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E-meter

The E-meter, or electropsychometer, is a simple electronic device consisting of a Wheatstone bridge circuit that measures variations in electrical resistance across the skin of a person's fingers, akin to components in early lie detectors.^[1]^[2] Invented in 1951 by chiropractor and inventor Volney G. Mathison as the "Mathison Electropsychometer," it was adapted by Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard in the mid-1950s for use in "auditing" sessions, where it purportedly detects mental "engrams" or spiritual distress by registering fluctuations interpreted as emotional reactions.^[3]^[4] In practice, the device displays needle movements on a dial as the subject holds metal cylinders connected to the meter, with auditors using these responses to guide questioning aimed at resolving subconscious traumas according to Scientology doctrine.^[2] Employed exclusively within Scientology as a religious artifact—not a medical instrument—the E-meter's core function relies on galvanic skin response (GSR), a physiological phenomenon reflecting sweat gland activity and sympathetic nervous system arousal, but lacking empirical validation for Hubbard's claims of revealing precise thetan-level aberrations or past-life incidents.^[5]^[6] Scientific assessments, including those of polygraph-like devices, consistently find GSR unreliable for discerning specific thoughts, lies, or spiritual states due to its nonspecificity to stressors like anxiety or movement, rendering interpretations subjective and prone to confirmation bias rather than causal insight into mental processes.^[5]^[6] The device's promotion for therapeutic effects prompted U.S. Food and Drug Administration raids in 1963, seizing over 100 units labeled with unsubstantiated claims of curing conditions like radiation burns or arthritis, leading to federal court rulings that it was misbranded under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act unless disclaimers clarified its non-medical, religious use.^[7]^[8] These legal confrontations, culminating in 1971 settlements requiring neutral labeling, underscore persistent controversies over the E-meter's pseudoscientific foundations amid Scientology's insistence on its efficacy for spiritual enlightenment.^[9]^[10]

Historical Development

Precursors to the E-meter

The foundational principles underlying the E-meter derive from early 20th-century research into electrodermal activity, commonly termed galvanic skin response (GSR), which quantifies variations in skin electrical conductance linked to sympathetic nervous system arousal via eccrine sweat glands.^[11] In 1888, French neurologist Charles Féré documented that sensory and emotional stimuli provoked a transient decrease in skin resistance, observable through electrodes connected to a galvanometer, laying groundwork for later psychophysiological instruments.^[11] ^[12] This exosomatic measurement technique, independent of muscular artifacts as clarified by Russian physiologist Ivan Tarchanoff in 1890, gained traction in experimental psychology for assessing autonomic responses during the early 1900s.^[13] By the 1920s, GSR instrumentation evolved into components of polygraph devices, such as John A. Larson's 1921 cardio-pneumo-plex, which integrated skin resistance monitoring with cardiovascular metrics to detect deception through physiological fluctuations.^[14] Post-World War II advancements in electronics and heightened interest in biofeedback and psychodiagnostics spurred portable, simplified GSR meters for therapeutic applications, reflecting broader psychotechnological experimentation without established clinical validation.^[15] The direct antecedent to the E-meter emerged in 1951 when American chiropractor and inventor Volney G. Mathison (1897–1965) constructed the electropsychometer, a battery-powered device employing a Wheatstone bridge circuit and null meter to register minute skin resistance shifts via metal cylinders held in the subject's hands.^[16] ^[17] Mathison filed for a U.S. patent in 1951, receiving grants in 1954 (U.S. Patent 2,684,070) and 1957, marketing the apparatus for detecting "psychic trauma" in psychotherapeutic contexts, including early Dianetics sessions where practitioners sought to identify subconscious distress indicators.^[17] ^[18] Priced at approximately $500, Mathison's model featured vacuum-tube amplification for sensitivity, influencing subsequent adaptations through its emphasis on real-time resistance needle deflections as proxies for emotional states.^[16]

Invention and Adaptation by L. Ron Hubbard

In 1952, L. Ron Hubbard adopted Volney Mathison's electropsychometer for use in Dianetics auditing, renaming it the E-meter to measure emotional reactions via skin resistance changes.^[4] Early versions were often assembled by practitioners using vacuum tube circuitry based on Mathison's designs, allowing rudimentary detection of psychogalvanic responses during sessions.^[19] Hubbard filed a patent application for his "electropsychometer" on December 17, 1952, which was issued as U.S. Patent 2,786,187 on March 19, 1957, claiming a device to indicate variations in electrical resistance correlated with mental states. By 1954, tensions arose when Mathison refused to assign patent rights to Hubbard, leading to the discontinuation of the commercial Mathison model in Scientology practices.^[4] In response, Hubbard directed the development of proprietary adaptations, transitioning to in-house Scientology versions around 1955 as Dianetics evolved into a formalized religious framework.^[20] These modifications emphasized integration with auditing procedures while maintaining core resistance-measuring principles.^[17]

Evolution of E-meter Models

The earliest E-meters were vacuum tube-based devices developed through collaboration between L. Ron Hubbard and chiropractor Volney Mathison, who introduced an electropsychometer in the late 1940s and refined it for Dianetics use by 1951.^[2] Mathison's 1952 model featured basic circuitry for measuring skin resistance via electrodes held by the subject, marketed as a tool for detecting emotional states.^[19] Following a dispute, Hubbard discontinued Mathison's version in 1954 and pursued proprietary designs, leading to the Hubbard Mark I and subsequent iterations without patent protection to avoid legal entanglements.^[4] By the early 1960s, engineering shifted to solid-state components, with the Hubbard Mark II introduced in 1960 and the transistor-based Mark V released in 1962, marking the transition from bulky vacuum tubes to compact, battery-powered units with rechargeable low-voltage supplies.^[21] The Mark V, the last analog-only model in widespread use, employed a few transistors on a single circuit board for improved portability and reliability over predecessors, though it retained a mechanical needle meter for displaying resistance changes.^[22] Subsequent models like the Mark VI and Mark VII in the 1970s and 1980s refined sensitivity and durability but adhered to analog principles. The Mark VIII Ultra, introduced in the early 2010s, incorporated digital signal processing via an 8-bit analog-to-digital converter and microprocessor to emulate the analog needle display, enabling automated calibration and enhanced precision while preserving the traditional visual interface for auditors.^[23] Post-2020 proprietary updates have included software firmware requiring annual servicing and remote activation, with the Church capable of disabling units via over-the-air commands to enforce compliance with organizational standards.^[24] Current Mark VIII models retail for approximately $5,000 to $5,850, including accessories like electrode cans and carrying cases.^[25] In 2023, the L. Ron Hubbard Library, managing his literary estate, petitioned U.S. regulators to oppose DMCA exemptions for E-meter self-repair, arguing that unauthorized modifications risk invalidating the device's religious functionality, which demands specialized ministerial training.^[26] This stance aligns with Church policies restricting repairs to authorized technicians, ensuring hardware evolves under proprietary control without independent third-party interventions.^[27]

