Egyptian pyramids
The Egyptian pyramids are ancient monumental structures constructed primarily as tombs for pharaohs during the Old Kingdom of ancient Egypt, spanning approximately 2686 to 2181 BCE, with over 100 known examples scattered across the Nile Valley, though the most iconic cluster at Giza includes the Great Pyramid of Khufu, built around 2580–2560 BCE.[1][2][3] These pyramids evolved from earlier flat-roofed mastaba tombs through innovative architectural experimentation, beginning with the Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara around 2630 BCE, which stacked mastaba-like layers, and progressing to true smooth-sided pyramids under Snefru in the Fourth Dynasty (c. 2613–2494 BCE).[4][3][1] Symbolizing the pharaoh's divine power and ascent to the afterlife, the pyramids incorporated religious elements such as the benben stone, a primordial mound representing creation and solar symbolism, with internal chambers, passages, and Pyramid Texts inscribed in later examples to guide the king's soul.[1][3] Constructed from millions of limestone and granite blocks quarried nearby and transported via the Nile, these feats of engineering involved thousands of skilled laborers over decades, using ramps, levers, and sledges rather than slave labor as once mythologized.[5][6] The Giza complex, including the pyramids of Khafre and Menkaure alongside the Great Sphinx, exemplifies the peak of this tradition around 2500 BCE, serving as enduring testaments to ancient Egyptian cosmology, state organization, and technological prowess.[7][8] While the grandest pyramids declined after the Old Kingdom due to economic and environmental shifts, smaller pyramids continued into the Middle and New Kingdoms, and their legacy influences modern archaeology, with ongoing discoveries revealing details about construction techniques and societal structures.[9][2]Terminology
Ancient Egyptian Terms
In ancient Egyptian language, the term for a pyramid was mr, typically rendered in hieroglyphs with phonetic signs for "m" and "r" followed by a determinative depicting the pyramid shape itself. This word denoted the monumental tomb structure and was in use from the earliest pyramid constructions in the Third Dynasty onward. The pyramidion, or capstone crowning the pyramid, was designated benbenet and held profound symbolic significance as a representation of the benben stone—a primordial mound and sun ray—often gilded with electrum or gold to gleam like the solar disk, thereby aiding the pharaoh's spiritual ascent to join the sun god Ra.[10][3][11] The broader pyramid complex, encompassing the pyramid, temples, causeways, and subsidiary structures, was referred to more commonly as hwt-kA, meaning "house of the ka," where the ka—the vital spirit or double of the king—resided eternally after death. These complexes served as cult centers for ongoing rituals and offerings to sustain the royal ka, ensuring the pharaoh's continued existence in the afterlife. For instance, the valley temple and mortuary temple within the complex facilitated daily presentations of food and incense to the ka.[12][13] Individual pyramids were bestowed with unique names integrated into the pharaoh's royal titulary, often evoking celestial or solar themes to underscore the king's divine status. A prominent example is the Great Pyramid of Giza, known as ḫt-ḫwfw or "Khufu's Horizon," symbolizing the point where the sun rises and the pharaoh's ba (soul) emerges eternally. Such nomenclature appeared in foundation deposits, stelae, and inscriptions within the complexes.[14] The terminology evolved modestly from its origins in Old Kingdom inscriptions, where mr strictly indicated the pyramid proper. Pyramid shapes were linked to the benben, the primordial mound from creation myths, embodying the site's role in cosmic renewal; this symbolism persisted into later periods like the Middle and New Kingdoms, influencing smaller pyramidal forms atop obelisks or tomb entrances while retaining core solar and ascensional connotations.[15][16]Modern Classifications
The term "pyramid" derives from the Greek word pyramis (plural pyramides), which first appears in descriptions of Egyptian structures and may stem from an Egyptian root pimar referring to the pyramid's height or form, though scholarly consensus points to a possible folk etymological alteration in Greek usage.[17] The Greek historian Herodotus, writing in the 5th century BCE, popularized the term in his Histories when describing the Giza pyramids, likening their shape to a wheaten cake (pyramis also meant a type of honey-preserved wheat cake in Greek). In Arabic, the structures at Giza are known as al-ahram (from haram, singular for pyramid), a term rooted in Semitic languages and distinct from haram meaning "forbidden," reflecting their monumental status in medieval Islamic texts.