[33] This sensitivity extends to wild bee species, where interspecific variation in tolerance highlights risks to biodiversity in pollinator-dependent ecosystems, potentially disrupting pollination services in agricultural landscapes.^[39] Field applications have led to documented bee mortality, prompting restrictions on use during bloom periods to mitigate colony-level impacts.^[25] Aquatic ecosystems face significant threats from dimethoate runoff, where it persists in water columns and exhibits very high toxicity to invertebrates such as Daphnia spp. (96-hour EC50 ≈ 0.02-1 mg/L) and amphipods, inhibiting reproduction and survival at environmentally relevant concentrations.^[40] Fish species show moderate sensitivity, with 96-hour LC50 values ranging from 1-100 mg/L across tested taxa like common carp (Cyprinus carpio), though early life stages experience behavioral impairments and oxidative stress from sublethal exposures. These effects cascade through food webs, reducing invertebrate populations that serve as prey for fish and amphibians, thereby altering community structure in contaminated freshwater and estuarine habitats.^[10] Beneficial terrestrial arthropods, including predatory carabid beetles in agroecosystems, suffer sublethal toxicity from dimethoate residues, evidenced by reduced foraging activity and enzyme disruption at concentrations below lethal thresholds, which undermines natural pest control.^[41] Birds exhibit moderate acute toxicity (LD50 >100 mg/kg body weight for most species), but dietary exposure via contaminated insects can cause cholinesterase inhibition and reproductive impairments, posing risks to avian populations in treated fields.^[12] Overall, dimethoate's broad-spectrum action contributes to biodiversity declines by non-selectively affecting predators, decomposers, and primary consumers, with ecological risk assessments indicating high hazard quotients for sensitive non-target guilds in sprayed watersheds.^[42]

Human Health Considerations

Exposure Pathways and Risk Assessment

Human exposure to dimethoate, an organophosphate insecticide, occurs via dermal absorption, inhalation of aerosols or dust, and oral ingestion. Occupational exposure predominates among agricultural handlers, mixers, loaders, and applicators, with dermal contact accounting for the majority of uptake (absorption rates of 5-11% in humans, dose-dependent) during mixing, loading, application, and post-application re-entry into treated fields. Inhalation contributes during spraying, though data are limited (e.g., estimated LC50 of 1553 mg/m³ over 4 hours in rats). General population exposure is primarily dietary through residues on treated crops (e.g., dimethoate and its toxic metabolite omethoate) and, less commonly, drinking water contamination, with trace detections reported but often below 0.01 μg/L. Residential exposure is negligible absent registered uses, though incidental dermal or oral routes via spray drift or contaminated surfaces may occur rarely.^[9]^[18] Dimethoate inhibits acetylcholinesterase (AChE), leading to cholinergic toxicity; acute effects include miosis, salivation, nausea, respiratory distress, and, at high doses, hypotension or ataxia, with rapid onset (15-90 minutes post-exposure). Oral LD50 values range from 150-414 mg/kg body weight in rats and 60-168 mg/kg in mice, indicating moderate acute toxicity, while dermal LD50 exceeds 2000 mg/kg in rats, reflecting lower percutaneous hazard. Chronic exposure causes sustained AChE inhibition, potential developmental effects (e.g., reduced pup weight and increased mortality at ≥0.5 mg/kg bw/day in rats), and organ changes (e.g., liver pigmentation, testicular atrophy), though no carcinogenicity or genotoxicity is evident in rodents. Key endpoints include no-observed-adverse-effect levels (NOAELs) of 0.04-0.2 mg/kg bw/day for AChE inhibition across species, with points of departure (PODs) based on 10% brain AChE inhibition modeled via physiologically based pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PBPK-PD) approaches.^[18]^[36]^[9] Risk assessments by regulatory bodies indicate low concern with mitigations. The U.S. EPA's June 2024 revised assessment finds no human health risks exceeding levels of concern (LOC=10), with acute dietary margins of exposure (MOEs) of 44-87 and chronic MOEs of 16-35 for food plus water; occupational handler MOEs range 17-20,000 and post-application dermal MOEs 40-8,400. Acceptable daily intakes (ADIs) are set at 0.001 mg/kg bw (Australian APVMA) to 0.002 mg/kg bw (WHO), with acute reference doses (ARfD) of 0.02 mg/kg bw; WHO's drinking water guideline is 6 μg/L. Mitigations include personal protective equipment (PPE) such as gloves, respirators, and chemical-resistant aprons for handlers, plus restricted entry intervals (REIs) of 48-72 hours post-application.^[3]^[9]^[18]^[36]