Technical Specifications

Electronic Components and Circuitry

The E-meter utilizes a Wheatstone bridge circuit as its core electronic component to detect variations in electrical resistance between two electrodes, which are typically lightweight metal cylinders or plates held in the user's hands.^[2] This configuration, originally developed in the 19th century for precise resistance measurement, applies a small direct current voltage across the bridge arms, one of which incorporates the skin resistance path.^[28] The imbalance caused by resistance changes unbalances the bridge, producing a proportional deflection on an analog needle meter.^[22] Power is supplied by standard batteries, such as a 1.5-volt cell in one bridge arm and a 6-volt battery in another, generating a low-voltage DC source typically under 12 volts to avoid discomfort while enabling sensitivity to skin conductance fluctuations.^[29] A sensitivity or nulling dial adjusts the bridge balance and meter range, allowing calibration to the user's baseline resistance, which often ranges from thousands to hundreds of thousands of ohms depending on moisture and contact.^[30] The electrodes are commonly tin-plated steel cans or aluminum plates coated for consistent contact, connected via insulated wires to the device without additional sensors or active amplification stages beyond the basic ohmmetric setup.^[22] Circuitry remains fundamentally passive, comprising resistors, capacitors for damping needle oscillations, diodes for protection, and a microammeter movement scaled to display subtle deflections as "reads."^[28] Early models, derived from Volney Mathison's 1951 electropsychometer, lacked integrated circuits or digital processing, relying on discrete components for portability and simplicity.^[30] Subsequent Hubbard adaptations retained this Wheatstone topology while incorporating minor refinements like improved metering and battery compartments, but eschewed advanced electronics such as operational amplifiers until potentially in ultra-modern variants.^[29]

Operational Mechanism

The E-meter functions as a simple analog ohmmeter employing a Wheatstone bridge configuration to quantify electrical resistance across two electrodes, typically metal cans grasped by the preclear's hands. A low-voltage direct current, around 10-20 volts, is applied through the body, with the bridge circuit detecting imbalances caused by variations in skin conductance influenced by perspiration and glandular activity. These resistance fluctuations, often in the kilo-ohm range akin to standard galvanic skin response measurements, result in deflections of a sensitive null galvanometer needle on the device's dial.^[31]^[22] Prior to and during operation, the auditor calibrates the instrument by manipulating the tone arm (TA) dial, which adjusts a variable resistor in the bridge to rebalance the circuit and recenter the needle within a designated "set" zone on the dial, compensating for shifts in baseline skin resistance. Sensitivity is then fine-tuned via a separate knob to amplify subtle conductance changes into visible needle motions without overscaling. The trim control further refines centering for precise observation, ensuring the needle's position reflects dynamic resistance alterations rather than static offsets.^[32]^[22] In use, external stimuli prompt physiological responses that modulate skin resistance, causing the needle to exhibit characteristic movements: a rapid decrease in resistance produces a "fall" as the needle swings rightward, while erratic fluctuations may yield a "rock slam" characterized by violent oscillations. The auditor manually monitors these analog deflections in real-time, with no provision for digital logging or computational processing in historical or current iterations, relying instead on visual interpretation of the mechanical meter response.^[32]^[33]

Comparisons to Galvanic Skin Response Devices

The E-meter and galvanic skin response (GSR) devices both rely on measuring electrodermal activity (EDA), which captures variations in the skin's electrical conductance due to sweat gland responses controlled by the sympathetic nervous system.^[34] ^[35] This shared mechanism involves applying a low-voltage current through skin-contact electrodes—typically metal cans held in the hands for the E-meter—and observing resistance changes, a technique akin to components in polygraph systems developed in the 1920s.^[36] Polygraphs, pioneered by John A. Larson in 1921, integrated GSR alongside respiration and cardiovascular metrics to detect arousal patterns, establishing EDA as a standard physiological indicator for emotional or cognitive stimuli.^[37] Historical precursors to the E-meter include 1930s psychogalvanometers, which focused on skin resistance fluctuations for psychodiagnostic purposes, such as lie detection experiments conducted by researchers like Leonarde Keeler, who added galvanic channels to early polygraphs by 1936.^[38] ^[39] These devices paralleled the E-meter's foundational design, derived from Volney Mathison's 1954-patented electropsychometer, a basic instrument intended for non-medical psychotherapeutic applications rather than clinical standardization.^[3] Key differences lie in circuitry and operational tuning: standard GSR instruments often employ constant-current methods with amplification and digital recording to quantify phasic (event-related) and tonic (baseline) EDA components against normative physiological data, whereas the E-meter uses a rudimentary Wheatstone bridge configuration with operator-adjusted sensitivity for real-time needle movements, lacking multi-sensor integration or validated calibration for arousal quantification.^[40] ^[41] This simplified, analog approach prioritizes subjective deflection sensitivity over the precise, research-oriented metrics of conventional GSR technology.^[42]

