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Elytron

An elytron (plural: elytra; from Ancient Greek élutron, meaning "sheath" or "cover") is a hardened, modified forewing found in certain insects, most notably beetles (Coleoptera), where it functions primarily as a protective casing for the delicate hindwings and the insect's abdomen.^[1] These sclerotized structures are typically thick, chitinous, and non-functional for flight, instead forming a rigid dorsal shield that enhances survival in diverse environments.^[2] While predominantly associated with over 400,000 beetle species, similar elytra-like modifications appear in some true bugs (Hemiptera), such as members of the family Schizopteridae, though these are less common and vary in rigidity.^[3] Elytra play multifaceted roles beyond basic protection, contributing to anti-predator defenses, thermoregulation, waterproofing, and even acoustic signaling in some species.^[4] For instance, in beetles, the elytra seal the body against desiccation and physical damage, allowing colonization of arid or hostile habitats, as demonstrated in studies of the red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum), where intact elytra significantly improve resilience to mechanical stress and starvation.^[5] Evolutionarily, elytra represent an adaptation of the forewings, freeing the hindwings for powered flight while the elytra hinge open during takeoff and are typically held open during flight in many species.^[6] This dual-purpose design has been pivotal in the evolutionary success of Coleoptera, the largest order of insects, enabling beetles to thrive in terrestrial, aquatic, and subterranean niches.^[4] The structural diversity of elytra reflects their adaptive versatility; for example, some terrestrial beetles exhibit iridescent or textured surfaces for camouflage,^[7] while some stygobitic species of diving beetles (Dytiscidae) have streamlined elytra fused along the midline to form a more rigid structure.^[8] In earwigs (Dermaptera), the forewings (tegmina) are shorter and more leathery, serving a similar protective role but allowing greater flexibility.^[9] Ongoing research highlights elytra's biomechanical properties, inspiring biomimetic designs in materials science for lightweight armor and composites.^[10]

Anatomy and Structure

Composition and Materials

The elytron of beetles is primarily composed of a chitin-protein matrix, where chitin microfibrils are embedded within a protein framework, forming a lightweight composite material akin to the broader insect exoskeleton. This structure is reinforced through sclerotization, involving the incorporation of cross-linked proteins that enhance rigidity and durability. In species such as the diabolical ironclad beetle (Phloeodes diabolicus), the elytral composition typically includes approximately 32.7 wt% chitin, 52.7 wt% proteins, and 14.6 wt% lipids, contributing to its mechanical resilience.^[11] Sclerotization, the key process hardening the elytron, entails the enzymatic oxidation of phenolic compounds like N-acylcatecholamines into reactive quinones or quinone methides, which then cross-link cuticular proteins and interact with chitin fibers to form stable sclerotin complexes. This biochemical tanning occurs in stages: pre-ecdysial sclerotization in specialized regions before molting, where initial hardening prepares the structure, followed by post-ecdysial rigidification after ecdysis, during which the soft, newly formed elytron expands and stiffens over hours to days via hormone-regulated processes like bursicon signaling. In beetles like Tribolium castaneum, this leads to a dramatic shift from a flexible state (Young's modulus ~44 MPa shortly after eclosion) to a rigid one (Young's modulus ~1.2 GPa after maturation).^[12]^[13] Microstructurally, the elytron features distinct layers that dictate its properties: the exocuticle forms the hard outer layer, consisting of stacked chitin-protein lamellae extensively sclerotized for strength; the endocuticle provides a softer, more flexible inner support with less cross-linking; and the thin epicuticle overlays the surface as a waxy, lipid-rich barrier preventing water loss and microbial invasion. These layers are evident in cross-sections of species like Tribolium castaneum, where the exocuticle dominates the dorsal elytron for protection.^[14]^[11] Material properties vary across species, with elytral density typically ranging from 0.89 to 1.2 g/cm³, reflecting differences in hydration and composition; for instance, elytra of the weevil Liparus glabrirostris exhibit a density of 1.2 g/cm³. Tensile strength can reach up to 194 MPa in the longitudinal direction for fresh elytra of diving beetles like Cybister spp., while in Tenebrio molitor, fully sclerotized elytra achieve fracture stresses around 45 MPa with a Young's modulus of 3.3 GPa, establishing their scale for load-bearing. Variations include elevated chitin content in ground beetles (Carabidae), such as Cicindela spp., which enhances puncture resistance through denser microfibril packing in the exocuticle, adapting to predatory pressures.^[15]^[16]^[17]

Morphology and Form

The elytra of beetles are paired, flattened, and sclerotized forewings that meet along a midline suture, forming a protective dorsal cover over the abdomen and hindwings.^[18] These structures are typically hardened and rigid, distinguishing Coleoptera from other insect orders where forewings remain membranous.^[19] Their length varies widely with beetle body size, ranging from approximately 0.25 mm in the smallest species to over 100 mm in large forms, though most species exhibit elytra measuring 1–50 mm.^[20] Key morphological features include a basal hinge connecting each elytron to the thorax, enabling elevation during flight, with apical margins that are often rounded in ground-dwelling species or more pointed in others adapted for burrowing.^[21] In certain taxa, such as scarab and cerambycid beetles, elytra bear stridulatory files or ridges—elevated striated projections or tubercles—that facilitate sound production when rubbed against thoracic structures.^[4] Anatomically, elytra attach to the pterothorax via interlocking microtrichia fields and pleural processes, creating a secure yet flexible joint.^[22] Beneath this cover lies an internal cavity where the delicate hindwings fold compactly when not in use.^[23] In most beetles, elytra extend to cover 80–100% of the abdominal tergites, providing comprehensive shielding, though exceptions occur in brachypterous groups like rove beetles where coverage is reduced.^[19] Asymmetry appears in select lineages, such as certain Curculionidae (weevils), where one elytron may twist or differ in shape to accommodate specialized locomotion or mating behaviors. Developmentally, elytra originate from forewing imaginal discs that proliferate during the final larval instar and sclerotize during pupation, resulting in veinless, non-functional wing analogs unlike the venated hindwings.^[24] This process involves hormonal cues like ecdysone, transforming the discs into hardened plates without the vascular patterns of flight-capable wings.

