Broccoli
Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) is a cool-season cruciferous vegetable in the Brassicaceae family, cultivated for its edible green flower heads, which consist of dense clusters of unopened buds atop thick stalks, along with the tender stems and leaves.[1][2][3] Originating from the wild cabbage (Brassica oleracea) native to the coastal regions of southern and western Europe, broccoli was developed in the northern Mediterranean, possibly in areas like Cyprus or Crete, in ancient times through selective breeding of leafy cole crops to emphasize enlarged flower heads, possibly as early as the 6th century BC, and enjoyed by the ancient Romans, as noted by Pliny the Elder in the 1st century AD; it was introduced to the United States from Italy in the 19th century, gaining widespread popularity by the 1920s.[3][2][4] The name "broccoli" derives from the Italian word broccolo, meaning "sprout" or "flowering crest of a cabbage," from brocco and ultimately the Latin broccus or brachium, referring to "branch" or "arm," reflecting its branching structure.[3][5][2] As an annual herb growing 0.4 to 2 meters tall, broccoli thrives in moist, cool climates with temperatures between 5–20°C (40–70°F) and is frost-tolerant down to about -7°C (20°F), making it a staple spring and fall crop in temperate regions worldwide.[1][2][3]Botanical Aspects
Taxonomy
Broccoli is scientifically classified as Brassica oleracea var. italica Plenck, belonging to the genus Brassica within the family Brassicaceae, commonly known as the mustard or cabbage family.[6] This places it in the order Brassicales, class Magnoliopsida, phylum Tracheophyta, and kingdom Plantae.[7] The variety italica specifically denotes the broccoli form, distinguished horticulturally within the broader B. oleracea species complex.[8] Evolutionary studies indicate that broccoli originated through selective domestication of wild Brassica oleracea, a coastal plant native to the Mediterranean region, particularly southern and western Europe, with recent phylogenetic analyses identifying Brassica cretica from the eastern Mediterranean (primarily Greece) as the closest living wild relative.[9] This species encompasses multiple crops, including cabbage (B. oleracea var. capitata), kale (var. acephala), and cauliflower (var. botrytis), all derived from the same wild ancestor through human-mediated artificial selection over millennia.[10] Phylogenetic analyses reveal that B. oleracea diverged from related Brassica lineages around 3 million years ago, with domestication events shaping its morphological diversity.[11] Broccoli possesses a diploid chromosome number of 2n = 18, characteristic of the B. oleracea C genome, which supports its genetic stability and breeding potential.[12] This contrasts with related species such as Brassica rapa (2n = 20, A genome), which includes turnips and bok choy; while both belong to the genus Brassica, they represent distinct evolutionary lineages that can hybridize but maintain separate taxonomic identities due to differences in genome structure and ploidy.[13]Etymology
The word "broccoli" entered English in the mid-17th century, derived from the Italian plural form broccoli, which denotes the flowering crests or sprouts of cabbage. This Italian term is the diminutive of broccolo ("cabbage sprout" or "little broccoli"), itself stemming from brocco ("shoot," "bud," or "protruding tooth"), ultimately tracing to the Latin broccus or broccum, meaning "projecting" or "pointed," in reference to the vegetable's branching structure.[14] The name evokes the plant's edible, bud-like heads that resemble small branches or arms, a connotation reinforced by some etymological links to Latin brachium ("arm" or "branch").[15] Across other European languages, the term for broccoli largely mirrors its Italian roots through direct borrowing, underscoring the vegetable's historical spread from Italy. In French, it is brocoli, an adaptation of the Italian broccoli first recorded in the 16th century, while Spanish uses brócoli, similarly derived and introduced via Mediterranean trade and culinary exchange.[16] These variations highlight the Italian influence on nomenclature as broccoli cultivation expanded beyond its native region.[17] Distinct from standard broccoli is broccolini, a trademarked name coined in the 1990s for a hybrid variety developed by Japan's Sakata Seed Company, blending broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) with Chinese kale (Brassica oleracea var. alboglabra). The term functions as a diminutive or portmanteau of "broccoli," evoking its tender, slender stems and smaller florets, but it has no direct etymological tie to the original Italian derivation.[18]History
Origins and Domestication
Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) originated from wild populations of Brassica oleracea, a coastal species native to the coastal regions of southern and western Europe, with domestication occurring in the Mediterranean region, possibly the Aegean. Selective breeding of Brassica oleracea began around the 6th century BCE, with broccoli varieties featuring enlarged inflorescences developing by Roman times in the 1st century CE from the plant's natural flowering structures.[19] This wild ancestor, commonly known as wild cabbage, exhibited small flower clusters that ancient cultivators targeted for enhancement through repeated selection.[20] Early cultivation is attributed to the Etruscans in the Italian peninsula around the 8th to 6th centuries BCE, who domesticated Brassica oleracea forms by favoring mutations that produced larger, more tender sprouts, laying the foundation for broccoli-like varieties.[19] The Romans further advanced this process from the 2nd century BCE onward, integrating Etruscan techniques and documenting selective breeding in agricultural texts to promote inflorescence development for culinary and medicinal uses.[19] Recent genomic analyses identify two domestication lineages, with broccoli belonging to the arrested inflorescence lineage showing mutations that reduce vernalization requirements, supporting a possible Middle Eastern contribution to early diversification.[20] Genetic studies of the arrested inflorescence lineage, including broccoli and cauliflower, reveal key mutations in flowering genes, such as those in the APETALA1 (AP1) homologs CAL1 and CAL2, as well as FRUITFULL2 (FUL2), which disrupted normal flowering progression and led to the proliferation of enlarged, non-bolting inflorescences characteristic of the arrested inflorescence lineage.[21] Additionally, variations in the FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC) gene contributed to altered vernalization responses, enabling the retention of juvenile traits in cultivated forms and distinguishing broccoli from its wild progenitors.[20] Archaeological evidence for broccoli remains scarce due to the poor preservation of Brassica seeds, but ancient Roman texts provide confirmatory literary records of its use by the 1st century CE, including descriptions by Pliny the Elder of sprouting varieties ("cymae") with enlarged heads similar to modern broccoli, indicating widespread cultivation in the Mediterranean by that time.[19] These accounts, alongside genetic bottleneck signatures in the arrested inflorescence lineage, support a domestication timeline centered in the Mediterranean no earlier than 2500 years ago.[21]Introduction to New Regions
Broccoli's dissemination beyond the Mediterranean began during the Roman Empire, when it was valued as a delicacy in Italy and gradually spread northward through trade and conquest, though widespread cultivation in northern Europe occurred later. By the Renaissance period, commercial cultivation had started in Italy around the 1500s, facilitating its introduction to France circa 1650, where it earned the nickname "Italian asparagus" due to its emerging popularity among the elite.[15] In England, broccoli arrived around 1720, again referred to as "Italian asparagus," marking its integration into British horticulture via trade routes from southern Europe.[22] This gradual expansion reflected broccoli's adaptation from a regional specialty to a more accessible vegetable in cooler climates.[17] The vegetable reached the Americas in the 18th century through early colonial gardeners, with Thomas Jefferson notably planting broccoli seeds imported from Italy at his Monticello estate in Virginia on May 27, 1767, as recorded in his garden journal.[23] However, broader adoption came in the 19th century via waves of Italian immigrants, who brought seeds and culinary traditions, establishing small-scale home gardens. Commercial cultivation in the United States began in the 1920s in California, driven by Italian-American farmers who recognized the crop's suitability for the region's Mediterranean-like climate, transforming broccoli from an exotic import to a viable agricultural product.[15] In Asia, broccoli's introduction occurred primarily in the 20th century, influenced by global trade and post-colonial exchanges; Portuguese explorers had earlier brought related Brassica crops to the region, laying groundwork for local adaptations, but heading broccoli varieties arrived later.[24] In China, adoption accelerated after World War II, spurred by the presence of American military personnel who popularized the vegetable, leading to the development of hybrid cultivars derived from Japanese germplasm starting in the mid-20th century.[25] These hybrids emphasized resilience and yield, enabling broccoli's integration into Chinese agriculture and cuisine by the late 1900s.[26] A significant surge in broccoli's popularity across Europe followed World War II, coinciding with advancements in hybrid breeding that produced hardier varieties better suited to diverse soils and climates, boosting commercial production and consumption throughout the continent.[25] This post-war boom, combined with increased awareness of its nutritional benefits, solidified broccoli's place in everyday European diets.[27]Description
