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Earwig

Earwigs are elongate, flattened insects belonging to the order Dermaptera, readily identified by their prominent forceps-like cerci at the tip of the abdomen, which are used for defense, prey capture, and mating rituals.^[1] These nocturnal omnivores, typically reddish-brown to black in color and measuring about 1/2 to 3/4 inch in length, inhabit moist, cool environments worldwide, with about 2,000 species exhibiting the greatest diversity in tropical regions.^[2]^[3]^[4] The most common species in North America, the European earwig (Forficula auricularia), features a dark red head, lighter brown legs, long slender antennae, and chewing mouthparts, with males possessing more curved cerci than females.^[1]^[2] Adults and nymphs (which resemble smaller, wingless versions of adults) undergo incomplete metamorphosis, with one generation per year in temperate climates; females exhibit notable parental care by guarding egg clusters—typically 20 to 90 smooth, oval eggs laid in soil burrows—and tending to early-instar nymphs.^[3]^[1] While many earwigs are wingless or rarely fly despite having reduced forewings and fan-like hindwings, they are agile nocturnal foragers that hide in cracks, mulch, or under debris during the day.^[1] In terms of ecology, earwigs play a dual role as both predators and occasional herbivores: they consume dead plant matter, fungi, lichens, and soft-bodied prey such as aphids, mites, and insect eggs, thereby providing biological control in some agricultural settings.^[3]^[1] They thrive in damp habitats like gardens, woodlands, and urban areas, often migrating indoors during dry spells, and overwinter as eggs or adults in soil below the frost line.^[1]^[2] Despite folklore suggesting they enter human ears, earwigs pose no such threat and rarely bite, using their cerci primarily for non-aggressive purposes.^[3]

Classification and Nomenclature

Etymology

The scientific name for the order of earwigs, Dermaptera, was coined by the Swedish entomologist Charles De Geer in 1773 and derives from the Ancient Greek words derma (δέρμα), meaning "skin," and ptera (πτέρα), meaning "wings," in reference to the leathery texture of the insects' forewings.^[5] This nomenclature highlights the characteristic hardened, skin-like tegmina that distinguish earwigs from related insect groups.^[6] The common English name "earwig" originates from the Old English compound ēarewīcga, formed from ēare ("ear") and wīcga ("beetle," "worm," or "insect"), reflecting an ancient European superstition that these creatures could enter human ears to cause harm.^[7] This etymological root appears in early English texts and persists in folklore associating earwigs with auditory mischief, though the belief lacks scientific basis.^[8] Similar ear-related connotations appear in other languages, underscoring a shared cultural perception across Europe; for instance, the French term perce-oreille translates to "ear-piercer," while the German Ohrwurm means "ear worm."^[9] These variations emphasize the insect's forceps-like cerci, often mythically linked to ear intrusion, and trace back to medieval linguistic traditions.^[9] In scientific literature, the naming evolved from Carl Linnaeus's 1758 classification in Systema Naturae, where he placed the common earwig (Forficula auricularia) within the genus Forficula under the order Dermapteri, building toward De Geer's formalized order name.^[10] This progression marked a shift from descriptive genus-level taxonomy to a dedicated ordinal classification focused on wing and appendage traits.^[5]

Taxonomy

Earwigs constitute the order Dermaptera within the class Insecta and subclass Polyneoptera, encompassing approximately 2,111 extant species distributed across 12 families as of 2025.^[11] The order is divided into extinct suborders such as Archidermaptera and Eodermaptera, with all extant species belonging to the suborder Neodermaptera. Neodermaptera includes infraorders Forficulina (the majority of species, comprising free-living terrestrial forms) and the ectoparasitic Arixeniina (associated with bats) and Hemimerina (associated with rodents).^[13] Forficulina further subdivides into multiple superfamilies and families, reflecting diverse ecological adaptations ranging from free-living terrestrial forms to specialized parasitic lifestyles in Arixeniina and Hemimerina.^[13] Prominent families within Dermaptera include Forficulidae, known for common earwigs such as Forficula auricularia, which is widespread in temperate regions; Labiidae, featuring elongated bodies and often tropical distributions; and Chelisochidae, characterized by robust forms in various habitats.^[14] These families represent key lineages in the Forficulina infraorder, with Forficulidae alone accounting for numerous cosmopolitan species.^[15] Taxonomic revisions in 2025 have refined regional classifications, including a comprehensive catalogue of Mexican Dermaptera that documents six families (Anisolabididae, Forficulidae, Haplodiplatyidae, Labiidae, Spongiphoridae, and Chelisochidae) across 22 genera and 34 species, while adding two new nomina dubia to address nomenclatural uncertainties.^[16] Similarly, a study on Italian earwigs integrated morphological traits and molecular data (from COI and 28S genes) to clarify the taxonomy and evolutionary history of five endemic Forficula species, confirming their distinct statuses and highlighting cryptic diversity within Forficulidae.^[17] Identification of earwigs relies on distinguishing characteristics such as variations in cerci shape across families; for instance, Forficulidae exhibit strongly curved, forceps-like cerci in males for defensive and mating functions, while Labiidae and Chelisochidae show more asymmetrical or elongated forms adapted to their environments.^[18] These cerci, modified abdominal appendages, provide critical diagnostic traits, often differing markedly between sexes and species within families.^[19]