[18] Modern classifications of Egyptian pyramids emphasize morphological types based on architectural form. Step pyramids feature terraced layers resembling giant stairs, as exemplified by the Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara, built around 2630 BCE as the earliest large-scale stone pyramid.[3] Bent pyramids exhibit a mid-construction angle change, such as Snefru's structure at Dahshur (c. 2600 BCE), where the slope shifts from steeper to shallower, likely due to structural adjustments during building.[3] True pyramids, with smooth, sloping sides forming four triangular faces meeting at an apex, represent the refined form achieved in the Fourth Dynasty, including the Giza trio.[3] Chronologically, pyramids are grouped by kingdom and construction techniques, highlighting shifts in materials and scale. Old Kingdom pyramids (c. 2686–2181 BCE), particularly those of the Fourth Dynasty, were constructed primarily from quarried limestone and granite blocks, enabling massive, enduring true pyramids like those at Giza. In contrast, Middle Kingdom pyramids (c. 2055–1650 BCE) often used mudbrick cores cased in limestone for efficiency amid resource constraints, resulting in smaller, less preserved structures such as Amenemhat III's Black Pyramid at Dahshur, where erosion has exposed the friable interior.[19] Functionally, pyramids are distinguished by their intended users and roles within complexes. Royal pyramids served as primary tombs for pharaohs, housing sarcophagi and facilitating the afterlife journey. Queens' pyramids, smaller and adjacent to royal ones, were built for high-ranking royal women, such as those beside Khufu's Great Pyramid at Giza, containing burial chambers for elite consorts.[20] Satellite pyramids, even tinier appendages within royal complexes, likely held symbolic functions like spirit houses for the pharaoh's ka (vital essence) or ritual deposits, rather than full burials, as seen in the three northern satellites of the Great Pyramid.[20]Historical Evolution
Origins in Mastabas and Step Pyramids
The origins of the Egyptian pyramids can be traced back to the Predynastic Period (c. 4000–3100 BCE), when mound-like tombs emerged as simple pit graves covered by earthen tumuli, symbolizing the primordial mound of creation and resurrection in Egyptian cosmology.[21] These early structures, often west-facing to align with the realm of the dead, featured fetal-position burials and grave goods such as pottery, tools, and figurines, reflecting emerging beliefs in the afterlife and social stratification, as seen in sites like Naqada Cemetery and Hierakonpolis Tomb 16.[21] The tumulus form evoked the fertile black soil of the Nile inundation, a potent emblem of rebirth tied to Osirian mythology.[21] During the Early Dynastic Period (c. 3100–2686 BCE), these mound tombs evolved into flat-roofed mastabas, rectangular superstructures of mudbrick enclosing subterranean burial chambers for elites and royalty.[22] Mastabas, deriving their name from the Arabic word for "bench," marked a shift to more permanent and elaborate funerary architecture, often with niched facades, benches, and subsidiary graves, as evidenced in the First Dynasty tombs at Saqqara and Abydos North Cemetery.[21] A notable example is Mastaba 3808 at Saqqara, dating to the late First Dynasty (c. 3000 BCE), which incorporated an internal step-like structure, foreshadowing vertical elaboration by stacking layers to elevate the tomb.[3] This progression from single-level enclosures to multi-layered forms reflected growing royal ambition and architectural experimentation during the Second Dynasty (c. 2890–2686 BCE).[23] The pivotal transition to pyramid forms occurred in the Third Dynasty with the Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara (c. 2650 BCE), designed by the architect Imhotep, who revolutionized tomb design by stacking six diminishing mastaba layers into a terraced monument reaching approximately 62 meters in height.[3] This structure, the first large-scale stone pyramid, featured a core of rough-hewn limestone blocks encased in fine Tura limestone for a smooth outer finish, enhancing its durability and aesthetic grandeur.[22] Beneath the pyramid lay an extensive network of underground galleries and chambers, including a central burial shaft over 28 meters deep, connected by corridors lined with blue faience tiles simulating reed matting, which served as the king's eternal residence.[24] Imhotep's innovation not only elevated the mastaba concept but also integrated it into a larger funerary complex, setting the template for subsequent pyramid evolution.[25]Old Kingdom Developments