Biological Functions

Protection and Defense

The elytra primarily function as a protective shield for the delicate membranous hindwings of beetles, folding tightly over them to prevent abrasion and injury during terrestrial activities such as crawling through vegetation or burrowing into soil. This coverage is essential, as the hindwings are thin and vulnerable to mechanical damage; experimental removal of elytra in the red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum) resulted in significantly higher rates of hindwing tearing and increased mortality from predator attacks by wolf spiders (e.g., Pardosa milvina).^[19] In burying beetles of the family Silphidae, such as species in the genus Nicrophorus, the closed elytra provide mechanical protection for the hindwings during burrowing activities, enabling these insects to dig without compromising flight capability upon emergence.^[19] As physical armor, the elytra defend the beetle's body against predators by absorbing impacts and resisting penetration. Their sclerotized structure provides mechanical resilience; for example, the diabolical ironclad beetle (Phloeodes diabolicus) endures compressive forces up to 149 N—equivalent to 39,000 times its body weight—due to interlocking elytral sutures that distribute stress across the exoskeleton. Puncture resistance studies reveal variability across species, with the stag beetle (Trypoxylus dichotomus) withstanding forces of approximately 8.8 N and P. diabolicus up to 24.7 N before failure, highlighting the elytra's role in thwarting mandible bites or stings. Certain species enhance this defense through elytral coloration: iridescent hues in jewel beetles (Buprestidae) aid camouflage against visual predators by mimicking foliage or metallic backgrounds, while bold patterns in others serve as warning signals.^[19] The elytra also protect against environmental stressors, particularly desiccation, via the hydrophobic epicuticle that forms a waterproof barrier over the body and spiracles. In darkling beetles (Tenebrionidae), such as those in arid habitats, waxy blooms on the elytra reduce evaporative water loss, and elytra ablation increases desiccation rates by exposing permeable abdominal surfaces.^[19] This waterproofing is complemented by thermal insulation properties, where the elytral layer and underlying subelytral cavity trap air to buffer temperature fluctuations in extreme environments, helping species like desert tenebrionids maintain internal homeostasis during diurnal heat cycles.^[5] Defensive behaviors involving the elytra further bolster protection; many beetles exhibit reflexive elevation or partial opening of the elytra to startle approaching predators, exposing hindwings or revealing hidden structures as a deimatic display. In net-winged beetles (Lycidae), this rapid movement combines with chemical defenses to deter attacks.^[25] Additionally, in some blister beetles (Meloidae), such as Epicauta species, cantharidin—a vesicant toxin present in the hemolymph—provides a deterrent against vertebrate predators, released via reflex bleeding; while elytral structures may store cantharidin for mating purposes, defensive release is primarily through body fluids.^[19]

Role in Locomotion and Flight

In beetles, the elytra play a critical role in facilitating flight by elevating and separating along the midline suture to expose the folded hindwings beneath. This process is actively powered by direct and indirect elytral muscles located in the mesothorax and metathorax, enabling rapid deployment prior to takeoff. In species such as Melolontha hippocastani and Allomyrina dichotoma, the initial phase involves elevating the closed elytra by 10–12° while parting them with a subtle inward turn of less than 2–3° to release the sutural lock, followed by broader abduction that can reach up to 90° or more relative to the body midline, depending on the species.^[21]^[21]^[26] The kinematics of elytral opening involve a complex double rotation around the humeral angle at the elytron's base, where the articulation functions as a near-spherical mechanism allowing coordinated abduction and supination. This rotation traces flat circular arcs for the elytral apex, with the axis of abduction-adduction oriented contralaterally and tilted forward or backward based on the beetle's morphology—for instance, forward in scarabs like Melolontha and backward in jewel beetles like Chalcophora mariana. Closing occurs indirectly through elevation of the prothorax, which presses against the elytron roots to adduct them, often aided by mechanical coupling rather than direct muscle action; in Melolontha hippocastani, full closure takes approximately 0.24 seconds following partial adduction. While elastic structures like resilin may contribute to recoil in some taxa, the primary mechanism relies on thoracic sclerite interactions.^[26]^[21]^[27] The energy required to lift the elytra during takeoff preparation represents a notable portion of the overall aerodynamic effort, with studies indicating that elytral presence can contribute approximately 40% to vertical force production in tethered flight scenarios, though this comes at the cost of reduced hindwing span efficiency. In ladybird beetles (Coccinellidae), such as Coccinella septempunctata, the elytra snap shut rapidly post-flight—within about 2 seconds—to secure the hindwings, using abdominal lifting and microspicules on tergal plates to facilitate folding and enclosure.^[28]^[29] In flightless beetles, such as those in the families Carabidae and Tenebrionidae, the elytra often fuse along the mesal edge into a single rigid shield, enhancing streamlining for terrestrial locomotion like rapid running or jumping while eliminating the need for wing exposure. This fusion minimizes drag and supports efficient movement across substrates, as seen in ground-dwelling species where the consolidated structure aids propulsion without aerodynamic compromise.^[19] For burrowing and swimming in ground-dwelling taxa like dung beetles (Scarabaeidae, e.g., Geotrupes stercorarius), the elytra streamline the body profile by providing a smooth, anti-adhesive surface that reduces friction during soil penetration or dung manipulation, allowing efficient tunneling and brood provisioning beneath pats. In semi-aquatic or moist environments, this configuration similarly aids hydrodynamic flow, protecting the abdomen while facilitating short-distance submersion or navigation through wet substrates.^[19]^[19]