Application in Scientology Practices

Role in Auditing Sessions

In Scientology auditing sessions, the E-meter serves as a tool wielded by a trained auditor to monitor the preclear's responses during structured question-and-answer exchanges. The preclear grasps two metal cylinders, or "cans," connected to the device via wires, while seated across from the auditor, who observes the meter's dial for needle movements indicative of "reads" on areas of mental or emotional charge. These reads—such as ticks, falls, or floating needles—guide the auditor to probe deeper into topics yielding reactions, facilitating the discharge of such charge through continued verbalization by the preclear.^[43]^[22] Auditing occurs in one-on-one sessions, typically lasting 1 to 2 hours, where the preclear provides spoken answers without the E-meter dictating content; instead, it informs the auditor's line of inquiry to ensure comprehensive coverage of reactive areas. The process emphasizes the preclear's active participation in recalling and confronting experiences, with the auditor maintaining a precise, non-interpretive role focused on meter feedback and session rules.^[44]^[45] The E-meter is mandatory for auditing above Grade 0, the initial level addressing communication abilities, with higher grades relying on metered processes to address specific life dynamics. Participants, particularly auditors undergoing training, must purchase an E-meter from the Church of Scientology, often costing around $5,000 for models like the Mark VIII, and sign liability waivers acknowledging its religious artifact status and disclaiming medical claims.^[46]^[47]^[48]

Integration with Dianetics and Operating Thetan Levels

In Dianetics auditing, developed by L. Ron Hubbard in 1950, the E-meter was adapted as a tool to detect engrams—recorded moments of pain and unconsciousness stored in the reactive mind—by registering fluctuations in the preclear's electrodermal activity during questioning.^[2] Hubbard specified that needle movements on the meter indicated areas of "charge" or mental mass associated with these engrams, allowing auditors to isolate and erase them through repetitive processes, with the ultimate aim of achieving a state of Clear free from reactive influences.^[22] This integration marked the device's early role in precision auditing, distinguishing it from verbal recall alone by providing an objective indicator of subconscious responses.^[49] Following the formal establishment of Scientology in 1953, the E-meter's application extended beyond the reactive mind into Operating Thetan (OT) levels, which Hubbard outlined starting with OT I in 1966 and detailed further in subsequent levels.^[19] In these advanced processes, particularly from OT III (released in 1967), practitioners conduct solo auditing—self-administered sessions using the E-meter on confidential materials—to identify and address spiritual barriers, including body thetans (disembodied spirits) and clusters attached to the individual thetan.^[50] The meter detects "reads" signaling the presence of these entities or implants, guiding the solo auditor to apply specific commands for their separation and discharge, purportedly restoring the thetan's inherent abilities such as exteriorization and causation over matter, energy, space, and time.^[19] This evolution reflects Hubbard's doctrinal shift from Dianetics' emphasis on mental clearing to Scientology's focus on thetan rehabilitation, positioning the E-meter as an indispensable religious artifact for navigating increasingly esoteric levels of spiritual processing.^[51] Solo auditing protocols require meticulous notation of meter phenomena, such as floating needles or drops, to ensure accurate handling of advanced case phenomena without external intervention.^[52] Church policy mandates certified training for OT use, underscoring the meter's role in progressing toward full operational thetan states.^[19]

Training and Certification for Use

The Hubbard E-Meter Course serves as the primary training program for individuals seeking to operate the E-meter within Scientology auditing sessions. This course emphasizes theoretical understanding of the device's mechanics and purpose, alongside practical drills to develop precision in handling and interpretation. Participants study materials such as the course pack, "The Book of E-Meter Drills," "Introduction to the E-Meter," and "E-Meter Essentials," focusing on recognizing needle movements indicative of mental states.^[53] Proficiency requires completing specific E-meter drills, including basic handling exercises like touching and releasing the device to build familiarity.^[54] Training incorporates Scientology's Training Routines (TRs), which are communication drills designed to enhance an operator's ability to maintain composure, convey intentions clearly, and observe subtle meter responses without introducing artifacts such as body motion reads. These routines, repeated to escalating standards, aim to ensure accurate differentiation between physiological noise and purported spiritual reactions.^[55] Operators must pass supervised checks, including qualification approvals to operate the E-meter, before certification.^[56]^[57] Certification is issued exclusively by Scientology organizations, with ongoing proficiency evaluations required to retain authorization. Use is restricted to church-sanctioned auditors, as the device is designated a religious artifact not subject to external licensing or validation. No independent empirical studies or third-party certifications verify the training's efficacy in reliably detecting claimed mental phenomena.^[58]

Theoretical Framework in Scientology

Hubbard's Explanations of Functionality

L. Ron Hubbard introduced the E-meter, or electropsychometer, in the early 1950s as a tool for auditing in Dianetics, asserting that it registered emotional reactions by measuring changes in electrical resistance influenced by mental factors rather than purely physical skin response. In texts such as Electropsychometric Auditing (1952), he described the device as capable of detecting "rapid shifts in density of a body under the influence" of mental processes, specifically linking needle deflections to "mental image pictures"—three-dimensional recordings of past experiences stored in the reactive mind.^[59] Hubbard claimed these pictures, when containing "engram charge" from unresolved traumata, produced measurable electrical effects during recall, allowing auditors to identify and discharge such charge to alleviate spiritual distress.^[51] Hubbard emphasized that the E-meter did not merely gauge bodily resistance but responded to the thetan's (immortal spiritual being's) efforts and intentions, such as attempts to withhold or confront mental masses. In Dianetics Today (1975, drawing from 1950s-1960s lectures), he explained that meter reads occurred due to "thetan's effort to remember" or control reactive mind content, positing that mental mass possessed physical properties affecting conductivity between the electrode-holding hands. This framework positioned the device as an exteriorized indicator of interior spiritual dynamics, with floating needles signifying released charge from engrams.^[60] By the 1960s, Hubbard refined these explanations in advanced Scientology materials, attributing certain persistent reads to past-life traumata and clusters of "body thetans"—disembodied spirits attached to the preclear's body or mind. He instructed that such reads, often "rock slams" or instant free needles, revealed hidden spiritual influences from prior existences or parasitic thetans, which auditing could address to achieve higher states like Operating Thetan.^[22] These claims extended the E-meter's purported sensitivity beyond current-life engrams to detect and resolve multi-lifetime spiritual encumbrances, integral to processes outlined in confidential Operating Thetan levels introduced around 1966-1967.^[61]