The Old Kingdom, spanning the 3rd to 6th Dynasties (c. 2686–2181 BCE), marked the pinnacle of pyramid architecture in ancient Egypt, with innovations in true pyramid design achieving unprecedented scale and precision. King Sneferu, founder of the 4th Dynasty, played a pivotal role in this evolution by constructing three major pyramids that tested and refined construction techniques.[26] His pyramid at Meidum, initiated around 2610 BCE, began as a step pyramid but was later converted into an early true pyramid, reaching an original height of approximately 145 meters before partial collapse due to structural instability.[27] At Dahshur, Sneferu's Bent Pyramid demonstrated experimental angle adjustments, starting with a steep 52-degree slope that was reduced to 43 degrees midway through construction to prevent failure, resulting in a distinctive bent profile and a height of about 105 meters.[28] The subsequent Red Pyramid at the same site achieved a stable true pyramid form with a consistent 43-degree angle, standing at 105 meters and marking the first successful large-scale smooth-sided pyramid. The 4th Dynasty reached its architectural zenith under Sneferu's successors, producing the Giza pyramid complex as enduring symbols of royal power. Khufu's Great Pyramid, completed around 2560 BCE, exemplifies this peak with its original height of 146 meters and use of approximately 2.3 million limestone blocks, each averaging 2.5 tons, forming a base covering 13 acres.[3] Its precise alignment and 51-degree 52-minute slope highlight advanced engineering, including internal chambers and a sophisticated workforce organization evidenced by contemporary papyri records.[2] Khafre's pyramid, built shortly after, integrated the nearby Great Sphinx into its funerary complex, maintaining a similar height of 143 meters while emphasizing aesthetic harmony with the landscape.[26] Menkaure's pyramid, the smallest of the trio at 65 meters, concluded the Giza sequence around 2510 BCE, reflecting a slight scale reduction but retaining high-quality granite casing. In November 2025, non-invasive scans detected air-filled anomalies behind the pyramid's casing, potentially indicating undiscovered voids or an alternative entrance.[29] By the 5th and 6th Dynasties (c. 2494–2181 BCE), pyramid construction shifted toward smaller scales and complementary structures, aligning with evolving religious emphases on solar worship. Kings like Userkaf initiated this trend with modest pyramids, such as his at Saqqara, paired with innovative solar temples that featured obelisk-like benben stones symbolizing the sun god Re.[30] These temples, including Userkaf's at Abu Ghurab, served as ritual centers for offerings before redistribution to royal mortuary sites, totaling six such complexes built during the dynasty.[31] Subsequent rulers, such as Niuserre, continued this pattern with reduced pyramid sizes—often under 50 meters—and mud-brick cores faced in limestone, prioritizing solar cult integration over monumental height. Economic pressures from prolonged construction projects contributed to the decline of large-scale pyramid building by the late 6th Dynasty, leading to a transition toward rock-cut tombs around 2181 BCE. The immense resource demands, including labor and materials for earlier giants, strained the centralized economy, exacerbating vulnerabilities amid climatic shifts and administrative decentralization.[32] This shift marked the end of the Old Kingdom's pyramid era, with pharaohs like Pepi II opting for simpler, more sustainable burial forms.Middle Kingdom and Nubian Adaptations
The pyramid-building tradition saw a revival during the Middle Kingdom's 12th Dynasty, with constructions that were notably smaller and more regionally distributed than their Old Kingdom predecessors, reflecting economic and political shifts toward provincial centers. Amenemhat I initiated this resurgence with his mudbrick pyramid at Lisht, dated to approximately 1991–1962 BCE, which served as a symbolic link to earlier royal necropolises while adapting to available local resources.[33] His structure, rising to about 50 meters, emphasized functionality over grandeur and included a surrounding temenos wall and causeway.[34] Senusret I continued the Lisht necropolis with his own pyramid, cased in white limestone to evoke a polished, luminous finish reminiscent of solar symbolism, though much of the casing has since been stripped.[35] This pyramid, roughly 61 meters tall with a base of 105 meters, incorporated a granite burial chamber and valley temple, underscoring the dynasty's blend of innovation and tradition. Later 12th Dynasty rulers built even more compact examples, such as Senusret III's at Dahshur and Amenemhat III's at Hawara, where steeper slopes (around 50–52 degrees) and mudbrick cores with limestone facing prioritized durability in the Fayum region's marshy terrain.