Phylogeny

The order Dermaptera is firmly placed within the Polyneoptera clade, a major lineage of hemimetabolous insects characterized by specific wing venation and embryonic traits. Recent molecular phylogenies from the 2020s, incorporating large-scale transcriptomic and genomic data, position Zoraptera as the earliest-diverging polyneopteran order, with Dermaptera forming a monophyletic clade sister to Plecoptera (stoneflies), supported by shared morphological features like ovipositor loss and cerci modifications.^[20] Alternative analyses suggest Dermaptera as sister to all other Polyneoptera excluding Zoraptera, highlighting ongoing resolution through expanded datasets.^[21] Cladistic analyses based on both morphological and molecular characters consistently recover Neodermaptera—the suborder encompassing all extant earwigs—as a monophyletic group, distinct from extinct basal lineages like Archidermaptera and Protodermaptera. This clade is characterized by key autapomorphies, including the fusion of cerci into unsegmented forceps and tegminous forewings. Neodermaptera emerged during the Cretaceous period, with stem-group fossils bridging earlier Jurassic forms and confirming their diversification alongside angiosperm radiation.^[22] Recent studies from 2024–2025 integrating morphological traits (e.g., genital structures and wing venation) with molecular data, such as mitochondrial COI and 16S rRNA genes alongside nuclear markers like 28S rDNA, have refined family-level relationships within Neodermaptera. These analyses confirm 12 extant families, with Pygidicranidae and Anisolabididae as basal, and Forficulidae as a derived, species-rich group; they resolve ambiguities in epizoic lineages like Arixeniidae and Hemimeridae as nested within the tree.^[17] Such combined approaches mitigate long-branch attraction artifacts common in earwig mitogenomes.^[23] Hypotheses on ancestral traits propose that the forceps-like cerci of Dermaptera evolved from multi-segmented, sensory cerci present in the polyneopteran groundplan, with fusion into a single robust cercomere occurring in the Neodermaptera ancestor alongside the loss of a functional ovipositor. This modification likely facilitated novel functions in defense, prey capture, and male-male combat, while retaining roles in egg-laying assistance in females.^[4] Fossil evidence briefly supports these branches through transitional forms exhibiting intermediate cerci segmentation.^[24]

Evolutionary History

Fossil Record

The fossil record of earwigs (Dermaptera) dates back to the Late Triassic, approximately 208 million years ago, with the oldest undisputed specimens consisting of isolated tegmina from sites in England, Australia, and Kyrgyzstan. These early fossils represent primitive forms assigned to the extinct suborder Archidermaptera, characterized by five-segmented tarsi and other basal traits that distinguish them from later groups.^[25]^[26] Significant fossil accumulations occur in Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits, including compression fossils from the Middle Jurassic Jiulongshan Formation in Inner Mongolia, China, and amber inclusions from Myanmar. The Jiulongshan Formation has preserved early Archidermaptera alongside the extinct family Bellodermatidae, whose members exhibit transitional features such as elongated, undivided cerci that provide key evidence for the stepwise evolution of the forceps-like appendages seen in modern earwigs.^[27]^[22] Myanmar's mid-Cretaceous amber, dating to around 99 million years ago, contains exceptionally preserved specimens, including primitive pygidicranids that reveal details of antennal segmentation, wing venation, and abdominal structures obscured in flattened fossils.^[28] Recent analyses of mid-Cretaceous Myanmar amber have described a new pygidicranid lineage, represented by robust forms with duplicated forceps elements, underscoring previously unrecognized diversity and evolutionary transitions in cerci morphology during this period.^[29] The fossil record also documents extinct suborders like Archidermaptera and Eodermaptera, confined to Mesozoic strata, alongside families such as Protodiplatyidae that highlight early diversification. Post-Cretaceous fossils show a marked decline in winged forms, with Cenozoic records dominated by brachypterous or apterous species, reflecting a shift toward flightlessness in surviving lineages.^[30]^[31]