Claims Regarding Mental and Spiritual Detection

Scientology teachings assert that the E-meter detects changes in electrical resistance corresponding to variations in mental mass and energy linked to thoughts, mental image pictures, and past experiences. According to L. Ron Hubbard, these pictures possess measurable mass and energy, which the device registers with precision during auditing to reveal spiritual states otherwise below awareness.^[60] Specific needle movements are interpreted as indicators of mental and spiritual conditions. A "rock slam," described by Hubbard as a wild, irregular slashing of the needle left and right across the dial, signals the presence of evil intentions or purposes, often attributed to suppressive persons, evil purposes, or influences from body thetans requiring targeted auditing to handle.^[62] In contrast, a "floating needle" manifests as a free, rhythmic, wide-sweeping motion of the needle, signifying the discharge of reactive mind charge, emotional release, and the successful conclusion of an auditing process, with the individual experiencing relief from spiritual encumbrances.^[63] The E-meter is claimed to pinpoint exact locations of spiritual aberrations, engrams, or areas of travail, enabling auditors to isolate and address them methodically. Pre-FDA interventions in 1963, Scientology promoted auditing sessions using the device as a means to alleviate diseases by clearing underlying spiritual causes, though subsequent doctrine reframed its application strictly as a religious tool for spiritual counseling, disclaiming any diagnostic or therapeutic effects on physical ailments.^[7]^[60] On the Bridge to Total Freedom, the E-meter's purported accuracy in detecting subtle reads is said to expedite progress toward higher Operating Thetan levels by ensuring precise handling of spiritual barriers, with advanced models enhancing sensitivity for faster enlightenment.^[64]

Disclaimers and Religious Artifact Status

Following the settlement of legal actions initiated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in the early 1970s, E-meters manufactured and distributed by the Church of Scientology were mandated to include explicit disclaimers on the device and its packaging, stating that the instrument "is not medically or scientifically useful for the diagnosis, treatment or prevention of any disease."^[19] These labels were imposed to restrict the E-meter's application to religious contexts, reflecting a formal pivot from Hubbard's prior characterizations of the device as a tool for detecting psychosomatic conditions and engrams with quasi-scientific precision.^[65] Church of Scientology directives, including policy issuances from L. Ron Hubbard in the late 1970s, reinforced this boundary by stipulating the E-meter's exclusive role in spiritual counseling within auditing, prohibiting any implication of therapeutic or diagnostic efficacy outside ecclesiastical use. This doctrinal emphasis emerged amid regulatory scrutiny, underscoring a reorientation toward framing the device as integral to religious sacrament rather than empirical instrumentation. In contemporary Church doctrine, the E-meter is designated a "religious artifact" functioning as a "spiritual guide" to aid ministers in identifying areas of spiritual upset or "charge" below conscious awareness during confessional-like sessions.^[60]^[51] Participants in auditing execute agreements affirming the practice's religious character, acknowledging no guarantees of results and releasing the Church from liability for psychological or physical effects.^[49] This positioning aligns with the Church's assertion of First Amendment protections, positioning the E-meter as a protected element of faith practice rather than a verifiable scientific apparatus.

Scientific Scrutiny and Empirical Assessment

Measurements and Physiological Basis

The E-meter records fluctuations in the electrical resistance of the skin between two tin electrodes typically held in the subject's hands, operating on principles identical to galvanic skin response (GSR) or electrodermal activity (EDA) measurement devices. These changes arise primarily from variations in the activity of eccrine sweat glands, which are densely distributed on the palms and soles and exclusively innervated by the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system.^[66]^[67] Sympathetic activation, such as during states of emotional or cognitive arousal, prompts sudorific secretion that increases skin conductance by providing ions that facilitate current flow, thereby decreasing measured resistance.^[68] The device's needle deflection reflects phasic responses—transient spikes lasting 2–10 seconds with latencies of 0.5–3 seconds following a stimulus—and tonic baseline shifts, both nonspecific indicators of autonomic arousal rather than valence-specific emotions or thoughts.^[69] These signals are highly sensitive to extraneous physiological factors, including skin hydration, ambient temperature, electrode pressure, and overall moisture levels, which can produce artifacts mimicking arousal-related deflections.^[66] Standard psychophysiological research confirms that EDA/GSR captures generalized sympathetic nervous system mobilization, akin to responses in polygraph testing or biofeedback, without detecting unique neural, cognitive, or purported metaphysical phenomena beyond this broad arousal metric.^[70] Variability in response amplitude and habituation rates further underscores the influence of individual differences in sweat gland density and baseline conductance, typically ranging from 0.5–50 microsiemens in resting adults.^[71] No empirical evidence supports claims of the E-meter registering "spiritual mass" or engram-specific signals, as such interpretations diverge from verifiable bioelectric mechanisms rooted in sweat-mediated conductivity.^[68]

Studies and Lack of Validation

No peer-reviewed scientific studies have demonstrated the E-meter's ability to detect engrams, thetans, or specific mental states as claimed by L. Ron Hubbard.^[72] Technical analyses confirm the device measures only galvanic skin response (GSR) via changes in skin resistance, a nonspecific physiological reaction triggered by any arousal, such as pain, noise, or anticipation, rather than targeted spiritual phenomena.^[1] Informal tests in the 1960s and 1970s, including those by independent researchers, replicated GSR fluctuations but found no correlation with Hubbard's purported diagnostic precision for subconscious content.^[6] In the 1960s, U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) evaluations of seized E-meters established that the instrument operates as a basic Wheatstone bridge circuit, functioning as a differential ohmmeter to quantify electrical resistance between electrodes held by the subject, typically ranging from 500,000 to 10 million ohms under normal conditions.^[73] FDA examiners noted that needle movements result from sweat-induced conductivity changes but observed no evidence of therapeutic efficacy or the detection of abstract psychological constructs beyond rudimentary bioelectric monitoring.^[73] These assessments aligned with established biophysics, where GSR variations reflect autonomic nervous system activity without specificity for cognitive or spiritual processes.^[6] Recent technical dissections, such as a 2018 teardown of a Scientology E-meter model, reveal standard analog components—including resistors, capacitors, and a nulling circuit—yielding no advanced features capable of discerning engrams or thetan influences, only amplifying skin resistance signals for visual display.^[74] Such analyses underscore the device's simplicity as a precision resistance meter, lacking empirical support for Hubbard's assertions of metaphysical sensitivity. Overall, empirical testing has consistently failed to validate claims of diagnostic or curative powers, attributing observed effects to nonspecific GSR artifacts.