Evolutionary Aspects

Origins and Development in Coleoptera

The elytra of Coleoptera originated as a modification of the ancestral forewings, with their formation occurring early in beetle evolution during the Late Carboniferous period, approximately 300 million years ago, among stem-group lineages.^[19] This transformation involved the gradual sclerotization of the forewings into protective covers, a process completed by the Middle to Late Permian, as evidenced by fossil records of early beetle families such as †Tshekardocoleidae from Carboniferous deposits, which exhibit elongated elytra extending beyond the abdomen without the inward-folded epipleura seen in later forms.^[19] In the Polyphaga clade, the largest suborder comprising over 90% of beetle species, this derivation from winged forewings enabled access to diverse terrestrial niches, with further refinements appearing in Permian fossils like †Permocupedidae and †Rhombocoleidae, featuring parallel venation and tighter abdominal enclosure.^[19] The earliest definitive beetle fossil, †Coleopsis archaica from the Early Permian (around 290 million years ago), displays hardened forewings consistent with proto-elytra, highlighting the rapid evolution of this structure for enhanced protection.^[30] Ontogenetically, elytra development commences in the larval stage with the evagination of wing primordia as soft pads along the body.^[31] During pupation, these pads undergo sclerotization, where epidermal cells secrete layered cuticles that cross-link via quinone-mediated tanning, transforming the flexible structures into rigid, pigmented covers; this process typically spans 5-14 days in the pupal and immediate post-eclosion phases, depending on species and environmental conditions.^[31] In the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum, for instance, major cuticular proteins like TcCPR27 and TcCPR18 peak in expression during the pharate adult stage, driving the dorsal layer's hardening while the ventral remains membranous, resulting in a cavernous interior for lightweight strength.^[31] The genetic basis involves Hox genes such as Ultrabithorax (Ubx), which promotes membranous hindwing identity; Ubx knockdown in Tribolium converts hindwings into elytra-like structures by altering downstream gene expression (e.g., spalt, iroquois), indicating that elytra form in a relatively Hox-free state compared to typical wings.^[32] Key evolutionary events include the frequent loss of flight capability, observed in many beetle species, often linked to elytral fusion along the mesal edge for enhanced sealing against desiccation and predation in arid or insular environments.^[19] This fusion, common in flightless groups like certain Carabidae and Tenebrionidae, prioritizes protective functions over mobility.^[19] Cretaceous adaptive radiation, particularly during the angiosperm diversification around 100 million years ago, drove the proliferation of varied elytral forms, with the structure's plasticity enabling beetles to exploit new ecological niches such as herbivory and subcortical habitats, contributing to their extraordinary species richness.^[33] Selective pressures in terrestrial environments, including predation avoidance and water conservation, favored elytral enlargement in lineages like Scarabaeoidea, where environmental shifts promoted morphological differentiation for superior mechanical resistance and niche partitioning.^[34]

Occurrence in Other Insect Groups

While elytra are a defining feature of Coleoptera, analogous hardened or partially sclerotized forewings have evolved independently in a few other insect orders, primarily for protection of the hindwings and body, reflecting convergent adaptations to similar environmental pressures such as predation.^[19] These structures differ from true elytra in their incomplete sclerotization, partial flight functionality, and less extensive coverage of the abdomen. In the order Hemiptera, particularly within the suborder Heteroptera, the forewings are known as hemelytra, which exhibit partial hardening with a leathery basal portion (corium) and a membranous distal region, allowing for both protection and flight.^[35] This dual structure contrasts with the uniformly sclerotized elytra of beetles, as hemelytra often show a visible division between the hardened corium and the transparent membrane, providing less complete shielding.^[36] In rare cases, such as within the family Schizopteridae (litter bugs), the forewings approach an elytron-like form, being more fully elytriform and rounded, with reduced venation and enhanced sclerotization that limits flight capability while offering beetle-like protection.^[3] Such fully hardened forewings occur in only a small fraction of Hemiptera species, primarily in ground-dwelling or litter-inhabiting taxa exposed to high predation risks.^[3] The order Dermaptera (earwigs) features tegmina, short leathery forewings that cover and protect the fan-like hindwings, serving a role similar to elytra but with greater flexibility and reduced length that exposes much of the abdomen.^[37] These tegmina evolved independently from beetle elytra, with fossil evidence tracing their origin to the Late Triassic around 220–250 million years ago, predating the diversification of modern earwigs and arising from blattodean-like ancestors through gradual shortening and toughening of the forewings.^[38] Unlike elytra, tegmina retain some mobility for unfolding the hindwings during flight and are not as rigidly sclerotized, adapting to the earwigs' nocturnal, crevice-dwelling lifestyle under predatory threats.^[38] In Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, and katydids), the forewings are modified into tegmina that are leathery and overlapping but remain more pliable than elytra, functioning in sound production and protection without full hardening. These structures provide partial coverage of the hindwings, differing from beetle elytra by lacking complete sclerotization and often bearing stridulatory features for acoustic defense against predators.^[39] The evolution of such tegmina in Orthoptera, like in other groups, likely converged due to shared selective pressures from predation, favoring forewing modifications that balance protection with mobility in terrestrial habitats.^[19]

Variations and Adaptations

Differences Across Beetle Families

Elytra exhibit considerable morphological variation across beetle families, reflecting adaptations to diverse habitats, locomotion styles, and ecological roles. These differences primarily involve shape, surface texture, and coverage of the abdomen, influencing protection, mobility, and camouflage. In ground beetles of the family Carabidae, elytra are typically elongate and punctate, with fine striae and intervals that facilitate rapid running across soil surfaces and provide camouflage through earth-toned patterns.^[19] Some species display a metallic sheen on the elytra, generated by multilayer reflectors in the cuticle, which may serve defensive or signaling functions.^[40] This elongation supports streamlined movement in predatory lifestyles.^[41] In contrast, scarab beetles of the Scarabaeidae family possess broad, convex elytra featuring prominent longitudinal ridges or striae, which enhance structural rigidity for burrowing and dung-rolling behaviors.^[42] These elytra often cover the abdomen fully, with convex intervals providing stability during excavation in soil, and in arid-adapted subgroups like Geotrupidae, they may fuse along the suture to conserve water.^[19] The broader form prioritizes durability over speed in subterranean activities.^[43] Weevils in the Curculionidae family show shortened and often asymmetrical elytra that do not fully cover the abdomen, exposing the pygidium and allowing greater abdominal flexibility for climbing plant stems and navigating foliage. This truncation, independent in multiple lineages, aids in precise movements on irregular surfaces and can include declivities or spines for additional functional roles like burrow maintenance.^[19] Elytral asymmetry may further accommodate the elongated rostrum characteristic of the family, with the exposed pygidium often bearing setae for sensory or defensive purposes.^[44] Rove beetles of the Staphylinidae family have notably short elytra with truncate or edged apices, enabling exceptional abdominal flexibility essential for rapid running and maneuvering in leaf litter or soil crevices.^[45] These elytra, covering only the basal portion of the abdomen, fold compactly to protect hindwings while permitting the body to curl defensively or pursue prey.^[19] The reduced coverage enhances agility, with microtrichia on the inner surfaces aiding wing folding during non-flight periods.^[46] Across these families, elytral color polymorphism is observed in many species, contributing to aposematic warning or crypsis through varied patterns on the elytra.^[47] Such variations underscore the elytron's role in evolutionary diversification within Coleoptera.^[19]