Evolutionary Relationships

Earwigs (Dermaptera) exhibit notable evolutionary modifications in their cerci, which originated as simple, multi-segmented sensory appendages in ancestral insects but specialized into forceps-like structures over time. In basal lineages such as Protodermaptera, cerci were elongated and annulated, serving primarily sensory functions, whereas in derived groups like Eudermaptera, they became unannulated and forceps-shaped, facilitating defense, prey capture, and reproductive behaviors.^[32] This transition reflects sexual dimorphism, with males typically developing more curved and enlarged cerci for male-male combat and courtship displays. A 2025 study on the maritime earwig Anisolabis maritima revealed positive allometry in female forceps, indicating exaggerated growth beyond body size scaling, likely evolved as weapons for intrasexual competition over mates, challenging prior assumptions of forceps as primarily male traits.^[33] Ancestral earwigs were winged, but modern lineages show frequent shifts to brachyptery or aptery, with approximately 40% of species exhibiting reduced wings, an adaptation linked to island biogeography where flightlessness reduces energy costs and predation risks in isolated habitats.^[34] For instance, flightless species like Anisolabis maritima have successfully colonized volcanic islands, demonstrating how wing loss facilitates dispersal via rafting or human transport in insular environments.^[35] These evolutionary shifts parallel broader patterns in island insects, where reduced dispersal ability promotes endemism and local adaptation.^[36] The historical biogeography of earwigs points to Gondwanan origins around 180–140 million years ago, with vicariance during continental breakup driving the divergence of major clades and shaping current southern hemisphere-dominated distributions.^[31] Dispersal events, such as post-collision migrations from India to Southeast Asia around 50 million years ago, further influenced lineage patterns, though northern hemisphere colonization was limited by climatic barriers and orogenic events like Himalayan uplift.^[31] Phylogenomic analyses confirm monophyletic Protodermaptera nested within paraphyletic Epidermaptera, underscoring these Gondwanan roots and subsequent radiations.^[37] Earwigs endured the end-Cretaceous (K-Pg) mass extinction, with fossil evidence indicating survival of lineages that underwent post-extinction diversification, culminating in approximately 2,000 extant species across 12 families today.^[37] This event, which wiped out many contemporaneous insect groups, likely opened ecological niches for earwig radiation, particularly in tropical regions where diversity peaked.^[31]

Description

External Morphology

Earwigs exhibit an elongated, dorsoventrally flattened body typical of the order Dermaptera, divided into three main segments: head, thorax, and abdomen, with overall lengths ranging from 5 to 50 mm.^[38]^[39] Coloration varies but is predominantly brown to black, often with lighter markings on the legs or pronotum, providing camouflage in leaf litter or soil habitats.^[19]^[38] The head is prognathous, oriented forward, and equipped with chewing mouthparts adapted for an omnivorous diet, including mandibles for grasping plant material and prey.^[19] Compound eyes are present on the sides of the head, providing wide visual coverage, while antennae are filiform—thread-like and segmented—with 10 to 25 antennomeres in most adults, serving as sensory organs for detecting environmental cues.^[19]^[5] The thorax consists of three tagmata: pro-, meso-, and metathorax, each bearing a pair of legs suited for walking or burrowing. Forewings are modified into short, leathery tegmina that cover and protect the larger, membranous hindwings, which fold fan-like beneath them when at rest.^[19] Many species are brachypterous, with reduced wings, or apterous (wingless), limiting flight capability in favor of terrestrial lifestyles, though winged forms can unfold hindwings for short flights.^[38]^[19] The abdomen typically comprises 8 to 10 visible segments (8 in females, 10 in males), flexible and telescoping slightly, terminating in a pair of forceps-like cerci that are heavily sclerotized and articulate at the base.^[5]^[40] These cerci exhibit sexual dimorphism: in females, they are typically straight and symmetrical with an inward-pointing tip, while in males, they are larger, curved outward, and often asymmetrical, with a distinctive tooth near the middle in some species like Labidura truncata.^[38]^[6] This structure aids in identification and reflects functional adaptations, though their internal sensory roles are detailed elsewhere.^[19] Species variations in external morphology highlight the order's diversity; for instance, the Australian giant earwig Titanolabis colossea reaches up to 50 mm, showcasing exaggerated cerci and robust build, while smaller species like Labia minor measure around 7 mm with more compact forms.^[39]^[19] Such size differences correlate with habitat preferences, from tropical understory to temperate gardens, but all retain the characteristic cerci as a diagnostic trait.^[38]

Internal Anatomy

The digestive system of earwigs follows the typical insect plan, comprising a foregut for ingestion and initial processing, a midgut for enzymatic digestion and nutrient absorption, and a hindgut for water reabsorption and waste elimination.^[41] The foregut includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, and crop, lined with chitin to facilitate mechanical breakdown and storage of food. The midgut, unlined by cuticle, secretes digestive enzymes and is the primary site for nutrient uptake, while the hindgut, also chitin-lined, features an ileum, colon, and rectum for forming fecal pellets. Malpighian tubules, blind-ended structures attached at the midgut-hindgut junction, function in excretion by filtering hemolymph to remove nitrogenous wastes and regulate ion balance.^[41] Earwigs possess an open circulatory system, where hemolymph bathes the organs directly in the hemocoel rather than being confined to vessels. The primary pumping organ is the dorsal vessel, a tubular structure extending from the abdomen through the thorax to the head, divided into a posterior heart region with ostia for hemolymph entry and an anterior aorta for distribution. Alary muscles attached to the dorsal vessel aid in its peristaltic contractions to propel hemolymph anteriorly. This system efficiently transports nutrients, hormones, and immune cells, though oxygen delivery is handled separately by the respiratory apparatus.^[42] Respiration in earwigs occurs via a tracheal system, a network of air-filled tubes that deliver oxygen directly to tissues without relying on hemolymph. Earwigs possess 10 pairs of functional spiracles, with two located on the meso- and metathorax and eight on the abdomen. Tracheae branch into finer tracheoles that penetrate organs, facilitating gas exchange through diffusion across thin walls. In viviparous species like Arixenia esau, the maternal tracheal network extends into the brood sac to oxygenate embryos via hemocyanin in larval hemolymph.^[43]^[44] The nervous system of earwigs is centralized, with a supraesophageal ganglion (brain) in the head processing sensory inputs and coordinating behaviors. This ganglion fuses protocerebrum (optic lobes), deutocerebrum (antennal processing), and tritocerebrum (labral integration), connected ventrally to a subesophageal ganglion and a ventral nerve cord with thoracic and abdominal ganglia. Sensory structures in the cerci, including mechanoreceptors for vibration and touch, connect via nerves to the terminal abdominal ganglion, enabling rapid detection of environmental stimuli.^[45] Reproductive organs in earwigs are paired, with females possessing two ovaries each containing ovarioles for egg production, connected to lateral oviducts that merge into a median oviduct and spermatheca for sperm storage. Males have paired testes producing sperm, which is transferred via specialized genitalia; in many species, one of two penis lobes unfolds to insert a rod-like virga into the female spermatheca, delivering sperm directly or via spermatophore in some cases. The spermatophore transfer involves the virga acting as a conduit, with mechanics varying by species—such as capillary action in long-virga forms like Echinosoma horridum.^[46] Certain earwig species feature abdominal scent glands that produce quinone-based defensive secretions. These paired, sac-like glands, located in the third or fourth abdominal segments in adults (or pygidial in larvae of Forficula auricularia), store and release compounds like 2-methyl-1,4-benzoquinone and 2-ethyl-1,4-benzoquinone, often mixed with hydrocarbons such as n-tridecane. The secretions form a crystalline mass in the reservoir, ejected through pores during threat responses.^[47]