Acute Toxicity and Treatment

Dimethoate, an organophosphate insecticide, causes acute toxicity primarily through irreversible inhibition of acetylcholinesterase, leading to cholinergic crisis. In rats, the acute oral LD50 is 425 mg/kg, while the dermal LD50 exceeds 2000 mg/kg, indicating moderate oral toxicity but lower dermal absorption risk.^[43] Human case fatality from dimethoate self-poisoning reaches 20.6%, higher than comparably classified organophosphates like malathion at 1.9%, due to factors including delayed oxime efficacy against its active metabolite omethoate.^[44] Symptoms of acute exposure manifest rapidly, within minutes to hours, and include muscarinic effects such as hypersalivation, lacrimation, urination, defecation, gastrointestinal distress, and emesis (SLUDGE syndrome), alongside nicotinic signs like muscle fasciculations, weakness, and paralysis.^[45] Central nervous system involvement presents as headache, confusion, seizures, coma, and respiratory failure; severe cases often feature profound hypotension from vasodilation, unresponsive to initial fluid resuscitation.^[20] In documented human incidents, moderately severe outcomes include chest pain and tachycardia, with fatalities occurring 2.5–32 hours post-ingestion despite intervention.^[9] Treatment prioritizes decontamination by removing contaminated clothing and washing skin, followed by supportive care including oxygenation and mechanical ventilation if needed. Atropine, administered intravenously at 2–4 mg boluses titrated to control secretions and bradycardia (up to 20–50 mg total in severe cases), antagonizes muscarinic effects but does not reverse nicotinic symptoms.^[46] Pralidoxime (2-PAM) at 1–2 g IV over 30 minutes, repeated as needed, reactivates inhibited acetylcholinesterase if given early (within hours), though efficacy diminishes with dimethoate due to aging of the enzyme-inhibitor complex.^[47] Adjunctive measures include benzodiazepines for seizures and vasopressors for refractory hypotension; gastric lavage or activated charcoal may aid in ingestions, but evidence for their impact on outcomes remains limited. Despite protocol adherence, prognosis in severe dimethoate poisoning correlates with ingestion dose and timely oxime administration, with reported survival dependent on intensive monitoring.^[48]

Chronic Exposure and Long-Term Studies

Chronic exposure to dimethoate in rodents and dogs primarily manifests as dose-dependent inhibition of plasma, red blood cell, and brain cholinesterase activity, serving as the critical toxicological endpoint without consistent evidence of other systemic organ toxicity at sub-inhibitory levels. In a 2-year chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity study in rats, the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) was 0.04 mg/kg body weight per day, derived from red blood cell and brain cholinesterase inhibition observed at 0.2 mg/kg bw/day. Similarly, chronic dog studies identified a lowest-observed-adverse-effect level (LOAEL) of 1 mg/kg bw/day based on brain cholinesterase inhibition, with no-observed-effect levels around 0.1 mg/kg bw/day for erythrocyte cholinesterase effects in offspring from reproductive studies. The active metabolite omethoate exhibits greater potency in eliciting these inhibitory effects compared to the parent compound. Long-term animal carcinogenicity bioassays have yielded equivocal results, with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) classifying dimethoate as a Group C possible human carcinogen due to limited evidence of increased liver adenomas, thyroid follicular cell tumors, and stromal sarcoma in female rats at doses exceeding 10 mg/kg bw/day, though no such effects were consistently observed in mice or dogs. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has not classified dimethoate for carcinogenicity, citing inadequate human data and inconsistent animal findings. Mutagenicity tests show dimethoate to be weakly genotoxic in some in vitro assays but negative in most in vivo studies, suggesting any carcinogenic potential may involve non-genotoxic mechanisms like cholinesterase-mediated endocrine disruption rather than direct DNA damage. Reproductive and developmental toxicity studies in multiple species reveal adverse outcomes primarily at maternally toxic doses causing cholinesterase inhibition. In multi-generation rat studies, the NOAEL for parental systemic toxicity and reproduction was 0.65 mg/kg bw/day, with a LOAEL of 2.3 mg/kg bw/day linked to reduced pregnancy rates and male reproductive organ effects; offspring NOAEL was 0.1 mg/kg bw/day based on cholinesterase inhibition without impacts on viability or development. In mice, dietary exposure at 60 ppm reduced mating success, pup survival, and growth, while in utero and lactational exposure impaired adult male reproductive function, including altered pituitary-testicular axis and fertility. Developmental neurotoxicity assessments in rats indicate potential behavioral deficits from early-life exposure, but only at doses inducing cholinesterase inhibition, with no qualitative differences from adults. Human epidemiological data on long-term occupational or environmental exposure remain limited and inconclusive, with no robust evidence establishing causal links to chronic diseases, cancer, or reproductive outcomes beyond acute cholinesterase-related symptoms. Reviews of available cohort and case-control studies, including those among agricultural workers, find insufficient evidence of associations with non-Hodgkin lymphoma, leukemia, or prostate cancer, though some report elevated risks confounded by co-exposures to other organophosphates. Regulatory assessments emphasize that points of departure derived from animal cholinesterase data provide protective margins for human chronic risks, incorporating uncertainty factors for interspecies extrapolation and sensitive subpopulations.