Specialized Modifications

In certain beetle lineages, elytra have evolved stridulatory modifications, featuring file-like ridges that enable sound production when rubbed against hind legs. In the family Lucanidae, such as stag beetles, these ridges on the elytra or associated structures are scraped by a plectrum on the hind femora, generating acoustic signals for communication or defense, with dominant frequencies typically ranging from 2 to 10 kHz.^[48]^[49] Bioluminescent integration represents another specialized elytral adaptation, particularly in the family Lampyridae (fireflies), where the elytra are raised to expose ventral photic organs in the abdomen that emit light via the oxidation of luciferin in specialized cells. This allows bioluminescent signals to serve functions like mate attraction without obstructing the dorsal covering.^[50]^[51] Elytral modifications for mimicry enhance survival through camouflage or deception. In Chrysomelidae, such as leaf beetles in the subfamily Hispinae (e.g., Hispa species), the elytra are shaped and textured to resemble leaves, complete with vein-like patterns and coloration that blend with foliage, reducing predation risk by masquerading as plant material. Similarly, in Cassidinae (tortoise beetles), the elytra feature expandable, inflatable marginal flanges that can be extended like a translucent shield, mimicking thorns or enlarging the body silhouette for defensive display against predators.^[52]^[53] Extreme miniaturization has led to highly reduced elytra in Ptiliidae (featherwing beetles), the smallest free-living insects, where elytra measure approximately 0.5 mm or less in length to accommodate micro-scale flight dynamics. These diminutive covers protect the fringed hindwings while minimizing aerodynamic drag, enabling high-speed flight comparable to larger relatives despite body sizes under 0.5 mm.^[54]^[55] In flightless island endemics, such as certain New Zealand beetles (e.g., in Carabidae and other families), elytra often fuse along the midline, forming a seamless, hardened dorsal shield that enhances protection in isolated habitats where flight is unnecessary and energy conservation is advantageous. This fusion, coupled with vestigial hindwings, supports terrestrial lifestyles in stable, predator-limited environments like forests and soils.^[56]^[19] In some species, such as tortoise beetles, elytra exhibit self-healing properties following minor damage, inspired by which biomimetic materials have been developed.^[57]

Scientific Research and Applications

Mechanical Properties and Biomimicry

The elytra of beetles display remarkable mechanical properties, characterized by anisotropic stiffness that is higher along the longitudinal axis due to the aligned orientation of chitin fibers within the exoskeleton. This anisotropy contributes to enhanced load-bearing capacity in the direction of natural stress during locomotion or impact. Fracture toughness in beetle elytra and related insect cuticles typically ranges from about 1.5 to 4 MPa·m^{1/2}, primarily resulting from the helicoidal arrangement of chitin fibers in the Bouligand structure, which deflects cracks and dissipates energy through delamination and fiber bridging.^[58]^[59] Testing methods such as nanoindentation have been employed to quantify these properties, revealing an elastic modulus of 5-10 GPa for the elytral material, varying by species and layer. For instance, in the stag beetle (Lucanus cervus), the outer layer exhibits a modulus of approximately 4-8 GPa (tensile/flexural), while inner layers are softer at around 2.6-2.7 GPa, enabling graded deformation. Impact resistance arises from the layered microstructure, including exocuticle and endocuticle regions, which provide progressive energy absorption and prevent brittle failure.^[60]^[58]^[61] These properties have inspired biomimicry applications in engineering, particularly for developing lightweight composites that mimic the elytra's hierarchical architecture for armor. Elytron-inspired designs, such as the Beetle Elytron Plate (BEP), offer superior compressive strength and energy dissipation compared to traditional honeycomb structures, with potential uses in protective gear. Additionally, 3D-printed structures replicating beetle wing mechanics have been integrated into drones to enhance flapping efficiency and resilience, reducing drag while maintaining lift during maneuvers.^[62]^[63] A 2011 study on Tenebrio molitor elytra highlighted their biomaterial properties, leading to subsequent designs with lower density and comparable strength to conventional synthetic composites. By 2023, elytra-inspired prototypes had advanced to automotive panels, leveraging the BEP for crash energy management and reduced vehicle mass. As of 2025, ongoing research includes reviews of biomimetic structures and 2024 studies on elytra-inspired lattice designs demonstrating enhanced mechanical responses for engineering applications.^[64]^[62]^[65]^[61]^[66] Despite these advances, challenges persist in biomimicry, particularly the scalability of replicating the natural helicoidal fiber arrangement through manufacturing processes like 3D printing or composite layup, which often results in inconsistencies in fiber alignment and increased production costs. The compositional basis of chitin-protein matrices underpins these properties but requires precise control to achieve natural-like performance at industrial scales.^[67]

Studies on Function and Evolution

Functional studies on elytra have explored their kinematic roles in beetle locomotion and communication. A 2005 investigation into the geometry of elytra opening and closing examined movements in multiple beetle species from the suborder Polyphaga, revealing that elytra are actively driven by muscles during transient phases, with opening angles varying based on hinge mechanics and body size to facilitate hindwing deployment.^[21] Acoustic analyses have further highlighted elytral involvement in stridulation, where friction between elytra and other body parts produces sounds; an overview of stridulation mechanisms across Coleoptera documented such sound production in numerous families, emphasizing elytra as key structures in defensive or mating signals, though ethological contexts remain understudied.^[48] Evolutionary research has traced elytral diversification in the context of major extinction events and morphological co-adaptation. A 2023 systematic review on elytral reduction and redundancy in Coleoptera linked post-Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) diversification to adaptive shifts, noting that elytra evolved as key innovations but underwent reductions in certain lineages following the mass extinction, influencing overall beetle radiation.^[68] Geometric morphometric approaches have illuminated co-evolution between elytra and the pronotum, demonstrating correlated shape changes that enhance structural integration and flight efficiency across beetle taxa.^[69] Methodological advances have enabled detailed examinations of elytral function and phylogeny. Computed tomography (CT) scanning has revealed internal microstructures, such as layered reinforcements and vein patterns, in various beetle species, providing insights into how these contribute to protective and aerodynamic roles without invasive dissection.^[70] Phylogenetic mapping, incorporating genomic and fossil data, has shown elytral loss or reduction in many beetle lineages, often associated with shifts to subterranean or aquatic lifestyles where flight is less critical.^[71] Specific studies have quantified elytral variations in focal groups. A 2019 analysis using geometric morphometrics on stag beetles (Lucanidae) across four subfamilies measured shape disparities in elytra, identifying distinct evolutionary trajectories linked to sexual dimorphism and habitat preferences, with principal component analyses highlighting subfamily-specific contours.^[69] Fossil evidence from amber-preserved elytra has supported Permian origins for elytral structures, with 2022 reanalyses of early fossils confirming primitive forms in Tshekardocoleidae and paralleling modern designs, though direct DNA recovery remains elusive due to preservation limits.^[72] Despite these advances, notable gaps persist in understanding elytral microbiomes and their role in climate adaptation. Research on beetle gut microbiomes indicates potential symbiotic influences on environmental resilience, but elytra-specific microbial communities—possibly aiding in UV protection or desiccation resistance—lack comprehensive surveys.^[73] Similarly, while body size reductions in beetles correlate with warming temperatures, data on elytral modifications for thermal regulation or drought tolerance in changing climates are limited, hindering predictions of beetle responses to global environmental shifts.^[74]

