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Endovascular coiling

Endovascular coiling, also known as coil embolization, is a minimally invasive endovascular procedure primarily used to treat intracranial aneurysms by inserting soft, detachable platinum coils into the aneurysm sac via a catheter to block blood flow, promote clotting, and prevent rupture.^[1] The process begins with the insertion of a catheter into a peripheral artery, typically the femoral artery in the groin, under local or general anesthesia, followed by navigation to the aneurysm site using real-time X-ray imaging and contrast dye.^[2] Once positioned, multiple coils—thin wires about the width of a human hair—are deployed sequentially through the catheter, conforming to the aneurysm's shape to fill and seal it off from the parent blood vessel.^[3] The development of endovascular coiling traces back to the late 1980s, when early experiments with pushable coils for aneurysm occlusion were reported by S. K. Hilal in 1988, marking initial steps toward endosaccular packing without open surgery.^[4] A pivotal advancement occurred in the early 1990s with the invention of the Guglielmi detachable coil (GDC) system by Guido Guglielmi, which allowed controlled, retrievable coil placement and significantly improved safety and efficacy over non-detachable predecessors.^[5] This innovation launched modern endovascular neurosurgery, shifting treatment paradigms from invasive clipping to catheter-based methods, with widespread adoption following landmark trials like the International Subarachnoid Aneurysm Trial (ISAT) in the early 2000s that demonstrated superior outcomes for coiling in select ruptured aneurysms.^[4] In practice, the procedure typically lasts 1 to 3 hours and is performed in a specialized angiography suite, with patients monitored for 12 to 24 hours afterward and discharged after 1 to 2 days if uncomplicated.^[2] It offers key advantages over traditional surgical clipping, including shorter recovery times, reduced morbidity (especially in elderly or high-risk patients), and applicability to aneurysms in difficult locations.^[1] However, potential risks include stroke from vessel occlusion, aneurysm perforation during coil placement, allergic reactions to contrast dye, or incomplete occlusion requiring retreatment in up to 20% of cases.^[6] Ongoing advancements, such as bioactive coils that enhance thrombosis and adjunctive devices like stents for wide-neck aneurysms, continue to refine the technique and expand its use to unruptured aneurysms and other vascular malformations.^[5]

Introduction and Background

Definition and Principles

Endovascular coiling is a minimally invasive endovascular procedure used to treat intracranial aneurysms, involving the insertion of platinum coils through a catheter to promote thrombosis and occlusion of the aneurysm sac.^[1] This technique accesses the aneurysm via a femoral artery incision, guiding the catheter under fluoroscopic imaging to the target site, where detachable coils are deployed to fill the aneurysm and isolate it from the parent vessel's blood flow.^[1] Cerebral aneurysms are localized dilations of arterial walls in the brain, most commonly saccular (berry) type, which account for approximately 90% of cases and appear as rounded, sac-like protrusions typically at arterial bifurcations.^[7] Fusiform aneurysms, less common, involve spindle-shaped dilations along the entire circumference of the vessel wall.^[8] Rupture of these aneurysms leads to subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), a life-threatening condition with an incidence of 10 to 14 cases per 100,000 individuals annually in the United States, resulting in approximately 33,000 to 46,000 cases per year.^[9] The core principle of endovascular coiling relies on embolization, where the coils disrupt intra-aneurysmal blood flow, serving as a thrombogenic scaffold that triggers rapid clot formation—often within minutes—through mechanical obstruction and activation of the coagulation cascade.^[10] Over time, the thrombus organizes into fibrous tissue, stabilizing the occlusion and reducing the risk of rupture.^[10] This approach is particularly suitable for aneurysms measuring 3 to 25 mm in diameter and commonly located at sites such as the anterior communicating artery, which accounts for 23% to 40% of ruptured intracranial aneurysms.^[11] In contrast to open surgical clipping, coiling avoids craniotomy, offering a less invasive alternative for eligible cases.^[1]

Indications and Patient Selection

Endovascular coiling is primarily indicated for the treatment of ruptured cerebral aneurysms in patients with good clinical grades, specifically Hunt and Hess grades 1 to 3, to secure the aneurysm and prevent rebleeding, as recommended by the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association (AHA/ASA).^[12] For unruptured intracranial aneurysms, coiling is indicated when the aneurysm measures greater than 7 mm in diameter, particularly if located in the posterior circulation or associated with documented growth on serial imaging, due to elevated rupture risk.^[13] Additionally, coiling is suitable for wide-neck aneurysms that are amenable to adjunctive techniques such as stent-assisted or balloon-assisted deployment, especially for ruptured aneurysms in the posterior circulation where it is the preferred modality (Class 1 recommendation, Level B-R evidence).^[12] Patient selection for endovascular coiling emphasizes aneurysm morphology and individual risk factors to optimize outcomes. Favorable aneurysm characteristics include an aspect ratio (height to neck width) greater than 1.5, which facilitates effective coil packing and reduces recanalization risk.^[14] Age is a key consideration, with coiling reasonable and often preferred in patients older than 50 years due to lower procedural morbidity compared to surgical clipping (Class IIa, Level B evidence), though it may be considered up to age 80 in suitable candidates without excessive frailty.^[13] Comorbidities such as severe atherosclerosis or other conditions increasing surgical risk favor coiling, provided a multidisciplinary evaluation confirms the patient's ability to tolerate antiplatelet therapy if stents are required (Class 1, Level C-EO evidence).^[12] Contraindications to endovascular coiling include very small aneurysms less than 3 mm, which carry a low rupture risk and are typically managed conservatively with observation.^[13] Aneurysms with very wide necks exceeding 4 mm may pose challenges without adjunctive devices, potentially rendering coiling less feasible if anatomy precludes safe deployment, though not an absolute barrier (Class 3: Harm for unnecessary stenting, Level B-NR evidence).^[12] Active systemic infection is a contraindication due to the risk of procedural complications and endovascular access issues.^[12] Overall, selection involves high-volume centers with expertise to balance these factors against alternatives like clipping.^[13]