Criticisms from Skeptics and Researchers

Skeptics and independent researchers classify the E-meter as pseudoscience, contending that its measurements of skin resistance reflect general emotional or physiological arousal rather than specific thoughts, engrams, or past-life incidents as interpreted in Scientology auditing.^[75] The device's needle movements, akin to those in unreliable polygraphs, are inherently ambiguous and influenced by factors such as hand pressure, moisture, or subconscious muscle tension, lacking any validated capacity to detect spiritual entities or mental "charge."^[75]^[22] A primary criticism centers on confirmation bias in auditor interpretations, where practitioners selectively attribute needle deflections to confirm Hubbard's theoretical constructs, disregarding random variations or null readings that contradict expected outcomes.^[75] Robert Todd Carroll, in The Skeptic's Dictionary, argues that this subjective reading process creates an illusion of precision, luring participants deeper into Scientology by simulating scientific detection of unverifiable phenomena, much like cold reading techniques in pseudopsychology.^[75] Psychological risks highlighted by critics include heightened suggestibility during sessions, fostering dependency on repeated auditing for perceived "gains" and potentially implanting false memories through leading questions paired with meter feedback.^[75] Carroll likens auditing effects to placebo responses or hypnotic suggestion, where emotional catharsis occurs independently of the device but is falsely credited to it, risking emotional destabilization or rejection of conventional mental health support.^[75] Ex-Scientologists and skeptics further note that prolonged reliance can exacerbate isolation from external validation, as meter "reads" reinforce insular beliefs over empirical self-assessment.^[76] Economic critiques from researchers portray the E-meter's mandatory role in costly auditing—often thousands of dollars per intensive course—as a mechanism for financial exploitation, tying progression to proprietary hardware and secretive training unavailable outside Church control.^[75] This structure, skeptics argue, prioritizes revenue over efficacy, with device costs inflated far beyond comparable electronics (e.g., basic Wheatstone bridges valued under $200), deterring independent verification.^[22]

Legal and Regulatory Challenges

United States FDA Litigation

In January 1963, agents of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), accompanied by U.S. Marshals, raided offices of the Founding Church of Scientology in Washington, D.C., seizing approximately 100 E-meters and over two tons of related printed materials.^[10] ^[9] The FDA initiated the action under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, alleging that the devices were misbranded as medical instruments due to labeling and promotional claims asserting they could diagnose and treat physical and mental conditions, including some units marked as "lie detectors."^[7] ^[8] The ensuing litigation, spanning from 1963 to 1971 and marking the longest case in FDA history at the time, centered on whether the E-meter qualified as a regulated medical device capable of the claimed therapeutic effects.^[8] In the district court ruling United States v. Article or Device, etc. (333 F. Supp. 357, D.D.C. 1971), the court determined that the E-meter's labeling promoted it with false or misleading statements regarding its ability to alleviate reactive mental states or improve bodily functions, lacking scientific substantiation for medical efficacy.^[7] ^[77] Following appeals, the case resolved in July 1971 with the return of the seized E-meters ordered by the court, permitting their continued use by Scientology exclusively as a religious artifact for spiritual counseling.^[78] The settlement required prominent disclaimers on the devices and packaging, stating that the E-meter "by itself does no diagnosing, relieving, or curing of any physical or mental condition or defect" and is intended solely for "ministerial" purposes in the religion of Scientology, with no medical or scientific validation of its effects.^[7] This agreement delineated permissible religious applications from prohibited medical assertions, setting a regulatory boundary that precluded curative claims while avoiding an outright ban.^[79]

International Regulatory Actions

In 1965, the Board of Enquiry into Scientology in the Australian state of Victoria, chaired by Kevin Victor Anderson QC, published its report after investigating the organization's practices, including the E-meter, which it deemed electrically simple and incapable of measuring mental states or providing therapeutic benefits, labeling it "worthless" for claimed purposes.^[2] The inquiry concluded that Scientology posed a serious danger to mental health, prompting Victoria to enact the Psychological Practices Act 1965, which criminalized the use of devices like the E-meter for diagnosing or treating mental conditions without medical qualifications, though enforcement faced constitutional challenges and the law was later repealed in 1981.^[80] In Sweden, regulatory action began in the 1970s when the Consumer Ombudsman challenged Scientology's 1973 advertisement promoting the E-meter as a tool for detecting emotional and spiritual issues, leading to a 1979 Swedish Market Court injunction that prohibited misleading claims about its diagnostic or curative capabilities to protect consumers from unsubstantiated assertions.^[81] The Church of Scientology appealed to the European Commission of Human Rights in X. and Church of Scientology v. Sweden (1980), which upheld the restrictions as proportionate measures under consumer protection laws, not violating freedom of expression or religion, though it noted the device's religious use was not directly banned.^[81] France pursued multiple investigations into Scientology from the mid-1990s, classifying it as a potentially dangerous sect in a 1995 parliamentary report, which escalated scrutiny of practices including E-meter sessions sold as personality assessments.^[82] This culminated in a 2009 Paris criminal court ruling convicting the Church and six members of organized fraud for pressuring recruits to purchase E-meters—priced at around 1,500 euros each—as essential diagnostic tools while concealing their lack of medical validity, resulting in a 600,000-euro fine on the organization and suspended prison sentences for individuals.^[83] Appeals in 2012 and 2013 upheld the fraud findings but acquitted on some charges, emphasizing consumer deception over outright religious prohibition.^[82] These cases illustrate divergent regulatory approaches prioritizing fraud prevention and public safeguards against pseudoscientific claims, often without dissolving organizations or banning devices entirely, in deference to religious freedoms under frameworks like the European Convention on Human Rights.^[81]