Cultural and Media Representations

In Literature and Art

In ancient Egyptian culture, scarab amulets dating to around 2000 BCE depicted the dung beetle's form, including its hardened elytra, as potent symbols of rebirth and regeneration, inspired by the insect's observed emergence from pupal stages resembling resurrection.^[75]^[76] These amulets, often carved from stone or faience, were worn or placed in tombs to invoke eternal renewal, with the elytra's protective shell evoking the sun god Khepri's daily rebirth.^[77] Medieval bestiaries frequently described beetles' hard "shells"—referring to their elytra—as remarkable natural armor, attributing medicinal properties to features like the stag beetle's horns while noting the insect's nocturnal flight and protective covering beneath which delicate wings hid.^[78]^[79] Such accounts, found in illuminated manuscripts like the Aberdeen Bestiary, portrayed the elytra as a divine mechanism for safeguarding vulnerability, blending observation with moral allegory on resilience against adversity.^[80] In literature, Franz Kafka's 1915 novella The Metamorphosis features protagonist Gregor Samsa's transformation into a giant insect with a stiff exoskeleton akin to elytra, symbolizing alienation and entrapment within an unyielding outer form.^[81]^[82] Poets of the Romantic era, such as those drawing on natural imagery for themes of endurance, employed beetle motifs to evoke metaphors of quiet persistence amid hardship, reflecting the era's fascination with nature's tenacity.^[83] Artistic representations of elytra appear in 19th-century natural history engravings, notably John James Audubon's Birds of America, where detailed depictions of beetles alongside avian subjects highlighted the iridescent sheen and structural intricacy of elytra for scientific illustration.^[84]^[85] In modern bio-art, sculptures inspired by elytra's iridescence, such as larger-than-life installations at Yale's Peabody Museum, mimic the jewel-like quality of beetle wing covers to explore themes of natural beauty and ecological wonder.^[86] Beetle elytra have been incorporated into jewelry by indigenous Amazonian groups, including the Shuar people, who craft headdresses and ornaments from the iridescent wing cases of species like Euchroma gigantea to signify status and spiritual protection.^[87]

In Modern Media and Games

In films and television, elytra have been depicted as integral elements of beetle anatomy in props and animations, emphasizing their protective and ominous qualities. In the 1999 film The Mummy, scarab beetles—real-world representatives of the family Scarabaeidae with prominent elytra—feature prominently as deadly props that swarm and burrow into victims, symbolizing ancient curses; these designs drew from authentic Egyptian scarab motifs while exaggerating the insects' hardened wing covers for dramatic effect.^[88] Similarly, Pixar's 1998 animated feature A Bug's Life incorporates elytra into the character designs of beetle-like insects, such as the ladybug Francis, whose red shell with black spots represents stylized elytra for visual appeal and to highlight the film's anthropomorphic insect world.^[89] Video games have popularized elytra through functional mechanics inspired by their biological role as wing protectors. In Minecraft, elytra were introduced in Java Edition 1.9 (the Combat Update, released February 29, 2016) as rare, wearable wing items that enable gliding flight, directly modeled after beetle elytra to provide players with enhanced mobility in survival mode while requiring repair with phantom membranes to maintain durability.^[90] This item has become a staple in gameplay, allowing exploration across vast worlds and influencing speedrunning strategies. Documentaries and comics extend elytra's presence in modern media by showcasing their real-world functions and as defensive features in fictional antagonists. The BBC's Planet Earth series (2006) highlights elytra in segments on insect behavior, such as dung beetles using their hardened covers for protection during nocturnal navigation under starlight in savanna episodes. In comic books, Marvel's Beetle (Abner Jenkins), debuting in Strange Tales #123 (1964), wears powered armor with deployable wing cases mimicking elytra for shielding and flight, portraying the villain as a technologically enhanced insectoid foe in battles against Spider-Man and the Avengers.^[91] Educational digital media has leveraged elytra models for immersive learning. In 2023, the virtual reality game EntomonVR incorporated 3D insect models, including those of Coleoptera (beetles), to teach morphology; users can examine detailed elytra structures interactively, aiding entomology education by simulating dissection without physical specimens.^[92]