Regulations and Policy

National and International Standards

The World Health Organization (WHO), through its International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), classifies dimethoate as moderately hazardous (Class II) based on acute oral LD₅₀ values in rats ranging from 150 to 400 mg/kg body weight, emphasizing risks of cholinesterase inhibition when mishandled.^[12] The Codex Alimentarius Commission sets international maximum residue limits (MRLs) for dimethoate and its active metabolite omethoate, measured and reported separately for compliance purposes but summed for dietary risk assessments; examples include 0.02 mg/kg for pome fruits and 0.01 mg/kg for tomatoes, with many commodities at the limit of quantification (0.001–0.01 mg/kg).^[49]^[50] In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) establishes tolerances (equivalent to MRLs) for dimethoate residues in raw agricultural commodities under 40 CFR Part 180, such as 0.2 mg/kg for citrus fruits and 2.0 mg/kg for sorghum grain, with ongoing registration reviews as of June 2024 proposing risk mitigations like buffer zones and reduced application rates to address ecological and human health concerns without full cancellation.^[51]^[3] The European Union did not renew approval for dimethoate under Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2019/1090, citing unacceptable genotoxicity, neurodevelopmental risks, and exposure concerns for operators, residents, and consumers, leading to a de facto ban on its use and authorization in plant protection products effective from July 2020, with MRLs reduced to default levels of 0.01 mg/kg or lower for most commodities.^[52]^[53] In Australia, the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA) permits dimethoate for specific agricultural uses but suspended post-harvest applications on mangoes, avocados, and certain berries in September 2023 after detecting residues exceeding MRLs (e.g., up to 10 mg/kg in berries), mandating 14-day withholding periods where allowed and classifying it under an acceptable daily intake of 0.02 mg/kg body weight.^[54]^[55] India's Central Insecticides Board and Registration Committee restrict dimethoate to non-raw-consumed crops, banning its use on fruits and vegetables eaten raw via S.O. 4294(E) effective October 3, 2023, due to acute toxicity risks, while enforcing MRLs up to 2.0 mg/kg under Food Safety and Standards Authority guidelines for permitted applications.^[56]^[57]

Recent Developments and Registration Reviews

In June 2024, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued its Proposed Interim Registration Review Decision (PID) for dimethoate under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), determining no risks of concern to human health from dietary, residential, or aggregate exposures when applied per label instructions and existing mitigation measures, such as personal protective equipment for handlers.^[3] ^[58] The assessment identified potential ecological risks to terrestrial and aquatic organisms, prompting proposals to cancel registrations for dimethoate use on specific crops like alfalfa, clover, and certain fruit trees where endangered species protections could not be ensured through refined application rates or buffers.^[59] ^[26] Public comments on the PID highlighted tensions between pest control benefits and risk mitigation; agricultural groups, including the Kansas Ag Retailers Association, argued in August 2024 for retaining registrations on key crops due to limited alternatives for managing pests like aphids and leafhoppers, emphasizing economic impacts on producers without sufficient data on viable substitutes.^[59] ^[26] Conversely, the Endocrine Society expressed concerns in late August 2024 over dimethoate's potential as an endocrine disruptor, citing studies on developmental effects in animal models and urging further evaluation of low-dose exposures despite the EPA's hazard characterization.^[60] The EPA's final decision remains pending, with opportunities for rebuttal comments and potential adjustments based on new data.^[61] In the European Union, dimethoate's approval was not renewed under Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2019/1090, effective July 31, 2020, following European Food Safety Authority assessments identifying genotoxic risks to consumers from omethoate residues (dimethoate's primary metabolite) and unacceptable operator exposure levels, leading to revocation of all plant protection product authorizations containing the substance.^[62] ^[63] Australia's Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority proposed suspension of specific dimethoate products on August 5, 2025, targeting non-compliant labels or formulations amid ongoing compliance reviews, with a one-year deemed permit for continued use under strict conditions if approved, reflecting heightened scrutiny of organophosphate residues in exports.^[64] ^[65] In Canada, the Pest Management Regulatory Agency's July 2024 cumulative assessment of 10 organophosphates, including dimethoate, confirmed alignment with the 2015 re-evaluation decision (RVD2015-04) that retained registrations with label amendments for reduced application rates and buffer zones to protect aquatic life, but noted ongoing monitoring for aggregate risks without proposing immediate changes.^[66] ^[27]