Distribution and Habitat

Global Distribution

Earwigs (order Dermaptera) exhibit a cosmopolitan distribution across all continents except Antarctica, with 2,198 described species worldwide (as of 2025) primarily inhabiting tropical and warm temperate regions.^[48] Their highest species diversity occurs in the tropics of the southern hemisphere, where warm and humid climates support greater richness, contrasting with lower numbers in temperate zones of the northern hemisphere. For instance, the Indo-Australian region, encompassing parts of Asia and Australia, hosts over 500 species collectively, reflecting adaptive radiations in these areas.^[5]^[31]^[34] Regionally, Europe is home to about 90 species, many of which are native to temperate forests and grasslands.^[49] In North America north of Mexico, roughly 25 species are recorded, with a significant portion being introduced rather than native. Mexico stands out in Central America with 54 species across six families, as documented in a comprehensive 2025 taxonomic catalogue, highlighting its role as a biodiversity hotspot within the Neotropics.^[16] Australia supports around 85 species, predominantly in subtropical and tropical zones.^[39] Several earwig species have been introduced by human activity, expanding their ranges beyond native distributions. The European earwig (Forficula auricularia), native to Europe, was first recorded in North America in Seattle, Washington, in 1907, likely via horticultural shipments, and has since become widespread across the continent, particularly in the southern and southwestern United States. It was also introduced to Australia, where it is now common in southern, southeastern, and southwestern regions, often in agricultural and urban settings.^[10]^[50] Patterns of endemism underscore unique evolutionary radiations in isolated regions. The Caribbean islands feature several endemic species, such as those restricted to specific archipelagos like the Greater Antilles, contributing to localized diversity amid broader Neotropical assemblages. Similarly, Madagascar hosts distinctive earwig lineages, including multiple species in genera like Mesodiplatys within the family Diplatyidae, reflecting adaptive diversification in this island's isolated ecosystems.^[51]^[52]

Habitat Preferences

Earwigs predominantly favor moist, sheltered microhabitats to prevent desiccation, such as under loose bark, within leaf litter, and in soil crevices or cracks.^[7] These insects are nocturnal, emerging at night to forage while retreating to these damp, dark refuges during the day to maintain humidity levels essential for their survival.^[53] Their eggs are similarly deposited in humid, concealed sites to support embryonic development.^[54] Earwigs occupy a broad altitudinal range, from sea level to elevations approaching 2,800 meters in mountainous regions, where cooler, moister conditions prevail.^[55] Certain species tolerate arid zones by burrowing into soil or relying on localized moisture sources, though they generally avoid extreme dryness without such adaptations.^[56] Many earwig species have adapted to urban environments, thriving in human-modified landscapes like gardens, mulch beds, and damp structural areas such as basements or crawl spaces.^[57] Introduced populations, particularly of the European earwig (Forficula auricularia), often proliferate in these settings due to the availability of irrigated, shaded habitats that mimic natural preferences.^[58] Ongoing climate warming in the 2020s is projected to facilitate range expansions for earwigs into higher latitudes and temperate zones previously limited by cold temperatures, enhancing invasion potential in cooler regions.^[59] This shift aligns with their thermal adaptations, allowing greater establishment in warming temperate areas.^[60]