References

[1]
ELYTRON Definition & Meaning - Merriam-Webster
The meaning of ELYTRON is one of the anterior wings in beetles and some other insects that serve to protect the posterior pair of functional wings.
[2]
elytron, elytra, elytral, elytrum - BugGuide.Net
elytron noun, plural elytra, adjective elytral - the wing cases; especially the hardened sheath-like fore-wings of Coleoptera (Beetles).
[3]
Elytra - Entomologists' glossary
Elytra (singular elytron) are the tough fore wings of beetles and earwigs. The elytra are not used in flight but are used to protect the more delicate hind ...
[4]
Beetle elytra: evolution, modifications and biological functions
Mar 1, 2023 · Beetle elytra can be involved in a very broad spectrum of functions: mechanical protection of hind wings and body, anti-predator strategies, thermoregulation ...
[5]
Functional value of elytra under various stresses in the red flour ...
Oct 6, 2016 · The presence of elytra is thought to have allowed beetles to expand into a variety of niches by protecting the beetle against an array of harsh ...
[6]
Geometry of elytra opening and closing in some beetles (Coleoptera ...
Aug 15, 2005 · The elytra in beetles are the forewings, modified for a protective function. The rigid elytra reliably seal the wings and abdominal spiracles ...
[7]
[PDF] Structural Design Variations in Beetle Elytra - Wiley Online Library
Beetles typically use their protective wing coverings or elytra to shield their membranous hindwings from the environment. Elytra in some terrestrial species ...
[8]
Structure and mechanical properties of beetle wings: a review
Beetle wings are composed of a forewing (also known as elytron) and a hind wing. The elytra are rigid. A beetle's functional wings, which allow flying, are the ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[9]
Chemistry of Cuticular Sclerotization - ScienceDirect.com
Sclerotization involves the reactions of endogenously generated reactive catecholamine derivates with structural proteins and chitin fibers.
[10]
Formation of Rigid, Non-Flight Forewings (Elytra) of a Beetle ... - NIH
Apr 26, 2012 · Like other beetle species, T. castaneum adults possess elytra, modified forewings with a highly sclerotized and pigmented dorsal cuticle.Missing: composition | Show results with:composition
[11]
Development and ultrastructure of the rigid dorsal and flexible ...
The beetle elytron, which is a highly modified and sclerotized forewing, offers excellent advantages for such a study because it can be easily isolated at ...
[12]
[PDF] Water Bound in Elytra of the Weevil Liparus glabrirostris (Küster ...
The overall surface equals ca. 56 mm2; the den- sity 1.2 g/cm3, and the surface-to-mass ratio 44 cm2/g. Detailed ...
[13]
Macro-/Micro-Structures of Elytra, Mechanical Properties of the ...
Aug 10, 2025 · The tensile strengths in length and width of the coleopter's elytra (only 0.89 g/cm 3 in density) are 218 and 198 MPa/(g/cm3), respectively, ...Missing: cm³ | Show results with:cm³
[14]
The Ultrastructure Of The Epicuticular Interference Reflectors Of ...
Jul 1, 1985 · Tiger beetles of the genus Cicindela exhibit iridescent structural coloration due to the presence of a non-ideal multilayer interference ...<|control11|><|separator|>
[15]
Elytra - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
MORPHOLOGY. Adult beetles are distinguished from all other insects by the presence of hardened fore wings called elytra (singular elytron) that cover and ...
[16]
Beetle elytra: evolution, modifications and biological functions - PMC
Mar 1, 2023 · Beetle elytra can be involved in a very broad spectrum of functions: mechanical protection of hind wings and body, anti-predator strategies, thermoregulation ...
[17]
Elytron - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics
The size range of beetles is impressive, varying from 0.25 to 150 mm; however, most species are 2–20 mm long. Black and brown are the most common colors seen in ...Missing: dimensions | Show results with:dimensions
[18]
Geometry of elytra opening and closing in some beetles (Coleoptera ...
In beetles, the system responsible for an attachment of forewings (elytra) to the thorax consists of interlocking fields of microtrichia (MT) located ...
[19]
External beetle morphology - Kerbtier.de
The elytra are the stiff and strongly sclerotized forewings of the beetles, modified to protect the sensitive hindwings (alae) when at rest. They are not any ...
[20]
[PDF] Ultrabithorax is required for membranous wing identity in the beetle ...
In Tribolium, hindwing and elytron imaginal discs develop during the last larval stage, in a fashion similar to the mealworm beetle28 (Y.T., manuscript in ...
[21]
Netwing beetles: Beautiful and toxic to predators - Adirondack Explorer
Nov 16, 2020 · Toxic to predators. Net-winged beetles do not rely exclusively on the strategy of using their predators' intelligence against them. Reflex ...
[22]
Double rotation of the opening (closing) elytra in beetles (Coleoptera)
The elytra's traces of opening and closing coincide, and their double rotation has one degree of freedom [92]. Elytra and body articulation are connected by a ...
[23]
Indirect closing of the elytra in a cockchafer, Melolontha ...
Jun 1, 2010 · Other specimens were able to partially close their elytra in the clamped state, followed by recoil after the release. In order to elucidate ...
[24]
Elytra boost lift, but reduce aerodynamic efficiency in flying beetles
May 16, 2012 · We show that the presence of the elytra increases vertical force production by approximately 40 per cent, indicating that they contribute to weight support.Missing: percentage | Show results with:percentage
[25]
Investigation of hindwing folding in ladybird beetles by artificial ...
May 15, 2017 · The hindwings are simultaneously aligned backward and protrude out from the closed elytra. Held by the elytron, the wing is slightly folded in ...
[26]
The earliest beetle †Coleopsis archaica (Insecta: Coleoptera)
The earliest known fossil beetle †Coleopsis archaica is re-examined using Reflectance Transformation Imaging (RTI). The morphological observations are ...Missing: MYA | Show results with:MYA
[27]
Formation of Rigid, Non-Flight Forewings (Elytra) of a Beetle ...
... elytra are essential to prevent desiccation of the adult, in addition to other potentially protective functions. These results support the hypothesis that ...
[28]
Ultrabithorax is required for membranous wing identity in the beetle ...
Feb 10, 2005 · Here we show that in this beetle Ubx 'de-specializes' the hindwings, which are transformed to elytra when the gene is knocked down.
[29]
The evolution and genomic basis of beetle diversity - PNAS
Nov 18, 2019 · We recovered evidence for adaptive radiations of beetles into a variety of ecological niches. For example, predaceous ground beetles (Carabidae) ...
[30]
Evolutionary radiation strategy revealed in the Scarabaeidae ... - NIH