Plant Structure
Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) is a biennial herb typically cultivated as an annual, belonging to the Brassicaceae family, and typically grows to a height of 60–90 cm (2–3 ft) at harvest, but can reach 1–2 m if allowed to flower fully.[28][1] The plant features a sturdy, central stem that is thick and green, supporting a rosette of large leaves and terminating in a compact head composed of clustered immature flower buds, known as florets.[28] These florets form the primary edible portion, arranged in a dense, branching structure that resembles a miniature tree.[29] The edible components of the broccoli plant include the immature flower buds that constitute the central head, the tender stalks or stems, and the broad leaves, all of which can be consumed raw or cooked.[29] The head develops as a tight cluster of green buds on short pedicels, harvested before the yellow flowers emerge to maintain tenderness and flavor.[28] The leaves are large, alternate, glabrous (smooth and hairless), and often exhibit a blue-green coloration due to a waxy bloom or coating that aids in water retention.[30] They are typically oblong to broadly ovate in shape, with wavy or irregularly lobed margins, and arise directly from the base or along the stem. The root system is fibrous and shallow, extending primarily in the top 30–45 cm (12–18 in) of soil to absorb nutrients and water efficiently in cultivated conditions.[31][32]Growth and Development
Broccoli is a cool-season crop that thrives in moderate temperatures, with optimal growth occurring between 13°C and 24°C (55°F and 75°F), and best results at 16–21°C (60–70°F).[33] Temperatures exceeding 30°C (86°F) can trigger bolting, where the plant prematurely shifts from vegetative growth to reproductive flowering, resulting in loose, inedible heads rather than compact florets.[34] This sensitivity to heat underscores broccoli's adaptation to temperate climates, where cooler conditions support steady development without stress-induced physiological shifts. The life cycle of broccoli begins with seed germination, which typically takes 5 to 10 days under suitable soil moisture and temperatures around 21°C to 29°C (70°F to 85°F).[35] Following germination, the vegetative growth phase lasts 4 to 6 weeks, during which the plant develops leaves and stems to build a robust structure for subsequent head formation.[36] The heading stage, where the edible inflorescence forms, occurs 60 to 100 days after germination, varying by cultivar and environmental conditions; annual varieties often reach maturity in 50 to 70 days post-emergence.[3] This progression reflects broccoli's annual or biennial habit as a member of Brassica oleracea, with the plant focusing energy on foliar expansion before transitioning to reproductive structures. Broccoli shows low sensitivity to photoperiod, with development primarily driven by temperature rather than day length.[37] Certain types, particularly biennial or late-maturing varieties like purple sprouting broccoli, require vernalization—a period of cold exposure below 10°C (50°F) for 4 to 8 weeks—to initiate flowering after the vegetative phase.[3] This chilling requirement ensures reproductive timing aligns with seasonal changes in cooler regions. Physiologically, broccoli displays distinct nutrient uptake patterns, with a high demand for nitrogen during active growth to support leaf and stem expansion. Nitrogen uptake is minimal in early stages (first 2 weeks post-transplant), peaks dramatically around 30 days after transplanting during rapid vegetative and heading development, and then declines as the plant matures.[38] Overall, broccoli requires 125 to 175 pounds of nitrogen per acre, primarily absorbed through roots in split applications to match this bell-shaped demand curve and prevent deficiencies that could stunt head size or quality.[3]Varieties
Broccoli Cultivars
Broccoli cultivars are diverse, encompassing traditional and hybrid varieties bred for commercial production, home gardens, and specific environmental tolerances. These cultivars primarily fall into categories like Calabrese, sprouting, and specialty types, each offering distinct head formations, flavors, and harvest patterns suited to various climates and culinary applications.[39] Calabrese broccoli represents the standard green-headed type, characterized by a large central floret cluster on a thick stem, typically maturing in 55-70 days with side shoots available after the main head harvest. This cultivar group emphasizes uniformity and yield, with hybrids like 'Marathon' F1 prized for its high-domed, small-beaded heads that maintain quality during cold weather and overwintering, enabling versatile spring and autumn cropping.