Controversies and Incidents

Poisoning Cases and Safety Data

Dimethoate exerts toxicity primarily through inhibition of acetylcholinesterase, leading to accumulation of acetylcholine and cholinergic overstimulation.^[67] Acute oral exposure in humans can cause symptoms including headache, excessive sweating, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, loss of coordination, muscle weakness, convulsions, and respiratory failure, potentially progressing to fatal organophosphate poisoning.^[45] In animal models, the oral LD50 for rats ranges from 60 to 425 mg/kg, classifying it as moderately toxic (EPA Toxicity Category II).^[9]^[68]^[43] Dermal LD50 in rats exceeds 2,000 mg/kg, indicating lower acute skin absorption risk, though skin irritation and eye irritation are reported.^[43] No specific occupational exposure limits have been established by agencies like OSHA, emphasizing the need for personal protective equipment in handling.^[45]^[15] Human poisoning cases predominantly involve intentional self-ingestion, particularly in agricultural regions, with dimethoate exhibiting a case fatality rate approximately three times higher than chlorpyrifos due to rapid progression to hypotensive shock.^[20] Several suicidal ingestions have been documented, often resulting in profound peripheral vasodilation, distributive shock, and death despite atropine and pralidoxime administration.^[69] Accidental occupational exposures, such as dermal contact or inhalation during application, have also occurred, though less frequently fatal; one reported case involved a gardener's ingestion leading to severe symptoms requiring prolonged skin decontamination and supportive care.^[12]^[70] In severe instances, dimethoate poisoning uniquely features refractory hypotension unresponsive to standard fluids, prompting adjunctive treatments like methylene blue to restore hemodynamic stability.^[71] Treatment follows organophosphate protocols: immediate decontamination, atropine (initially 2-4 mg IV for adults, titrated to control secretions), and pralidoxime (1-2 g IV, repeatable) to reactivate cholinesterase, alongside supportive measures for ventilation and seizures.^[72]^[73] Early intervention improves outcomes, but delayed presentation in self-poisoning cases correlates with higher mortality, as dimethoate's metabolite omethoate exacerbates inhibition.^[20] Recent EPA assessments (2024) indicate no anticipated human health risks from registered uses with protective measures, though incident data underscores risks in misuse scenarios.^[3]