[36] Amenemhat III's Hawara complex stood out for its adjacent labyrinthine mortuary temple, described by ancient sources as a wonder rivaling the pyramids themselves, integrating administrative and ritual functions. This Egyptian tradition profoundly influenced Nubian adaptations during the Kushite 25th Dynasty (c. 747–656 BCE) and the subsequent Meroitic period (c. 300 BCE–350 CE), where over 200 pyramids were erected as royal tombs, demonstrating cultural transmission across the Nile Valley.[37] Concentrated at El-Kurru (with early tumuli transitioning to pyramids for kings like Piye and Taharqa), Nuri (hosting 72 structures, including Taharqa's massive tomb), and Meroë (over 200 smaller ones for Meroitic rulers and elites), these monuments were constructed from local sandstone blocks rather than Tura limestone, resulting in a distinctive reddish hue. Their steeper angles (typically 60–70 degrees) created more vertical profiles, typically 10–50 meters tall, emphasizing ascent and divine kingship while accommodating chapels with Meroitic reliefs blending Egyptian and local motifs.[38] By the Ptolemaic period (305–30 BCE), pyramid construction in Egypt had largely ceased for royal burials, supplanted by rock-cut tombs in the Valley of the Kings and Theban necropoleis that better suited Greco-Egyptian syncretic practices and security concerns.[39] In Nubia, the tradition waned with the Meroitic kingdom's decline around the 4th century CE, as rulers shifted to unpyramidal mausolea amid Roman incursions and internal changes, marking the end of over a millennium of pyramid use in the region.[40]Purpose and Symbolism
Funerary Functions
The Egyptian pyramids served as elaborate tombs designed to house the mummified body of the pharaoh, preserving it as the eternal abode for the vital life force known as the ka and the mobile soul aspect called the ba, which together enabled the deceased's continued existence in the afterlife.[41] These structures ensured the pharaoh's physical remains remained intact while allowing the ka to receive sustenance through offerings and the ba to traverse between the earthly realm and the divine sphere.[16] In the Old Kingdom, such as at Giza, the pyramid's design reflected this dual purpose, with the mummy placed in a secure central location to safeguard against decay and disturbance.[42] Internally, pyramids featured specialized chambers tailored for burial and protection. The king's chamber, often constructed from durable granite, contained a plain sarcophagus for the pharaoh's mummy; in Khufu's Great Pyramid, this chamber lies high within the structure, measuring approximately 10.5 by 5.2 meters, with an empty red granite sarcophagus roughly 2.3 meters long.[43] Adjacent was the queen's chamber, a smaller space potentially intended for ritual or secondary burial purposes, while a subterranean chamber provided an initial, unfinished burial pit below ground level.[43] Security measures included blocking mechanisms, such as the granite plug-blocks in the Great Pyramid's ascending passage—three slabs up to 4.6 meters long that could slide down to seal access like portcullises, deterring tomb robbers.[43] Air shafts from these chambers may have symbolically aided the ba's ascent to the heavens.[42] Associated complexes extended the funerary role beyond the pyramid itself, incorporating mortuary temples for ongoing rituals and causeways linking them to valley temples near the Nile. The mortuary temple, attached to the pyramid's eastern face, housed statues of the pharaoh and altars for daily offerings of food, drink, and incense by priests to nourish the ka.[42] Causeways, often decorated with reliefs depicting the pharaoh's journey, connected this to the valley temple, where the body arrived by boat for purification rites before procession to the tomb.[42] For instance, Khufu's causeway spanned approximately 825 meters, facilitating these processions and ensuring perpetual cult maintenance.[42][44] From the Fifth Dynasty onward, Pyramid Texts inscribed on burial chamber walls marked a key evolution in mortuary practices, comprising the earliest known corpus of religious spells to guide the pharaoh's afterlife journey.[16] These hieroglyphic incantations, first appearing in Unas's pyramid at Saqqara around 2350 BCE and continuing through the Sixth Dynasty, invoked protection from perils, provision of offerings, and transformation into an akh (transfigured spirit) among the gods like Osiris and Re.[16] Spells such as those equating the deceased with Osiris ("O Osiris the King") ensured resurrection and justified the soul before divine judgment, recited during burial to activate their magic.[16] This textual tradition underscored the pyramid's role as a sacred scriptorium for eternal safeguarding.[16]Religious and Architectural Symbolism