[40][41] Sprouting broccoli differs by producing multiple slender side shoots instead of a dominant central head, extending the harvest period over weeks and yielding tender, edible florets and stems. Varieties such as 'Purple Sprouting' feature vivid purple buds that turn green when cooked, offering a slightly bitter, nutrient-rich profile; this heirloom-type cultivar is winter-hardy, sown in summer for early spring spears after vernalization. White sprouting variants provide milder, sweeter shoots with similar multi-harvest potential.[39][42] Specialty cultivars expand broccoli's aesthetic and textural range. Romanesco, a vibrant lime-green type with self-similar spiral florets arranged in a fractal pattern, delivers a mild, nutty flavor and firm texture akin to cauliflower, maturing in about 70-98 days for heads up to 8 inches across. Broccolini, a patented hybrid of Brassica oleracea var. italica (broccoli) and var. alboglabra (Chinese kale or gai lan), produces long, slender, asparagus-like stems topped with small florets; it matures in 60-90 days from seed, with tender, less bitter eating quality and repeated side-shoot production.[43][44][39] Breeding advancements since the 1990s have leveraged hybrid vigor to enhance disease resistance and heat tolerance, addressing challenges like downy mildew, black rot, and summer stress in regions such as the eastern United States. Initiatives like the Eastern Broccoli Project at Cornell University developed germplasm and hybrids, including heat-adapted lines that maintain uniform, leafless heads under high temperatures; examples include 'Green Magic' and 'Eastern Crown', which show strong performance against Alternaria and Xanthomonas in trials, with marketable yields up to 100% in moderate stress conditions. As of 2023, the project has introduced promising experimental varieties like EXP-3622 for further improved heat tolerance, with evaluation trials continuing into 2025. These F1 hybrids incorporate polygenic traits for resilience, enabling broader cultivation without excessive inputs.[45][46][12][47][48]Related Brassica oleracea Groups
Brassica oleracea encompasses a remarkable array of domesticated vegetables, all derived from the wild cabbage (Brassica oleracea subsp. oleracea) native to coastal regions of western Europe, through selective breeding for specific morphological traits over millennia.[10] This genetic continuum highlights how artificial selection on a shared gene pool has produced diverse crops, including broccoli as the inflorescence-selected form (var. italica), alongside parallel groups like cauliflower, cabbage, kale, Brussels sprouts, and kohlrabi.[10] Each variety represents targeted modifications to vegetative or reproductive structures, demonstrating the species' plasticity without altering its fundamental genetic architecture.[49] Cauliflower (var. botrytis) features compact, white curd heads formed by arrested inflorescence meristems, resulting from mutations in genes like BobCAULIFLOWER (BobCAL) that disrupt normal floral development and promote proliferation of undifferentiated meristems.[50] These curds, essentially masses of immature flower buds, arose from selection for enlarged, edible inflorescences in the Mediterranean region around the 6th century CE.[10] Cabbage (var. capitata) is characterized by dense heads of overlapping leaves, achieved through selection for apical meristem proliferation that suppresses elongation and promotes tight packing of foliage.[10] This form, monophyletic in most lineages, originated in northern Europe and includes subtypes like savoy with crinkled leaves, emphasizing leaf storage as the primary edible part.[49] Kale (var. acephala), in contrast, retains non-heading, curly or flat leaves as the harvestable portion, selected for tenderness and nutritional density without the compact head formation seen in cabbage.[10] Its polyphyletic nature reflects independent domestication events across Europe, with curly varieties showing monophyletic clustering tied to enhanced leaf margin traits.[49] Brussels sprouts (var. gemmifera) develop numerous small, cabbage-like heads along the stem from enlarged axillary buds, a monophyletic trait bred in Belgium during the 16th century for lateral bud dominance over apical growth.[10] These buds mimic miniature cabbages, providing multiple harvest points per plant.[49] Kohlrabi (var. gongylodes), known for its bulbous, swollen stem base resembling a turnip, results from selection for hypocotyl and stem thickening, creating an above-ground edible storage organ.[10] This monophyletic variety, with possible admixture from wild relatives like Brassica cretica, emerged in northern Europe and is valued for its crisp texture.[49] Collectively, these groups illustrate a continuum of morphological divergence from the wild progenitor, where broccoli's emphasis on unopened flower clusters parallels cauliflower's curd but differs in texture and color, underscoring the shared evolutionary pathway within Brassica oleracea.[10]Cultivation
Requirements and Methods