Debates on Benefits Versus Risks

Dimethoate offers agricultural benefits primarily through its systemic action as a broad-spectrum organophosphate insecticide, effectively controlling pests such as aphids, spider mites, leaf beetles, and grasshoppers on crops including soybeans, wheat, asparagus, and various fruits and vegetables, thereby protecting yields and supporting integrated pest management programs.^[74]^[26] Its relatively low application cost—e.g., approximately $7.52 per acre for soybeans—and flexibility in timing allow fewer treatments compared to some alternatives, while aiding resistance management by reducing dependence on pyrethroids or neonicotinoids.^[26] In specific contexts, such as U.S. asparagus production where up to 88% of Michigan acreage relies on it for aphid and beetle control, or wheat fields as the sole IRAC Group 1B option against aphids transmitting barley yellow dwarf virus, termination could elevate pest pressure and economic losses without equivalent substitutes.^[26] Agricultural stakeholders argue these benefits justify continued registration, particularly in regions lacking affordable, equally efficacious alternatives.^[59]^[75] Conversely, risks center on dimethoate's high acute oral toxicity (LD50 around 150-400 mg/kg in mammals), potential genotoxicity, and inhibition of cholinesterase leading to neurological effects, with chronic exposure linked to DNA damage, mitochondrial dysfunction, reproductive interference (e.g., reduced testosterone), and multi-organ impacts including liver, kidney, and brain toxicity.^[6]^[76]^[77] Environmentally, it poses elevated hazards to non-target species, including birds, mammals, aquatic invertebrates, bees, and earthworms, with persistence in soil and potential groundwater leaching exacerbating ecosystem disruption and bioaccumulation.^[26]^[78]^[79] Regulatory bodies like the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) have identified insufficient data to exclude mutagenic risks, precluding safe reference values and prompting a 2006 EU-wide prohibition, as benefits were deemed insufficient against residue and ecological threats.^[6]^[80] Debates intensify in regulatory contexts, where U.S. EPA assessments for registration review (initiated 2009, interim decisions ongoing as of 2024) weigh low-to-moderate benefits for certain minor crops against high ecological and worker exposure risks, proposing mitigations or cancellations despite industry pushback citing costlier alternatives (up to 480% more expensive) and yield vulnerabilities.^[26]^[81] Environmental advocates, including petitions from groups like Earthjustice, assert that long-term societal costs—from health burdens like potential carcinogenicity to biodiversity loss—outweigh pest control gains, especially with emerging IPM and biopesticide options reducing reliance.^[82]^[83] In developing regions, economic imperatives sustain use for staple crop protection despite bans elsewhere, highlighting tensions between immediate food security and precautionary principles, though studies suggest overall pesticide expenses often exceed yield benefits when externalities are factored.^[84]^[85] These conflicts underscore source credibility issues, as industry submissions emphasize agronomic data while peer-reviewed toxicology and EFSA evaluations prioritize empirical risk metrics over short-term economic claims.^[6]^[26]

Commercial Aspects

Trade Names and Manufacturers

Dimethoate is commercially available under numerous trade names, reflecting its formulation as emulsifiable concentrates (typically 30-48% active ingredient) or other systemic insecticide products targeted at agricultural pests.^[33] In the United States, key products include Dimethoate 400 EC manufactured by FMC Corporation for broad-spectrum control on crops like fruits and vegetables.^[86] Drexel Chemical Company produces Dimethoate 2.67 and Dimethoate 4EC, both organophosphate formulations providing contact and systemic activity against sucking and chewing insects.^[87]^[88] Loveland Products offers Dimethoate 400 Insecticide, registered for use on nonbearing trees, vineyards, and nursery stock.^[89] Other established trade names historically associated with dimethoate include Cygon 400, De-Fend, and Rogor, often produced by agrochemical firms for global markets, though specific registrations vary by region due to regulatory restrictions.^[33] In Canada, formulations such as Cygon 480-Ag (FMC dimethoate 480 g/L EC) and Diamante 4 remain listed for agricultural applications.^[90] Internationally, Rallis India markets Tafgor (Dimethoate 30% EC) for crops including maize, mustard, and potatoes.^[91] Production occurs primarily in countries with active pesticide manufacturing sectors, such as the United States, India, and China, where companies like Nanjing Aceagrochem supply Dimethoate 40% EC for export.^[92] Availability has diminished in some markets following voluntary cancellations and use terminations, as documented in 2005 U.S. EPA orders affecting products from Drexel and Loveland.^[93]