Contemporary Legal Status and Proprietary Controls

In the United States, the E-meter remains classified as a religious artifact rather than a medical device under ongoing Food and Drug Administration (FDA) oversight, stemming from a 1971 consent decree that permits its sale and use exclusively for spiritual counseling provided it bears prominent disclaimers stating it is not a curative apparatus and has no proven efficacy for diagnosing or treating disease.^[65] Sales are restricted to trained Scientology practitioners through church-affiliated distribution centers, requiring purchasers to sign agreements acknowledging the device's non-medical status and waiving any liability claims related to its use.^[47] These controls reinforce exclusivity, as independent third-party manufacturing or distribution is prohibited to maintain doctrinal purity. The Religious Technology Center (RTC), which holds trademarks for Scientology technologies including the E-meter, enforces proprietary protections to prevent unauthorized replication or modification, even after any original patents lapsed decades ago.^[84] Globally, religious exemptions shield the device from medical device regulations in jurisdictions recognizing Scientology's status, such as Australia and the United Kingdom, allowing continued ecclesiastical use without therapeutic claims, though import restrictions apply in some countries like Germany where Scientology faces broader scrutiny.^[84] In 2023, Author Services Inc.—managing L. Ron Hubbard's literary estate and affiliated with Scientology—opposed expansions to U.S. Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) repair exemptions before the Copyright Office, arguing that circumvention of software locks on modern E-meters (such as the Mark VIII model) undermines religious training requirements and could enable misuse by untrained individuals.^[26] This stance aligns with church policies mandating official servicing, effectively limiting right-to-repair access and preserving control over hardware and firmware updates.^[85] No significant regulatory changes have altered these frameworks as of 2024, with the church leveraging trademarks and contractual waivers to deter independent repairs or reproductions.^[84]