Broccoli thrives in well-drained, fertile loam soils enriched with organic matter to support optimal nutrient availability and root development.[51] The ideal soil pH ranges from 6.0 to 7.0, as this slightly acidic to neutral range facilitates nutrient uptake while minimizing issues like boron deficiency in higher pH conditions.[29] Poor drainage can lead to root rot, so soils should be tested and amended with compost or lime if necessary to achieve these specifications.[52] Additionally, broccoli requires full sun exposure of at least 6 to 8 hours per day to promote vigorous growth and head formation.[53] As a cool-season crop, broccoli prefers moderate temperatures between 18°C and 24°C (65°F to 75°F) for best development, though it exhibits strong frost tolerance, enduring temperatures down to -4°C (25°F) without significant damage to mature plants.[52] Exposure to prolonged heat above 29°C (85°F) can cause bolting and reduced head quality.[54] Irrigation is essential to maintain consistent soil moisture, with requirements typically ranging from 25 to 50 mm per week, adjusted higher on sandy soils or during dry periods to prevent stress and ensure even head development.[51] Drip or furrow systems are recommended to deliver water efficiently while minimizing foliar wetting.[52] Propagation can occur via direct seeding or transplants, with the choice depending on local climate and season length. Direct seeding involves sowing seeds 0.6 to 1.3 cm deep in prepared beds, ideally when soil temperatures reach 10°C to 15°C (50°F to 60°F), while transplants—typically 4 to 6 weeks old—are set out 2 to 3 weeks before the last frost for spring crops or in late summer for fall harvests.[54] Plant spacing should be 30 to 45 cm between plants within rows, with rows 75 to 90 cm apart, to allow adequate airflow and light penetration while maximizing yield per hectare (approximately 14,000 to 24,000 plants per acre).[51] Fertilization focuses on a balanced NPK regimen to meet broccoli's high nutrient demands, particularly for nitrogen, which drives leafy growth and head size. Typical applications include 100 to 150 kg/ha of nitrogen, split as pre-plant incorporation (about 50%) and side-dressing at the 4- to 6-leaf stage, alongside phosphorus and potassium based on soil tests (e.g., 50 to 100 kg/ha P₂O₅ and 100 to 150 kg/ha K₂O where deficient).[3] Micronutrients like boron (2 to 3 kg/ha) may be added to prevent hollow stem disorders.[54] To mitigate soil-borne diseases such as clubroot and black rot, crop rotation is essential, avoiding other Brassica crops for at least 2 to 3 years and incorporating non-host plants like grains or legumes in the sequence.[52]Harvesting
Broccoli is typically harvested when the central head reaches maturity, characterized by compact florets with tightly closed buds measuring 10 to 20 cm (4 to 8 inches) in diameter, before any yellowing occurs, ensuring optimal quality and flavor.[55][56] This stage is determined by visual inspection of head compactness and color, with dark green or cultivar-specific bright green hues indicating readiness. Harvesting generally occurs 60 to 100 days after transplanting seedlings, depending on variety, climate, and growing conditions, allowing the plant to develop fully without bolting.[57][58] The primary harvest method involves hand-cutting the central head at the base of the stem using a sharp knife, typically leaving 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 inches) of stem intact to promote the development of side shoots in sprouting varieties.[59][60] After the main head is removed, multiple subsequent harvests of smaller side shoots can occur over several weeks, extending the yield from a single plant as these axillary buds mature into secondary heads.[61][62] In large-scale commercial fields, while mechanical harvesters exist, they are rarely used due to variability in head size and quality; hand labor remains predominant for precise selection and to minimize damage.[63][64] Post-harvest handling emphasizes rapid cooling to preserve freshness, with broccoli stored at 0 to 1°C (32 to 34°F) and 95% relative humidity to maintain shelf life of 2 to 3 weeks, though optimal conditions can extend this to a month.[55][61] The crop is highly sensitive to ethylene, which accelerates yellowing and senescence, so storage away from ethylene-producing fruits is essential; controlled atmosphere storage with reduced oxygen levels can further delay deterioration.[55] Proper packaging in perforated containers helps prevent moisture loss and decay during transport and retail.[65]Production
Global Output