The Benben stone, revered in ancient Egyptian cosmology as the primordial mound from which the creator god Atum emerged at the dawn of creation, served as a foundational symbol for pyramid architecture. Pyramids were designed to evoke this sacred form, particularly through their capstones or pyramidions, which replicated the Benben's shape and embodied the sun god Ra's life-giving power.[1] This linkage positioned the pyramid as a cosmic axis, connecting earthly realms to the divine origins of existence and facilitating the pharaoh's transformation into an eternal solar deity.[45] The sloping sides of pyramids carried multifaceted symbolic meanings, often interpreted as rays of the sun descending to earth, allowing the pharaoh's soul to ascend to the heavens in a divine embrace. Alternatively, these inclines represented a stairway or ramp leading to the Duat, the underworld, and ultimately to the imperishable stars, symbolizing the king's journey toward stellar immortality.[46][47] Pyramid complexes were meticulously oriented to the four cardinal directions, reflecting the Egyptians' advanced astronomical knowledge and aligning the structures with cosmic order. Their placement on the Nile's west bank further reinforced this symbolism, as the west was the domain of the setting sun and the land of the dead, where the deceased traversed to the afterlife.[48][49] At Giza, the three main pyramids have been proposed to mirror the alignment of Orion's Belt stars as they appeared around 2500 BCE, suggesting an intentional celestial mapping that tied the pharaohs to the god Osiris and the eternal cycle of the stars. This integration extended to associated temple elements, such as Khufu's solar barge, a ritual vessel buried beside the Great Pyramid to symbolize the pharaoh's eternal voyage with Ra across the sky, enacting daily rebirth and triumph over chaos.[50] Funerary texts inscribed in later pyramids invoked similar motifs, using spells to invoke these solar and stellar transitions for the king's soul.[51]Geographical Distribution
Sites in Egypt
The Egyptian pyramids are predominantly clustered along the western bank of the Nile River, reflecting ancient beliefs that associated the west with the realm of the dead, known as Amenti, where the sun set and the afterlife began.[52] This geographical preference facilitated the pharaohs' journey to the underworld, aligning their tombs with the direction of sunset and the domain of Osiris.[53] In the northern Memphite necropoleis, pyramid construction began near the ancient capital of Memphis. At Abu Rawash, the northernmost site, Pharaoh Djedefre of the 4th Dynasty initiated an incomplete pyramid complex, marking an early experiment in royal burial architecture. Further south at Giza, the plateau hosts the three largest pyramids built by Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure, forming a monumental ensemble that defined Old Kingdom funerary practices.[53] To the southeast of Giza lies Zawyet el-Aryan, where unfinished pyramids from the 3rd and 4th Dynasties, including the Layer Pyramid attributed to Khaba, indicate abandoned or disrupted building efforts during this formative period. Central sites along the Nile represent the peak of pyramid development during the Old Kingdom. Abusir served as a hub for 5th Dynasty solar complexes, with pyramids like those of Sahure and Neferirkare integrating temples dedicated to the sun god Ra alongside royal tombs.[53] Saqqara, immediately south of Abusir, encompasses the Step Pyramid of Djoser, the earliest large-scale stone pyramid, as well as later structures for Teti and Unas of the 6th Dynasty, evolving from mastaba forms to true pyramids.[53] Dahshur, further south, features Sneferu's Bent Pyramid and Red Pyramid, transitional designs that resolved earlier structural challenges and influenced subsequent Giza monuments.[53] Southern clusters extend into the Faiyum region and Lisht during the Middle Kingdom. At Lisht, 12th Dynasty pharaohs Amenemhat I and Senusret I constructed mudbrick pyramids, adapting Old Kingdom styles to new materials and incorporating surrounding pyramid towns for cult maintenance.[34] El Lahun, near the Faiyum Oasis, houses Senusret II's pyramid with its innovative southern entrance and associated workers' village, Kahun, highlighting logistical planning for provincial pyramid building.[54] Hawara features Amenemhat III's pyramid, renowned for its labyrinthine mortuary temple complex, which blended pyramid traditions with elaborate defensive architecture.[36] Overall, approximately 118 pyramids have been identified across these Egyptian sites, with the vast majority positioned on the Nile's west bank to symbolize entry into Amenti.[9] While extensions exist in Nubia, the core Egyptian clusters remain concentrated in the Memphite and Faiyum areas.[53]Nubian Pyramids