References

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The e-meter is simply a high-precision differential ohmmeter. Changes in the person's resistance are indicated by the meter movement.Missing: evaluation | Show results with:evaluation
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Mar 31, 2024 · Technically, the E-meter is a modified ohm meter measuring the galvanic skin response of the user—changes in the skin's electrical resistance, ...
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Volney G. Mathison (1897-1965) was an American chiropractor, writer, and inventor. His electropsycometer, which the Church of Scientology termed an E-meter, ...Missing: L Ron Hubbard<|separator|>
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The E-meter is claimed to be a device within the meaning of the *359 Act. Misbranding and lack of adequate directions for use are alleged. Claimants are the ...
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Armed with the results of its lengthy investigation, the FDA chose to pursue action against the Founding Church for violations relating to the E-meter. On ...
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This case was tried before a jury on two charges: that the E meter was misbranded in that its "labeling" made false or misleading claims concerning the ...
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[11]
The Electrodermal System (Chapter 10)
In the same laboratory, Féré (Reference Féré1888) found that skin resistance would momentarily decrease in response to a variety of discrete sensory stimuli ...<|separator|>
[12]
Galvanic Skin Response Features in Psychiatry and Mental Disorders
Oct 18, 2022 · This method was initiated by Fere, who described the galvanic skin response (GSR) in 1888. He found that external or internal stimuli result ...Missing: Charles | Show results with:Charles
[13]
Discoverers of the Galvanic Skin Response - ResearchGate
Aug 7, 2025 · Þ 1890 -French physician Charles Féré and Russian physiologist Ivan Tarchanof jointly discover the galvanic skin response test, which is still ...
[14]
Electrodermal activity (EDA) | Research Starters - EBSCO
French neurologist Charles Féré was another early investigator of the phenomenon. Féré used an exosomatic method to measure skin conductance levels in response ...
[15]
Electrodermal Activity - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Electrodermal activity (EDA; formerly galvanic skin response [GSR]) captures changes in the activity of the eccrine sweat glands, which exist throughout the ...
[16]
Mathison Electropsychometer - National Museum of American History
Mathison Electropsychometer ... Description: Volney G. Mathison (1897-1965) was an American chiropractor, writer, and inventor. His electropsycometer, which the ...
[17]
Volney G. Mathison (1897-1965)-Part 6 - Tellers of Weird Tales
Mar 4, 2012 · Smaller than Mathison's version and powered by batteries, the new device was dubbed the "Hubbard E-meter" and Scientology no longer needed the ...
[18]
Scientology: 'Electropsychometer' invented by Volney G. Mathison
Measuring the degree of psychic trauma is the function of a new machine called the "Electropsychometer" which was devised by Inventor Volney G. Mathison who is ...
[19]
[PDF] METER IN SCIENTOLOGY TEACHINGS
The final section addresses the criticism of Scientology as pseudoscientific (and of the E-meter as pseudotechnology), as well as sev- eral symbolical values ...Missing: evaluation | Show results with:evaluation
[20]
The Church of Scientology: A History of a New Religion ...
In 1954, Mathison and Hubbard had a falling-out, and use of the Mathison meter was discontinued. However, Hubbard soon introduced a new device, with minor ...
[21]
Scientology FAQs: What is the E-Meter and how does it work? E ...
Dec 6, 2024 · He patented his device in 1954 as an electropsychometer or E-meter,[17] and it came to be known as the "Mathison Electropsychometer".[18] In ...Missing: history | Show results with:history<|separator|>
[22]
Secrets of Scientology: The E-Meter
Tests conclusively show that an individual's emotional state, his thoughts, etc., instantly raise or lower the electrical resistance of the body. Thus the ...By L. Ron Hubbard · Candid Introduction · Operating The MeterMissing: evaluation | Show results with:evaluation
[23]
Mark VIII Ultra E-Meter REVEALED | www.scientology-cult.com
Feb 13, 2010 · Here is the story. During the evolution to create the Mark Super VII Quantum, the idea began to create a new E-meter using digital technology.
[24]
https://www.lowendbox.com/blog/the-reason-scientology-is-fighting-right-to-repair-that-no-one-is-talking-about/
[25]
$$5850: The Updated 2022 Price for a New Scientology E-Meter with ...
Jan 29, 2022 · The 2022 price for the current Scientology e-meter is $5850. This includes the e-meter, cans, case, and the troubleshooting kit.
[26]
L. Ron Hubbard's Estate Is Against Right To Repair For ... - Techdirt.
Sep 1, 2023 · Basically, because we say the e-meter needs special training, people shouldn't be able to take it apart. Remember, the Church of Scientology is ...
[27]
'Right to Repair' Has a New Enemy: Scientologists | PetaPixel
Sep 1, 2023 · In a somewhat surprising turn of events, a group connected with Scientology has come out with anti-right to repair arguments.
[28]
basic e-meter
The basic e-meter uses a wheatstone bridge, instrumentation amp, diodes, capacitors, and a 100µA meter movement. It's for home use, auditing, or ...Missing: electronic | Show results with:electronic
[29]
L. Ron Hubbard's E-Meter Patent
This invention relates to resistance measuring or indicating devices and is concerned more especially, but not exclusively, with devices for indicating ...
[30]
E-Meter Circuit
The E-Meter Circuit. The following is a detailing of the complete circuit for an E-Meter. This is placed in the public domain for use without restriction.Missing: electronic | Show results with:electronic
[31]
Why L. Ron Hubbard Patented His E-Meter - IEEE Spectrum
Technically, the E-meter is a modified ohm meter measuring the galvanic skin response of the user—changes in the skin's electrical resistance, that is. Galvanic ...
[32]
Secrets of Scientology: The E-Meter
Set the tone arm at 2.0, the sensitivity at 16, and adjust the trim knob until the needle is exactly at the "set" position. Now replace this resistor with the ...Setting Up an E-Meter · Tone Arm Motion and No... · Tone Arm Motion and Body...
[33]
How E-meter works for Dummies - iMeter
You can imagine that e-meter is measuring and indicates PC resistance somewhere on the whole range of human resistance. And Tone Arm only moves the needle ...
[34]
Electrodermal Response - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Electrodermal activity has also been designated as the galvanic skin response (GSR), a monitor of the degree of electrical current that flows through the skin ...Missing: meter | Show results with:meter
[35]
A Stress Sensor Based on Galvanic Skin Response (GSR ... - NIH
We have designed a Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) device in order to detect the different conductance of the skin when a person is under stress or when not.
[36]
[PDF] History of Lie Detection - Scholarly Commons
Trovillo, History of Lie Detection, 30 Am. Inst. Crim. L. & Criminology 104 (1939-1940). Page 2. A HISTORY OF LIE DETECTION. PAUL V. TRoIrLLOt. (Concluded from ...
[37]
Larson Constructs the First Modern Polygraph | Research Starters
The first modern polygraph, created by John A. Larson in the early 1920s, marked a significant advancement in the use of scientific instruments for lie ...
[38]
History and Evolution of Polygraph Use in Law Enforcement
May 17, 2025 · In 1936, he added the “Psychogalvanometer” to it, allowing him to monitor changes in the skin's electrical resistance. For the next three ...
[39]
Technologies in the twilight zone: early lie detectors, machine ...
Mar 4, 2020 · Not only was he the inventor of a new form of lie detector, the psychogalvanometer which measured electrical currents rather than heartbeat, he ...
[40]
Electrodermal Response - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
A history of lie detection · 2015, Fundamentals of Polygraph Practice ... The e-meter and polygraph are also versions of a GSR which are widely used ...
[41]
Correlation Analysis of Different Measurement Places of Galvanic ...
Jun 19, 2021 · Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) Also known as EDA, GSR is a measuring unit of surface resistance skin or conductivity. It can be measured by ...Missing: meter | Show results with:meter
[42]
Galvanic Skin Response (GSR) Sensor Guide - EDN Network
May 23, 2022 · A GSR sensor allows us to measure sweat gland activity, which is related to emotional arousal. So, to measure GSR, we take advantage of the electrical ...
[43]
How the E-Meter Works - Scientology
Using the meter, the auditor ensures that the process covers the correct area in order to discharge the harmful energy connected with that portion of the ...
[44]
How do Scientologists find time for training and auditing? - Quora