Global broccoli production has seen steady growth in the 2020s, reaching approximately 26.5 million tonnes annually based on combined statistics for broccoli and cauliflower from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), with an average yearly increase of 2-3% driven by expanding cultivation in Asia.[66] China dominates as the top producer, accounting for about 36% of the global share and producing 9.6 million tonnes in 2023, primarily through large-scale farming in provinces like Fujian and Guangdong.[67][66] India follows as the second-largest producer with about 9.2 million tonnes, focusing on both broccoli and related varieties in regions such as Maharashtra and Karnataka.[66] In the United States, production totals nearly 1 million tonnes annually, with California contributing over 90% of the output due to its favorable Mediterranean climate and irrigated fields in the Central Valley.[68]| Rank | Country | Production (tonnes, 2023) | Share of Global (%) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | China | 9,606,911 | 36.2 |
| 2 | India | 9,225,000 | 34.8 |
| 3 | United States | 997,995 | 3.8 |
| 4 | Spain | 737,340 | 2.8 |
| 5 | Mexico | ~700,000 | ~2.6 |
Economic Importance
Broccoli holds substantial economic significance as a key vegetable crop in global agriculture, with the fresh market valued at approximately USD 6.9 billion in 2024 and projected to grow due to rising health-conscious consumer trends favoring nutrient-dense foods.[73] The overall industry, including frozen and processed segments, contributes to a broader vegetable market expansion, supporting agribusiness chains from farming to retail. This growth is fueled by increasing demand in developed markets for organic and sustainably sourced varieties, positioning broccoli as a high-value export commodity in regions with favorable climates.[74] Trade in broccoli is dominated by North American and European dynamics, with the United States importing fresh broccoli and cauliflower primarily from Mexico, valued at USD 450 million in 2023 for 353 million kilograms shipped.[75] Mexico's proximity and year-round production capacity make it the leading supplier, accounting for over 80% of U.S. broccoli imports and enabling consistent supply during off-seasons in domestic production. In contrast, the European Union maintains self-sufficiency through major producers like Spain, Italy, and Poland, while serving as a net exporter with Spain alone shipping USD 619 million worth of fresh broccoli and cauliflower globally in 2021, including growing volumes to Asian markets amid rising demand in countries like China and Japan.[76] The broccoli sector plays a vital socioeconomic role, particularly in developing regions where cultivation provides essential income for smallholder farmers and stimulates rural economies in countries such as Mexico, India, and parts of Africa. In Mexico, the industry drives agricultural expansion in states like Guanajuato, supporting local labor markets and export-oriented growth that bolsters national GDP contributions from horticulture.[77] Sustainability challenges influence the economic viability of broccoli production, with a water footprint averaging 285 liters per kilogram, primarily from irrigation in arid growing areas.[78] The crop's carbon footprint stands at approximately 0.6 kg CO₂ equivalent per kg, lower than high-emission vegetables like tomatoes (2.4 kg CO₂e/kg) but comparable to leafy greens, highlighting opportunities for efficiency gains through precision farming and reduced transport emissions.[79] These factors underscore the need for investment in water-efficient technologies and low-carbon practices to sustain long-term market competitiveness.Nutrition and Health
Nutritional Composition
Broccoli is a nutrient-dense vegetable, providing a low-calorie source of essential macronutrients. Per 100 grams of raw broccoli, it contains approximately 34 kcal of energy, 2.8 grams of protein, 6.6 grams of carbohydrates (including 2.6 grams of dietary fiber), and only 0.4 grams of total fat, making it particularly low in fat content.[80] These values position broccoli as a valuable component for energy-restricted diets while supporting protein intake and digestive health through its fiber.[80] In terms of vitamins, raw broccoli is exceptionally rich in several key micronutrients. It provides 89 mg of vitamin C (99% of the Daily Value, or DV), 102 µg of vitamin K (85% DV), and 63 µg of folate (16% DV), contributing significantly to immune function, blood clotting, and cellular metabolism.[80] Minerals in raw broccoli include 316 mg of potassium (7% DV) and 47 mg of calcium (4% DV), which aid in electrolyte balance and bone health.[80] Additionally, broccoli contains bioactive compounds such as glucosinolates, including glucoraphanin, which hydrolyzes to form sulforaphane, a potent isothiocyanate.[81] Nutrient retention can vary with preparation methods; for instance, boiling raw broccoli may result in about 50% loss of vitamin C due to its water-soluble nature and heat sensitivity, though other nutrients like fiber remain largely intact.[82]| Nutrient | Amount per 100 g Raw Broccoli | % Daily Value |
|---|---|---|
| Energy | 34 kcal | 2% |
| Protein | 2.8 g | 6% |
| Carbohydrates | 6.6 g | 2% |
| Dietary Fiber | 2.6 g | 9% |
| Total Fat | 0.4 g | 1% |
| Vitamin C | 89 mg | 99% |
| Vitamin K | 102 µg | 85% |
| Folate | 63 µg | 16% |
| Potassium | 316 mg | 7% |
| Calcium | 47 mg | 4% |