The Nubian pyramids represent a distinctive architectural tradition developed by the ancient Kingdom of Kush, centered in what is now northern Sudan, spanning from approximately 750 BCE to 350 CE. These structures, built primarily as royal tombs, numbered approximately 255 in total and reflected a synthesis of Egyptian influences with local Nubian innovations following the Kushite conquest of Egypt during the 25th Dynasty (c. 747–656 BCE). Unlike the grand scale of Egyptian pyramids, Nubian examples were more numerous but smaller, serving as markers for the burials of kings and queens in necropolises along the Nile.[55][56] The primary pyramid sites were concentrated in three key locations: El-Kurru, Nuri, and Meroë. At El-Kurru, near the ancient capital of Napata, early Kushite rulers such as Piye (r. c. 747–716 BCE), who initiated the conquest of Egypt, were interred in pyramids dating from the late 8th century BCE. Nuri, located further north near the Fourth Cataract, hosted the tomb of Taharqa (r. 690–664 BCE), featuring the largest Nubian pyramid, that of Taharqa, at approximately 40-50 meters tall, built during the height of Kushite power in Egypt. Meroë, the later capital south of modern Khartoum, became the most prolific site from around 300 BCE onward, with over 200 pyramids in its north and south cemeteries, characterized by their steep profiles and frontal chapels.[57][58][56] Architecturally, Nubian pyramids diverged from Egyptian prototypes through their compact dimensions, with bases typically measuring 10 to 30 meters and heights ranging from 10 to 30 meters, emphasizing verticality over mass. Their slopes were steeper, often exceeding 70 degrees, achieved using iron tools for precise sandstone and granite masonry, which allowed for finer detailing than earlier Egyptian stonework. Many featured attached chapels with pylons and niches for stelae inscribed with royal titles and offerings, facilitating rituals at the tomb entrance rather than within the structure itself. These adaptations prioritized accessibility and symbolic display, with burial chambers excavated beneath the pyramid floors.[55][56][58] Culturally, the pyramids embodied a hybridized identity, blending Egyptian pharaonic elements with Nubian traditions after the Kushites' rule over Egypt elevated their status as legitimate heirs to the Nile Valley legacy. Inscriptions evolved from Egyptian hieroglyphs to the indigenous Meroitic script by the 3rd century BCE, while religious iconography merged gods like Amun and Isis with local deities such as Apedemak, the lion-headed war god. As royal tombs, they underscored the divine kingship of Kushite monarchs, who adopted mummification and solar symbolism to affirm their conquests, yet incorporated Nubian motifs like archery and fertility symbols in tomb reliefs.[57][56] The tradition declined in the late period due to external pressures, including Roman military incursions from Egypt in the 1st centuries BCE–CE and the eventual invasion by the Aksumite kingdom of Ethiopia around 350 CE, which sacked Meroë and disrupted Kushite trade networks. By the 4th century CE, pyramid construction ceased entirely, leaving the structures vulnerable to looting and erosion in the Sudanese desert.[57][56][58]Inventory of Pyramids
The inventory of ancient Egyptian pyramids encompasses over 118 known structures within Egypt, as documented in archaeological surveys by experts including Mark Lehner. In Nubia (modern-day Sudan), the Kingdom of Kush constructed more than 255 pyramids, exceeding the Egyptian total. These counts exclude minor or disputed features like satellite pyramids and account for challenges such as erosion, looting, and unexcavated sites, which may yield additional discoveries. The table below lists representative examples, focusing on major royal pyramids from key dynasties and periods, with metrics drawn from verified archaeological data.| Name | Location | Builder/Dynasty | Construction Date (BCE) | Original Height (m) | Base Side (m) | Current State |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Step Pyramid of Djoser | Saqqara | Djoser / 3rd Dynasty | c. 2670 | 62 | 121 × 109 | Partially restored [59] |
| Bent Pyramid | Dahshur | Snefru / 4th Dynasty | c. 2575 | 104.7 | 188.6 | Intact core, exterior ruined |
| Red Pyramid | Dahshur | Snefru / 4th Dynasty | c. 2565 | 105 | 220 | Largely intact |
| Great Pyramid of Giza | Giza | Khufu / 4th Dynasty | 2580–2560 | 146.6 | 230.4 | Restored [60] |
| Pyramid of Khafre | Giza | Khafre / 4th Dynasty | c. 2558 | 143.5 | 215.5 | Restored [61] |
| Pyramid of Menkaure | Giza | Menkaure / 4th Dynasty | c. 2532 | 65 | 103.4 | Partially ruined |
| Pyramid of Amanishakheto | Meroë, Sudan | Amanishakheto / Meroitic | c. 10 | 30 | ~25 | Ruined |
| General Meroë Pyramids | Meroë, Sudan | Various / Kingdom of Kush | 300 BCE–350 CE | 10–30 | 8–30 | Mostly ruined [55] |