Life Cycle and Reproduction

Development Stages

Earwigs exhibit hemimetabolous, or incomplete, metamorphosis, characterized by three primary life stages: egg, nymph, and adult. The overall lifespan typically ranges from 1 to 2 years, depending on environmental conditions and species. Development progresses through 4 to 6 nymphal instars, during which the insect gradually increases in size and develops adult-like features, such as cerci and wing pads.^[10]^[7]^[61] The egg stage begins when females lay clutches of 20 to 80 eggs, which are buried in soil chambers or burrows typically 2 to 5 cm deep to protect them from predators and desiccation. Incubation duration varies with temperature and season; under field conditions in temperate regions, winter eggs require about 73 days (ranging from 56 to 85 days), while spring broods hatch in approximately 20 days. Laboratory studies indicate that at constant temperatures of 20–25°C, incubation lasts 2–3 weeks, with hatching times shortening to around 20 days at 35°C. The eggs are pearly white, oval-shaped, and measure about 1 mm in length, with the female maintaining optimal humidity by periodically rotating and cleaning them.^[10]^[62]^[61] Upon hatching, first-instar nymphs emerge resembling miniature adults but lacking fully developed wings and genitalia. Nymphs undergo 4 to 6 molts over several weeks to months, with each instar lasting 10 to 30 days depending on temperature and food availability; wing pads become visible in the third or fourth instar and enlarge progressively with subsequent molts. Maternal care, which includes guarding the clutch and early nymphs from threats, persists until the second instar, after which the young disperse independently (detailed further in the section on reproductive strategies). Nymphal development from hatching to adulthood typically takes 2 to 4 months in warmer conditions.^[10]^[7]^[61] Adults emerge after the final molt, with full wing functionality in winged forms, though many earwig species are brachypterous or apterous. Adult longevity post-molt averages 4 to 6 months, during which they may reproduce; in temperate climates, adults often overwinter in soil or litter, entering diapause to survive cold periods before resuming activity in spring.^[10]^[63]^[57]

Reproductive Strategies

Earwigs exhibit diverse reproductive strategies, with mating behaviors that emphasize chemical attraction and physical restraint. Females release aggregation pheromones, often via fecal deposits, to attract males during the breeding season in early summer, facilitating encounters in overwintering aggregations.^[64]^[65] Once paired, courtship involves antennal touching and abdominal stroking, during which males use their cerci to grasp the female's abdomen, sometimes coercively, to position for copulation.^[66] Spermatophore transfer occurs in some species, but in others like the European earwig Forficula auricularia, direct insemination via an elongated virga takes place, with copulation durations varying from minutes to several hours, allowing sperm storage in the female's spermatheca for potential multiple fertilizations.^[67]^[68] Parental care in earwigs is predominantly maternal and represents a key subsocial trait, though biparental involvement occurs in select species. In F. auricularia, females construct underground burrows in autumn, lay eggs, and remain to guard the clutch, grooming them regularly by licking to remove fungal spores and parasites, which significantly reduces infection rates—eggs without maternal attendance suffer up to 80% mortality from mold.^[66]^[69] Post-hatching, mothers continue protection of nymphs for 2–3 weeks, providing food through regurgitation and aggressive defense using cerci and chemical secretions like benzoquinones, deterring predators.^[70] Biparental care is limited but documented in species such as Labia minor, where males briefly assist in nest defense before oviposition.^[66] Fecundity varies across species but is generally moderate, with females producing one primary clutch per season using stored sperm. In F. auricularia, a typical clutch contains 40–50 eggs, though totals can reach 100–200 if a smaller second clutch (15–30 eggs) is laid in favorable conditions; most females are iteroparous, but some dermapteran species, like the hump earwig Anechura harmandi, are semelparous, investing in a single reproductive event followed by matriphagy, where nymphs consume the mother.^[70]^[71]^[72] Recent research positions the European earwig as a model for investigating the origins of subsociality in insects, linking reproductive strategies to early social evolution. A 2024 review highlights how obligatory maternal egg care and facultative nymph provisioning in F. auricularia facilitate family group formation, providing insights into transitions from solitary to cooperative living, with benefits like reduced cannibalism among siblings.^[70]^[73]