Jun 5, 2024 · We proposed that environmental selection pressures and ecological niche changes influenced the differentiation of the elytron in the following ...
[31]
[PDF] Wings or hemelytra? brief considerations on terminology in studies ...
Oct 29, 2021 · The anterior chorion is typically more sclerotized than the rest of the hemelytron, with visible veins, while the membranous part is more ...
[32]
[PDF] Lab 3: INSECT EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY
A variation of the elytra is the hemelytra. The forewings of Hemipterans are said to be hemelytrous because they are hardened throughout the proximal two- ...
[33]
Synopsis of Schizopteridae (Hemiptera, Heteroptera ... - ZooKeys
Nov 15, 2018 · Recognized among species of Glyptocombus by reddish-brown coloration, elytriform forewings in both sexes, forewing veins narrower than cells, ...
[34]
Earwigs (Dermaptera) from the Mesozoic of England and Australia ...
Feb 1, 2018 · They are elongate and dorsoventrally flattened with short leathery forewings (tegmina), which cover only the most anterior part of the abdomen.
[35]
Transitional fossil earwigs - a missing link in Dermaptera evolution
Nov 10, 2010 · The tegmina are long and outer margin produced into a point in three blattodean species, Isoperla, Belloderma gen. nov, Dermapteron, ...
[36]
Key Features of Wings – UNBC BIOL 322, Entomology
Beetles have elytra (hardened forewings). True bugs have hemelytra (partially hardened/leathery forewings).
[37]
[PDF] The genomic landscape of metallic color variation in ground beetles
Sep 26, 2023 · In this study, we characterize the geographical distribution, optical mechanism, genetic basis, and ecological and evolutionary importance of ...
[38]
The Mecyclothorax beetles (Coleoptera, Carabidae, Moriomorphini ...
Dec 11, 2015 · The elytra are subquadrate with tightly rounded humeral angles— MEW/HuW = 1.89–1.92—and the discal elytral intervals are convex, the associated ...
[39]
[PDF] Dung Beetles & chafers – Coleoptera - Royal Entomological Society
Elytral striae wide, as wide as intervals. Elytral inter- vals-narrow and strongly convex (fig. 23). (Head and pronotum black, elytra dark red to black ...
[40]
[PDF] The Superfamily Scarabaeoidea (Coleoptera) - Smithsonian Institution
Elytra 12 mm long, 10 mm wide. Shoulders smooth, impunctate; intervals noticeably convex, striae deep, coarsely annularly punctate, striae 3,. 4, and 5 ending ...
[41]
[PDF] and arachnids - Entomological Society of Canada – –
Elytra short, exposing. 2 abdominal tergites and pygidium . . . . H"ud. 'ot ... Pygidium with apex exposed beyond elytra. Type species. Rhynchites aeneus ...
[42]
EENY115/IN272: Rove Beetles of Florida, Staphylinidae (Insecta
In some (Micropeplinae and Pselaphinae) the abdomen is less flexible, and in a few the body form is much broader and the elytra almost cover (Scaphidiinae) or ...Missing: serrated edges
[43]
Hox-logic of body plan innovations for social symbiosis in rove beetles
May 8, 2018 · An exposed, flexible abdomen that is unhindered by overlying elytra consequently arose in Staphylinidae, without sacrificing the beetle's ...
[44]
Temporal variation in elytral colour polymorphism in Hippodamia ...
Here we report long term trends in variation in the percentage of different morphs in a population of Hippodamia variegata (Goeze) at Štúrovo, Slovakia.
[45]
(PDF) Stridulation in the Coleoptera – An Overview. - ResearchGate
Mar 16, 2016 · Many beetles produce a wide variety of sounds using a multitude of structures of the adult and larval body in an ethological context still widely unknown.
[46]
Stridulatory sound production and acoustic signals of the longhorn ...
All species produced a low amplitude biphastic sound pulse consisting of from 58 to 126 syllables, and exhibiting weak dominant frequencies (5.8-12.7 kHz).
[47]
https://www.eje.cz/artkey/eje-201203-0012_Temporal_variation_in_elytral_colour_polymorphism_in_Hippodamia_variegata_Coleoptera_Coccinellidae.php
[48]
How Fireflies Glow – and What Signals They're Sending
Jul 23, 2019 · Fireflies produce light in special organs in their abdomens by combining a chemical called luciferin, enzymes called luciferases, oxygen and the fuel for ...
[49]
leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae) use feeding damage as a ...
Jan 15, 2018 · We report on a unique variant of the masquerade strategy, wherein small herbivorous leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae) have recurrently evolved a close ...
[50]
BIOLOGY AND PHYLOGENY OF THE CASSIDINAE GYLLENHAL ...
The Chrysomelidae, or leaf beetles, comprise one of the largest animal families with more than 37,000 species arranged in approximately 2,000 genera and 19 ...
[51]
The novel flight style that helps the smallest beetles to excel - Phys.org
Jan 19, 2022 · An international team of researchers describes in detail the mechanisms of the extraordinarily fast flight of the smallest free-living insects.Missing: micro- | Show results with:micro-
[52]
Novel flight style and light wings boost flight performance of tiny ...
Jan 19, 2022 · Miniature featherwing beetles can fly at speeds and accelerations of insects three times their size.
[53]
Beetles | Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand
Despite their hardened forewings, called elytra, beetles can fly – often rather clumsily. ... As with New Zealand's native birds, the large, flightless beetles ...
[54]
Review on Mechanical Behaviours of Beetle Elytra-Inspired Structures
Aug 5, 2023 · This review paper provides an overview of the bio-inspired structures based on beetle elytra, including their materials and properties, design and applications ...Missing: hemocoel | Show results with:hemocoel
[55]
Temporal changes in the physical and mechanical properties of ...
Oct 1, 2022 · Tanning (sclerotization and pigmentation) is a process that occurs during maturation. Throughout this process, the elytron becomes stiffer, ...
[56]
Multilayer stag beetle elytra perform better under external loading ...
Jul 25, 2018 · The bottom layer has a modulus of 2.62 ± 0.92 GPa and fracture strength of 101.6 ± 46.6 MPa. Thus, top layer has stiffer response and also ...
[57]
Fracture toughness of locust cuticle - Company of Biologists Journals
May 1, 2012 · Our results show that the fracture toughness of cuticle in locust hind legs is 4.12 MPa m1/2 and decreases with desiccation of the cuticle.
[58]
Structural design inspired by beetle elytra and its mechanical ...
Because of the excellent mechanical properties of elytra, such as high intensity and toughness, anisotropy, and the ability to self-heal, they serve as good ...
[59]
[PDF] Mechanical properties of beetle elytra and biomimetic structures
Mar 13, 2025 · Abstract: The elytra of beetles are natural bio-composite materials, exhibiting exceptional mechanical properties attributed to their ...
[60]
The beetle elytron plate: a lightweight, high-strength and buffering ...
Jun 30, 2017 · To investigate the characteristics of compression, buffering and energy dissipation in beetle elytron plates (BEPs), compression experiments ...