Alternatives and Phase-Out Efforts

The European Commission declined to renew approval for dimethoate as a plant protection product, citing unacceptable risks to operators, workers, and consumers from exposure to the substance and its metabolite omethoate, classified as mutagenic category 2 by the European Food Safety Authority; the ban took effect on July 17, 2020, for most crops including olives, with a grace period until October 17, 2020, for cherries.^[94]^[95] This measure primarily targeted its use against pests like the olive fruit fly, prompting concerns among conventional olive growers in countries such as France, where dimethoate had already been restricted, over potential yield losses and price increases absent direct substitutes of comparable efficacy.^[96] In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency issued a Proposed Registration Review Interim Decision for dimethoate in June 2024 as part of ongoing evaluations of organophosphate insecticides, incorporating risk mitigation measures such as buffer zones and personal protective equipment to address acute neurotoxicity and ecological hazards, though full phase-out proposals from prior administrations remain unfinalized.^[3] Australia's Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority proposed suspension of certain dimethoate products in August 2025 due to reevaluated health risks, allowing continued labeled use during consultation but signaling a shift toward reduced reliance.^[64] Export-related restrictions, such as France's extension of safeguards on U.S. cherries citing dimethoate residues exceeding maximum residue limits, underscore enforcement challenges in international trade.^[97] Alternatives to dimethoate emphasize integrated pest management (IPM) frameworks, incorporating biological controls like augmentation of natural enemies (e.g., parasitic wasps or predatory insects), cultural practices such as crop rotation and habitat diversification to support biodiversity, and physical barriers like netting or bagging for fruit crops.^[98] Biopesticides, including microbial agents like Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) for lepidopteran pests or spinosad for sucking insects, offer targeted efficacy with lower persistence and reduced non-target impacts compared to broad-spectrum organophosphates.^[99]^[100] For quarantine treatments in horticulture, non-chemical options such as cold disinfestation, heat treatments, or irradiation have replaced dimethoate in protocols for fruit fly control in exports from regions like Australia.^[101] Chemical replacements vary by crop and pest but often include pyrethroids like zeta-cypermethrin (e.g., Mustang Max) or chlorpyrifos formulations (e.g., Lorsban Advanced) for aphid and leafminer suppression in vegetables, though these may require sequential applications and face their own regulatory scrutiny for pollinator toxicity.^[102] Neonicotinoids such as imidacloprid provide systemic control for aphids in crops like lettuce and peas, with application costs ranging from $14.22 per acre versus dimethoate's $1.59, potentially increasing economic burdens without fully matching spectrum or residue tolerance profiles.^[103]^[104] In cases like olive production, IPM adoption has mitigated gaps left by the EU ban, though farmers report variable efficacy against high-pressure infestations, highlighting trade-offs between risk reduction and pest management reliability.^[96]^[105]

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Jul 20, 2005 · 19713-232, Drexel Dimethoate 2.67, Drexel Chemical Co. ; 34704-207, Dimethoate 400, Loveland Products, Inc. ; 34704-489, Dimethoate 2.67 EC ...Missing: trade | Show results with:trade
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https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32019R1090&from=EN
[95]
https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/rn-84
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Use of Dimethoate to be Banned in EU - Olive Oil Times
Jul 16, 2019 · The European Commission has decided to stop the use of dimethoate as an insecticide, primarily targeting the olive fruit fly in conventional ...
[97]
https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/Report/DownloadReportByFileName?fileName=France%20extends%20ban%20on%20US%20cherries%20over%20dimethoate%20use%20despite%20new%20EU%20rules_Paris_France_05-19-2020
[98]
[PDF] Guide to Integrated Pest Management (IPM) - Z
Pest insects and weeds have many natural enemies. Land managers can foster conservation biocontrol by planting biodiverse habitat to support natural enemies.
[99]
Biopesticides as a promising alternative to synthetic pesticides - NIH
Feb 16, 2023 · From antiquity, the use of synthetic (chemical) pesticides to control crop pests for improved crop production is known (Anani et al., 2020).
[100]
[PDF] Alternative Pesticide Options for the Home Gardener
For example; Bt kurstaki is used to control Lepidopterans like, cabbageworm, tent caterpillars, tomato hornworm and other leaf eating caterpillars. Bt ...
[101]
[PDF] Alternative Options to Fenthion and Dimethoate Education Project
Sep 1, 2012 · These alternative treatments were heat and low Methyl bromide fumigation, cold disinfestation, irradiation and a systems approach. The project ...
[102]
[PDF] Emulsifiable Concentrate Alternatives Analysis
Alternative insecticides to Dimethoate 2.67 EC, Dimethoate 4E and others ... Dimethoate is the result of effective alternatives and decreased insecticide.
[103]
Insecticide Alternatives for Aphid Management in Head Lettuce (ACIS)
The organophosphates endosulfan, dimethoate, acephate, oxydemeton-methyl and diazinon, and the carbamate methomyl are the most frequently used insecticides for ...
[104]
[PDF] October 3, 2003 - Western IPM Center
Oct 3, 2003 · peas: dimethoate, $1.59/A; imidacloprid, $14.22/A; bifenthrin, $6.72 to 20.50; disulfoton, $13.13 to $32.81; malathion, $5.81 to $7.75; zeta- ...
[105]
[PDF] Alternatives to targeted pesticides: the DANR database
Insecticides: Dimethoate. Parathion. Permethrin. Nematicide: 1,3 ... alternatives for current pesticide uses (where the table lists no alternatives ...