Behavior

Foraging and Diet

Earwigs exhibit an omnivorous diet, encompassing detritivory, herbivory, and predation, which allows them to exploit a wide range of food sources in their environments. As detritivores, they consume decaying organic matter, including lichens, mosses, algae, and fungal spores, contributing to nutrient recycling in soil and litter. Herbivorous feeding involves tender plant tissues such as leaves, flowers, fruits, and buds, with species like the European earwig (Forficula auricularia) showing a preference for ripe over unripe fruits. Predatory behavior targets small invertebrates, including aphids, mites, scales, caterpillars, and springtails, with individuals capable of consuming up to dozens of aphids per day under laboratory conditions.^[74]^[71]^[53] Foraging in earwigs is predominantly nocturnal, with individuals emerging at night to scavenge or hunt while retreating to moist, sheltered hiding spots during the day to avoid desiccation and predation. This pattern facilitates opportunistic feeding along established trails or in aggregations, where they may damage crops like strawberries, clover, and other soft vegetation by chewing irregular holes in leaves and fruits. Conversely, their predation on pest insects such as aphids and mites provides a beneficial role in natural and agricultural settings, helping to regulate populations of these herbivores. Tree-dwelling species, such as Apterygida media, often select microhabitats based on food availability, favoring leaves with high herbivore damage that offer associated fungi and soft-bodied prey.^[74]^[53]^[75] Earwig mouthparts are adapted as generalized chewing structures, featuring asymmetrical mandibles with a mesal cutting edge and a distal mola for grinding, enabling efficient processing of diverse food types from tough plant material to soft invertebrate prey. These adaptations support their nutritional ecology by allowing flexibility in response to varying resource availability across seasons, though specific dietary shifts are influenced more by local prey abundance than fixed patterns. For instance, post-hibernation activity in spring often emphasizes available plant matter, while summer foraging incorporates more animal prey as insect populations peak. The digestive system, with its foregut and hindgut regions optimized for mixed diets, further accommodates this versatility.^[76]^[53]^[74] Earwigs exhibit predominantly solitary lifestyles, with limited social interactions outside of maternal care and occasional aggregations driven by environmental needs rather than cooperative behaviors. While most species forage and rest independently, females of many earwigs, such as the European earwig Forficula auricularia, display subsocial maternal care by guarding eggs and early nymphs in burrows, providing protection and hygiene to enhance offspring survival.^[77] This care is not extended to cooperative foraging or group hunting, distinguishing it from more social insects. Aggregations occur in moist shelters or under bark, where individuals cluster for humidity regulation and microclimate stability, often mediated by pheromones rather than kinship bonds.^[78] In terms of locomotion, earwigs are primarily cursorial, relying on their six strong legs for rapid walking and scavenging on the ground or low vegetation. They are adept climbers, using tarsal claws and adhesive pads to navigate tree trunks, walls, and foliage in search of food or shelter. Although many species possess hindwings folded beneath short forewings (tegmina), flight is rare; many earwig species are apterous or brachypterous, limiting dispersal to walking or passive transport, with winged individuals rarely observed flying due to energetic costs and predation risks.^[10] Defensive behaviors in earwigs combine physical and chemical mechanisms to deter predators. The prominent cerci, modified into forceps-like pincers, are used to pinch or grasp threats, delivering painful but non-venomous stabs that can injure small assailants; in males, these are often larger and more curved for aggressive displays during territorial disputes.^[18] Many species also deploy abdominal scent glands that eject irritating secretions containing benzoquinones, such as 2-methyl-1,4-benzoquinone, which cause chemical burns, blistering, and aversion in predators upon contact or inhalation.^[79] Additionally, earwigs employ thanatosis, feigning death by becoming immobile when threatened, a passive strategy observed in species like Euborellia spp. to evade detection by termite soldiers or other aggressors.^[80] Communication among earwigs is subtle and primarily chemical or mechanosensory, facilitating aggregation without complex signaling. Aggregation pheromones, including fatty acid derivatives from frass and cuticular extracts, attract conspecifics to suitable shelters, promoting group formation for thermoregulation and moisture retention.^[78] The cerci serve as sensory appendages, detecting substrate vibrations and air currents to alert individuals to nearby disturbances or conspecific movements, enhancing vigilance in aggregations. This sensory role supports brief, non-reproductive interactions, such as avoidance during overcrowding.

Ecology

Ecological Role

Earwigs play a significant role as decomposers in terrestrial ecosystems, where they scavenge and break down decaying organic matter such as dead plant material and small animal remains, thereby facilitating nutrient recycling in the soil.^[81] By burrowing and feeding on detritus, they contribute to soil aeration and the incorporation of organic nutrients back into the ecosystem, enhancing soil fertility and supporting plant growth.^[82] As opportunistic predators, earwigs help regulate pest populations by preying on small insects, including aphids and other soft-bodied arthropods, which can otherwise damage crops and native vegetation.^[83] In agricultural settings, species like the European earwig (Forficula auricularia) have been recognized for their biocontrol potential; for instance, 2025 research demonstrated that inoculative releases of earwigs in Washington pear orchards increased their populations and improved suppression of pests such as pear psylla, promoting more balanced agroecosystems.^[84] Earwigs also serve as an important prey base for higher trophic levels, including birds, amphibians, and insectivorous mammals, thereby supporting biodiversity within food webs.^[82] Their presence influences plant-insect dynamics by controlling herbivore populations, and some species even aid in seed dispersal, as evidenced by studies on earwigs facilitating the internal dispersal of seeds from plants like Monotropastrum humile.^[85] However, as invasive species in regions like Australia and the Falkland Islands, introduced earwigs can disrupt local biodiversity by competing with native decomposers and predators, leading to altered ecosystem structures.^[60]