[61]
Macro-/Micro-Structures of Elytra, Mechanical Properties of the ...
... Elytra, Mechanical Properties of the Biomaterial and the Coupling Strength Between Elytra in Beetles. Author links open overlay panel. Zhendong Dai , Zhixiang ...
[62]
Beetle Elytron-Inspired Structures for Enhanced Impact Resistance ...
Dec 4, 2024 · This study focuses on end-trabecular beetle elytron plates (EBEPs) and grid beetle elytron plates (GBEPs) fabricated through additive manufacturing with eco- ...Missing: panels | Show results with:panels
[63]
Biomimetic design of iridescent insect cuticles with tailored, self ...
Aug 14, 2020 · The primary challenge consists of finding the design rules to manufacture a single-piece material that presents variable physical properties ...Introduction · Lessons From Nature · Biomimetic Design<|control11|><|separator|>
[64]
When a key innovation becomes redundant: Patterns, drivers and ...
Dec 11, 2023 · The transformation of the fore wings into strongly sclerotized protective covers (elytra) is considered a fundamental evolutionary innovation of the ...
[65]
Geometric morphometric analysis of the pronotum and elytron in ...
Mar 25, 2019 · Our study provides insights into the morphological variations and evolutionary history of the pronotum and elytron in four subfamilies of stag beetles.
[66]
X-ray micro-computed tomography reveals a unique morphology in ...
Nov 19, 2020 · We used X-ray micro-computed tomography to reconstruct the morphology of an interesting click-beetle from Eocene Baltic amber.
[67]
Evolutionary history of Coleoptera revealed by extensive sampling ...
Jan 15, 2018 · The phylogeny of beetles, which represent ~25% of known extant animal species, has been a challenge to resolve. Here, Zhang et al. infer a time- ...
[68]
Permian parallelisms: Reanalysis of †Tshekardocoleidae sheds ...
Jul 28, 2022 · The condition found in the Early Permian fossil beetles ... (2022) Integrated phylogenomics and fossil data illuminate the evolution of beetles.Missing: DNA | Show results with:DNA
[69]
The gut microbiome mediates adaptation to scarce food in Coleoptera
Nov 13, 2023 · Here, we investigated the potential role of gut microbiota in the adaptation of beetles to caves from different climatic regions of the Carpathians.Amplicon Sequence Processing... · Cave Beetles Gut Microbiota · Discussion
[70]
(PDF) Decreases in beetle body size linked to climate change and ...
Oct 10, 2025 · We found that 95% of laboratory‐reared beetles decreased in size with increased rearing temperature, with larger‐bodied species shrinking ...Missing: microbiomes | Show results with:microbiomes
[71]
Scarabs for Kids
Observing a scarab emerging from a corpse-like mummy (the developmental stage known as pupa) was likened to rebirth. Egyptian priests thought that whatever ...
[72]
Cats. 86–87 Scarabs, Late Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom
One of the most iconic of ancient Egyptian symbols, the scarab represents the Scarabaeus sacer (dung beetle) that Egyptians observed pushing large balls of ...
[73]
Scarab Beetles in Human Culture - jstor
The ancient Egyptians attached much religious and symbolic significance to scarab beetles, and those who came later retained the sacred scarab as a charm.
[74]
A Medieval Beetle in the Rare Books Collection
May 16, 2016 · 'A flying beetle is similar in style to the cricket. They fly towards night and make a waspish noise. He has long horns that are medicinal, [and] ...<|separator|>
[75]
Beasts : Stag-beetle - Medieval Bestiary
Nov 14, 2023 · Under the wings, as he says, they have fine and thin wings (like a caterpillar). They fly mostly before the evening. They make a noise when ...Missing: shells | Show results with:shells
[76]
Medieval Bestiary : Animals in the Middle Ages
An online repository of information on the Medieval Book of Beasts - the Bestiary - its history, meaning and sources; and on animals in the Middle Ages inBeasts · Digital Text Library · Introduction · Manuscripts
[77]
[PDF] Kafka's Metamorphosis: Translation and Transformation by ...
This term is not only used for invertebrate bugs, but also rodents and other vertebrate pests. However, Gregor's stiff exoskeleton, his segmented abdomen, his ...
[78]
On Translating Kafka's “The Metamorphosis” | The New Yorker
Jan 14, 2014 · Gregor Samsa, giant bug, is a cartoon of the subaltern, a human being turned inside out. He has traded in his spine for an exoskeleton, but ...
[79]
Two Decades of Poetry by Sherod Santos - Valparaiso University
The speaker in this poem tries to revive, perhaps even revise, a time when he and his brother were yet innocent and the pains or many dangers of the world were ...
[80]
Transylvania professor's research on insects in Audubon prints ...
Jan 16, 2020 · James Wagner, a biology professor at Transylvania University, was perusing his school's well-known elephant folio edition of John James Audubon's “Birds of ...Missing: elytra | Show results with:elytra
[81]
https://the-zone.at/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/translation_and_transformation_by-_johannes_jaeger.pdf
[82]
Peabody's 'Beauty and the Beetle': Art and photos show insects ...
May 24, 2017 · The exhibition, on view through Aug. 6, combines select beetle specimens from the Peabody collections with larger-than-life beetle-inspired art.
[83]
Headdress from the Shuar (Jivaro) peoples of Amazonia Iridescent ...
Sep 15, 2025 · This headdress was created using two distinct types of elytra. One type came from the largest Buprestid (jewel beetle), Euchroma gigantea. These ...Missing: indigenous | Show results with:indigenous
[84]
The Alchemical Scarab: Symbol of Transformation In the ... - Instagram
Aug 29, 2023 · Originating from ancient Egypt, this beetle symbolized regeneration and cyclical rebirth. The Egyptians saw the scarab rolling its dung ball as ...Missing: impenetrable armor
[85]
Beetle Elytra: Nature's Ornament - Stitch Safari
The hard outer casings of the Jewel beetle, naturally mimic gem-like precious treasures in terms of utter brilliance and beauty.Missing: indigenous | Show results with:indigenous
[86]
[PDF] Locating the Sympathetic Insect: Cultural Entomol- ogy ...
Sep 17, 2021 · scarabs might also be inserted in the mummy wrappings or hung around the neck of ... Stephen Sommers's 1999 remake of The Mummy. One of the ...
[87]
Character Design. A Bug's Life, 1998 - MoMA
In A Bug's Life, artists had to decide how much “bug” to keep in the characters. Real insects have six legs – but the sympathetic ants have only four.
[88]
Beetle (Abner Jenkins) Comics | Marvel - Marvel.com
Marvel.com is the official site of Marvel Entertainment! Browse official Marvel movies, characters, comics, TV shows, videos, & more.Missing: elytra armor
[89]
a New Virtual Reality Game for Learning Insect Morphology - bioRxiv
Feb 3, 2023 · EntomonVR is a serious game designed to investigate the external morphology of insects with adequate quality for the virtual reality platform.