Apr 9, 2015 · Scientology auditing is sold in 12.5 hour blocks called intensives and they try very hard to schedule auditing so that you are receiving at ...
[45]
The Auditing Session - Scientology
A session is conducted at an agreed-upon time established by the auditor and preclear (or group). ... How the E-Meter Works · How an Auditing Session Is Conducted.Missing: responses | Show results with:responses
[46]
E-Meter and OT Auditing - Vinaire's Blog
Feb 10, 2020 · E-meter still is a handy device when auditing new people on the lower grades in Scientology. But as the person moves up the Grade Chart, the ...
[47]
The Secret E-Meter - Mike Rinder's Blog
Apr 17, 2024 · The E-Meter, or “electropsychometer,” is described by the Church of Scientology as a “religious artifact” for the purpose of “auditing” members.
[48]
What's Inside a $5,000 Scientology E-Meter? - VICE
Jul 19, 2018 · There have been several versions of the E-Meter produced by the Church of Scientology, which sells E-Meters to members for thousands of dollars apiece.
[49]
The E-Meter - Scientology
The E-Meter measures the spiritual state or change of state of a person and thus is of enormous benefit to the auditor in helping the preclear locate areas to ...Missing: scientific | Show results with:scientific<|separator|>
[50]
OT III Course, summary and comments
Scientology seeks to return the thetan's power by stripping away implants and using drills to heighten extrasensory perception and ability. The goal of these ...Missing: barriers | Show results with:barriers
[51]
What is the E-Meter and how does it work? - Scientology
The needle reactions on the E-Meter tell the auditor where the charge lies, and that it should be addressed through auditing.<|separator|>
[52]
Secrets of Scientology: The E-Meter
Its retail price in 1995 was US $3,850. It is the standard e-meter in use today. Although the earlier Mark V model is still offered for sale, for auditing on ...
[53]
[PDF] the auditor - IAPSOP.com
and SCIENTOLOGY. Hubbard E-Meter Course. Course Pack, The Book of E-Meter Drills,. Introduction to the E-Meter, E-Meter Essen tials, DIANETICS and ...
[54]
[PDF] E - Meter Drills - Avalon Library
The student auditor must continuously adjust the tone arm so as to place the needle in the set position area on the needle dial.Missing: calibration | Show results with:calibration
[55]
Scientology's Secrets: The TRs
The TRs (Training Routines) are part of the most basic Scientology training, and are repeated to increasingly stringent standards at higher levels.
[56]
[PDF] Qualifications Division 5 (CORRECTION DIVISION) - TEP-Online
1961 Training Course Requirements. Vol. 4-306. 30 July ... A student who did not pass his certification E-Meter check is routed back to the Qualifications.
[57]
[PDF] Technical Bulletins - Avalon Library
Dec 12, 1981 · d) HUBBARD E-METER COURSE e) QUAL OK TO OPERATE AN E-METER f) QUAL OK TO FLY RUDS g) QUAL OK TO ASSESS PREPARED LISTS h) HUBBARD MINI WORD ...
[58]
Hubbard Professional Metering Course - Church of Scientology?
Gaining such a grasp of the E-Meter and its use first entails an understanding of the theory of both how the E-Meter works and its purpose in a session.Missing: certification | Show results with:certification
[59]
Electropsychometric Auditing (1952) PDF - Scribd
Rating 5.0 (1) Electropsychometer, the only instrument of its kind and the only instrument capable of measuring the rapid shifts in density of a body under the influence ...
[60]
The E-Meter® | Religious Technology Center
In Dianetics and Scientology, auditors use the E-Meter to help isolate areas of spiritual travail or upset that exist below a person's current awareness.
[61]
4 E-METER METAPHYSICS | The Affect Lab | Manifold@UMinnPress
This chapter examines how Hubbard relied on a specific technology, an “electropsychometer” or “E-Meter” (Figure 33), to transform his therapy into a religion ...Psychoanalysis As Self-Help · Scientology Versus Dianetics · A Machine To See Cosmic...
[62]
HCOB: Rock Slams and Rock Slammers
Nov 1, 1978 · An R/S or rock slam is defined as the crazy, irregular, left-right slashing motion of the needle on the E-Meter dial. R/Ses repeat left and ...
[63]
The Language of Scientology -- ARC, SPs, PTPs and BTs
"floating needle" -- a needle on the E-meter that is lazily floating back and forth across the dial; this means that nothing in the reactive mind is ...
[64]
Golden Age of Tech Phase II: The Scientology Bridge to Total Freedom
THE SCIENTOLOGY BRIDGE TO TOTAL FREEDOM. NOVEMBER 17, 2013. It was the most monumental weekend in ... “I loved what COB said about the E-Meter being your ...
[65]
[PDF] 90 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
Sep 29, 1971 · The device known as a Hubbard Electro- meter, or E-meter, used in auditing, a proc- ess of Scientology and Dianetics, has been condemned by ...Missing: settlement | Show results with:settlement
[66]
[PDF] EDA Guide - BIOPAC
The physiological basis of EDA is an autonomic. (involuntary) reaction that occurs in the skin and subcutaneous tissue in response to changes in affect.
[67]
All About EDA Part 1: Introduction to Electrodermal Activity
Dec 21, 2017 · When a person sweats, the conductivity of their skin changes, and activation of eccrine sweat glands is an established indicator of sympathetic ...
[68]
Galvanic Skin Response (GSR)/Electrodermal/Skin Conductance ...
Apr 24, 2019 · In all studies, GSR biofeedback was given to increase sympathetic activity. “Positive” visual feedback was given to indicate the desired ...
[69]
Behavioral Triggers of Skin Conductance Responses and Their ...
The skin conductance response (SCR) is an indirect measure of sympathetic autonomic activity that is associated with both emotion and attention. In humans, the ...
[70]
Electrodermal Response - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
Electrodermal responses (EDR) refer to changes in skin conductance that reflect emotional reactivity and autonomic nervous system arousal, often measured ...
[71]
https://imotions.com/blog/learning/research-fundamentals/gsr/
[72]
[PDF] What Is Wrong With Scientology Healing Through Un
The core techniques—auditing, purification programs, and the use of the E-meter—lack empirical validation, making their claims of health benefits highly.
[73]
[PDF] FDA Oral History Interview, Goodrich
Oct 15, 1986 · The device, you remember, was a couple of juice cans the E-Meter, that you'd hold in your hands, and the sweat would generate this ...
[74]
What's Inside A Scientology E-Meter? - Hackaday
Jul 19, 2018 · The E-Meter is simply a device that costs five thousand dollars and only measures the resistance of the human body.<|separator|>
[75]
e-meter - eletro-psychometer - The Skeptic's Dictionary - Skepdic.com
Jan 15, 2014 · An important part of a Scientology auditing session is the E-meter. It lures people into Scientology and, for some, gives a scientific basis ...
[76]
What About the E-Meter? - Mike Rinder's Blog
Jul 3, 2017 · I noted that each time I would induce a trance state, The Mark V would display an F/N, and when I'd switch to the brain wave analyzer I'd find ...
[77]
United States v. An Article … “Hubbard Electrometer” - Quimbee
333 F. Supp. 357 (1971). MP. Written by Mary Phelan D'Isa, JD. Facts. In 1962, the Food and Drug Administration seized more than 100 E-meters and 200 pieces of ...
[78]
SCIENTOLOGY WINS APPEAL ON METER - The New York Times
Jul 31, 1971 · Fed Dist Judge G A Gesell condemns use of 'E-meter' but permits Ch of Scientology to continue using instrument in its religious practices; ...
[79]
Scientology | The First Amendment Encyclopedia
Aug 4, 2023 · After agents of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration seized e-meters and church publications in 1963, a federal appeals court decided in ...
[80]
06 Oct 1965 - Scientology evil threat to community, says investigator
E-meter or similar electrical. device. 'Dubious. benefit'. The dubious and tempor. ary benefit which some. people claimed to have. received from Scientology.
[81]
[PDF] Free Expression and EC Restrictions on Tobacco and Alcohol ...
Upon application of the Consumer Ombudsman, the. Swedish Market Court granted an injunction prohibiting the use of certain descriptions of the E-meter, such ...
[82]
French Scientologists lose appeal of fraud conviction - France 24
Oct 16, 2013 · The French branch of the Church of Scientology was found guilty of organised fraud in 2009, a ruling that was upheld in a February 2012 appeal.Missing: raids E- meter
[83]
French court convicts Church of Scientology of fraud - CNN.com
Oct 27, 2009 · French court convicts, fines Church of Scientology and six members of organized fraud ... Members used the electropsychometer, or E-Meter ...Missing: raids 1995-2009
[84]
Trademarks of Dianetics and Scientology
Religious Technology Center (RTC) uses trademark registration to protect Scientology and Dianetics names, symbols, technologies and materials, ...
[85]
Scientologists Ask Federal Government to Restrict Right to Repair
Aug 31, 2023 · Ron Hubbard has filed a petition with the Federal Government, asking it to make it illegal to circumvent software locks for the repair of a ...