Predators and Parasites

Earwigs face predation from a variety of vertebrates and invertebrates, particularly during their nocturnal activity periods when they are more exposed above ground. Birds such as songbirds, including wrens, readily consume earwigs, foraging in leaf litter and soil where the insects hide during the day.^[56] Mammals like moles and shrews prey on earwigs in subterranean environments, using their acute sense of smell to detect them in burrows, while bats capture flying individuals at night.^[86] Among arthropods, spiders ambush earwigs in webs or on foliage, and centipedes hunt them actively in moist habitats; ground beetles also target smaller instars.^[87] This nocturnal vulnerability heightens their risk, as daytime burrowing provides primary refuge but limits foraging opportunities.^[88] Parasitism significantly impacts earwig populations through endoparasites that develop within the host. Nematodes, such as those in the genus Mermis, infect earwigs via ingestion or penetration, often leading to host debilitation or death upon emergence.^[10] Tachinid flies, including species like Bigonicheta spinipennis and Triarthria setipennis, lay eggs on or near earwigs, with larvae burrowing into the host to feed internally, sometimes achieving parasitism rates up to 10-20% in dense populations.^[89]^[90] Entomopathogenic fungi, notably Beauveria bassiana, infect earwigs through spore contact, germinating on the cuticle and proliferating internally, causing mycosis that can spread in humid conditions.^[91] Maternal care in species like Forficula auricularia mitigates fungal infections by females grooming eggs to remove spores, thereby significantly enhancing offspring survival compared to unattended clutches.^[69] Bacterial pathogens, such as Serratia marcescens, pose additional threats, entering through wounds or ingestion and causing infections that weaken or kill infected individuals.^[92] In dense aggregations, such as overwintering clusters, epizootics of bacteria and fungi can rapidly decimate populations under favorable moisture and temperature conditions.^[93] Earwigs employ evasive burrowing into soil or crevices during daylight to avoid diurnal predators, a behavior that aligns with their detailed defensive strategies outlined elsewhere.^[87] Chemically, they secrete pungent benzoquinones from abdominal glands, repelling ants and other arthropods upon disturbance and potentially deterring microbial growth on the cuticle.^[79]

Interactions with Humans

Agricultural Impact

Earwigs, particularly the European earwig (Forficula auricularia), are considered pests in various agricultural settings due to their feeding on crops such as corn silks, lettuce seedlings, and soft fruits like peaches and apricots. They chew irregular holes in foliage, flowers, and developing fruits, leading to reduced yields and aesthetic damage in orchards and vegetable fields. In stone fruit production, earwigs can cause substantial scarring on fruits, resulting in economic losses through downgrading or rejection at packing houses, especially when populations are high during fruit development.^[56]^[94]^[95] Despite their pest status, earwigs serve as beneficial predators in many agroecosystems by consuming aphids, mites, scales, and other insect pests, particularly in tree fruit orchards. In apple and pear systems, they suppress populations of woolly apple aphids and pear psylla, contributing to biological control and reducing the need for insecticides. Recent programs have implemented inoculative releases of F. auricularia in Washington pear orchards, where augmentative introductions from 2019–2024 increased earwig densities and provided cumulative suppression of key pests, demonstrating their value in integrated pest management (IPM).^[96]^[94]^[84] Management of earwigs emphasizes IPM strategies to balance their pest and beneficial roles, including cultural practices like sanitation to remove debris and weeds that harbor populations, mechanical barriers such as sticky bands on tree trunks, and bait traps using oil-soaked rolled cardboard or grooved boards. Biological controls, including conservation of natural enemies like birds and parasitic wasps, complement these methods, while targeted insecticides are used sparingly to minimize disruption to beneficial earwig activity. The European earwig's invasive spread, facilitated by international trade in agricultural commodities, has prompted ongoing monitoring in regions like North America and Australia.^[56]^[97]^[98]^[99]

Cultural Significance

Earwigs have long been embedded in European folklore, primarily due to a persistent myth that they crawl into human ears to lay eggs or burrow into the brain, a belief reflected in their English name derived from Old English terms meaning "ear insect." This superstition, lacking any scientific basis, contributed to widespread fear and revulsion toward the insect across medieval and early modern Europe.^[8] In literature, earwigs appear as symbols of the grotesque or intrusive. The insect features prominently in James Joyce's Finnegans Wake, where the protagonist's surname, Earwicker, evokes the earwig as a pun on eavesdropping and scandal-mongering, underscoring themes of rumor and subconscious intrusion. Roald Dahl's children's novel George's Marvellous Medicine portrays an earwig in a darkly humorous light, with the grandmother character describing it as a "big fat" and tasty creature that must be swallowed quickly to avoid its pincers, blending whimsy with mild horror.^[100] In modern horror tropes, earwigs often represent invasive terror, exploiting their mythological association with the ear to evoke body horror. The 1972 Night Gallery episode "The Caterpillar" depicts an earwig from Borneo as a parasitic tormentor inserted into a man's ear canal as revenge, amplifying fears of internal violation. Contemporary works continue this tradition, using earwigs to symbolize hidden threats or psychological unease in stories where their pincers and nocturnal habits heighten suspense. In video games, earwigs appear as formidable adversaries, such as in Empires of the Undergrowth, where they serve as underground enemies with biting attacks, reinforcing their image as resilient foes in simulated ecosystems. Scientific outreach efforts have worked to counter these fears by highlighting earwigs' beneficial role as decomposers and predators of garden pests, emphasizing their harmlessness to humans and dispelling myths through educational resources from entomological organizations.^[101]^[102]

References

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Sep 16, 2019 · Earwigs (order Dermaptera) are red-brown to black, elongate, flattened insects recognized by their forcep-like appendages (cerci) on the end of the abdomen.
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Earwigs belong to the insect order Dermaptera (=leather + wings) and are found all over the world with the greatest diversity in the tropics.
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The order name Dermaptera is derived from Greek (derma = skin; pteron = wing) and refers to the skinlike appearance of the forewings. The common name is derived ...
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Order Dermaptera – ENT 425 – General Entomology
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Mar 2, 2022 · The term earwig is derived from Old English 'ēare' which means ear, and 'wicga' which means insect. In German it is called 'ohrwurm' which is earworm.
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Lend me your earwigs - Oxford Academic
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European Earwig Forficula auricularia Linnaeus (Insecta: Dermaptera
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Evolution and palaeosynecology of the Mesozoic earwigs (Insecta
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Over a hundred fossil dermapterans have been described to date, the oldest undisputed fossils dating back to the Late Triassic. Here, two new species ...
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Historical Biogeography of Earwigs - PMC - NIH
Dec 9, 2022 · In this paper, the world distribution of earwigs was analysed by using the 'Cladistic Analysis of Distributions and Endemism' (CADE), a method ...
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Sep 26, 2023 · In this study, we investigated grasping apparatuses with two movable counteracting structures as well as some related structures.
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Positive allometry in the forceps of the female earwig Anisolabis ...
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A notable exception may be represented by earwigs (Dermaptera), an insect order for which there are good estimates of species richness for most of the countries ...
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The European earwig is an invasive, temperate species in Australia; its native range includes Europe, West Asia and northern Africa.1. The European earwig ...
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— Endemic to these three islands of the Caribbean. CARCINOPHORIDAE. A large family, the species of which are usually dark coloured, apterous earwigs ...
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Lifecycle of the invasive omnivore, Forficula auricularia, in Australian ...
This supports previous studies that have found F. auricularia to be the most abundant earwig species in grain crops in southern Australia. , We found head ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Earwigs are the hero single mothers of the insect world, and good ...
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Although females resisted the mating attempts, pairs mated 3.3 times on average over 15 h. The elongated intromittent organ, known as a virga, was inserted into ...Missing: spermatophore | Show results with:spermatophore<|separator|>
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None
### Summary of Key Points from the 2024 Review on the European Earwig as a Model for Early Social Evolution
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Red wood ants of the Formica rufa group include 8 species in Europe and 15 species in North America. In Europe, red wood ants have been noted as effective ...
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It has become an insect of concern and interest because of its abundance and omnivorous feeding behaviors that make it both a pest and beneficial insect. The ...Missing: foraging scientific review<|control11|><|separator|>
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Factors influencing microhabitat selection and food preference of ...
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(PDF) The head of the earwig Forficula auricularia (Dermaptera) and ...
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In the European earwig (Forficula auricularia), maternal care is beneficial for offspring survival, but not vital, allowing us to investigate the extent to ...
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Pheromonal basis of aggregation in European earwig,Forficula ...
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(PDF) Biology and Management of European Earwig in Orchards ...
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Jan 3, 2025 · Pear orchards with minimal European earwig populations were selected for experiments testing whether inoculative releases in 1 year would boost ...
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Earwigs and woodlice as some of the world's smallest internal seed ...
This study illuminates the underappreciated role of invertebrates in seed dispersal, extending beyond the well‐documented contributions of ants.
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Dermaptera
Fossil Dermaptera of an extinct suborder Archidermaptera are known from the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic period.. Some of these do not have morphological ...Missing: Protodermaptera | Show results with:Protodermaptera
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Earwigs emit a foul-smelling chemical that is distasteful to many predators; however, natural predators such as toads, songbirds, chickens, ducks, and ...Missing: birds mammals arthropods
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The tachinid fly, Bigonicheta spinipennis, is known to parasitize earwigs. Parasitic nematodes and fungal diseases are also associated with controlling earwigs.
[87]
Abundance and phenology of two species of earwig parasitoids in ...
Two parasitoid tachinids were recorded: Triarthria setipennis and Ocytata pallipes. Parasitism. rates. The parasitism ...
[88]
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May 17, 2023 · In the literature, infection of earwig by B. bassiana is rarely reported under natural conditions. This would have implications for biological ...
[89]
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[90]
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Earwig (Forficula auricolaria) infected with Zoophthora forficulae. The insect is completely covered with the fungus and is firmly attached to the vegetation ...
[91]
European Earwig | USU
The European earwig is an omnivore; it feeds on detritus, fungi, plants, and insects. · Earwigs can injure the buds, leaves, flowers, and fruits of a broad range ...
[92]
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[93]
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[94]
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Remove weeds from around the base of trees. Keep orchard clear of prunings, loose bark, or debris under which earwigs could nest. Remove tree limbs that come in ...
[95]
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[96]
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The European earwig, Forficula auricularia, is a polyphagous insect that is native to large parts of Europe and western Asia as far east as western Siberia.
[97]
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[98]
George's Marvellous Medicine by Roald Dahl - Penguin Books
'A big fat earwig is very tasty,' Grandma said, licking her lips. 'But you've got to be very quick, my dear, when you put one of those in your mouth. It has a ...
[99]
Earwigs: Debunking Myths and Understanding Their Behavior
Explore the truth about earwigs, dispel common myths, and learn about their behavior and role in the ecosystem.
[100]
Earwig | Empires of the Undergrowth Wiki - Fandom
Earwigs (Forficula auricularia) are underground enemies in matabele ant missions. Earwigs use basic attack by biting. Large earwigs can pinch.