Procedure and Technique

Preoperative Preparation

Preoperative preparation for endovascular coiling involves comprehensive diagnostic imaging to precisely characterize the aneurysm and surrounding vasculature, ensuring suitability for the procedure. Computed tomography angiography (CTA), magnetic resonance angiography (MRA), or digital subtraction angiography (DSA) is performed to evaluate aneurysm size, neck width, and parent vessel patency, with DSA serving as the gold standard for detailed preoperative planning.^[13]^[15]^[16] Patient evaluation includes a thorough neurological assessment to establish baseline function, encompassing level of consciousness, motor and sensory status, and cranial nerve examination, alongside blood tests to assess coagulation parameters such as prothrombin time, international normalized ratio, and fibrinogen levels.^[17]^[18] Antiplatelet therapy may be initiated preoperatively, particularly for unruptured aneurysms treated with stent-assisted coiling or other adjunctive devices, to mitigate thromboembolic risks. Typical loading doses include aspirin 325 mg and clopidogrel 300-600 mg, followed by maintenance dosing.^[19]^[20] Anesthesia planning prioritizes general anesthesia for ruptured cases to maintain hemodynamic stability and facilitate controlled ventilation, while unruptured cases may use general or monitored anesthesia care based on patient factors.^[21] The femoral access site is prepared by shaving the groin area and applying sterile draping to minimize infection risk.^[22] A multidisciplinary team, including a neurosurgeon, interventional neuroradiologist, and anesthesiologist, collaborates through consultations to optimize patient selection and procedural strategy.^[13]^[23]

Step-by-Step Process

The endovascular coiling procedure is performed in a neurointerventional suite under fluoroscopic guidance, typically with the patient under general anesthesia to ensure immobility and safety.^[24] The process begins with vascular access through a percutaneous puncture of the common femoral artery in the groin, where a small incision allows insertion of a vascular sheath (usually 5-6 French in size) to facilitate catheter introduction.^[24] A guide catheter (5-7 French) is then advanced over a guidewire through the femoral sheath and navigated transfemorally via the aortic arch to the target vessel—either the internal carotid artery for anterior circulation aneurysms or the vertebral artery for posterior circulation ones—using real-time fluoroscopy and initial diagnostic angiography to confirm positioning.^[25] This access route minimizes invasiveness while providing stable support for subsequent instrumentation.^[26] Once the guide catheter is securely positioned in the parent artery (e.g., proximal internal carotid or vertebral), microcatheter navigation commences to reach the aneurysm. An exchange wire (typically 0.014-inch) is advanced through the guide catheter lumen, followed by a steam-shaped microcatheter (1.7-2.3 French, such as an Excelsior SL-10) loaded over the wire to traverse the cerebral vasculature precisely toward the aneurysm dome.^[24] Roadmap guidance, a fluoroscopic technique overlaying live images with pre-acquired digital subtraction angiography (DSA) masks, enables accurate steering around vessel curves and into the aneurysm neck, often using biplane fluoroscopy for multi-angle visualization to avoid perforation or migration.^[25] The microcatheter tip is positioned at or just inside the aneurysm sac, with heparinized saline flushes maintaining patency and preventing thromboembolism throughout.^[27] Coil deployment follows, involving the sequential release of detachable platinum coils to achieve dense packing within the aneurysm. The initial coil, often a three-dimensional (3D) framing coil slightly larger than the aneurysm fundus (e.g., 7-mm for a 6-7 mm sac), is advanced through the microcatheter and deployed to form a stable basket against the aneurysm wall, confirmed by intermittent DSA injections.^[24] Subsequent two-dimensional (2D) filling and finishing coils are introduced in a helical fashion to achieve a high packing density (typically >20-30%) within the aneurysm, promoting thrombosis while preserving parent vessel patency; coils are detachable via electrolytic or mechanical mechanisms, allowing repositioning if needed before final release.^[25] For wide-neck aneurysms (neck >4 mm or dome-to-neck ratio <2:1), adjunctive techniques are employed: balloon-assisted coiling involves temporary inflation of a compliant balloon (e.g., Hyperform) across the neck during deployment to prevent coil herniation, while stent-assisted coiling uses self-expanding stents (e.g., Neuroform or Enterprise) deployed in the parent artery to scaffold the neck and secure coils.^[24] Packing density is optimized iteratively, with 5-20 coils typically used depending on aneurysm size, until contrast stasis is observed.^[27] Final confirmation of occlusion is achieved through post-deployment DSA, where multiple projections assess aneurysm filling and coil stability. The Raymond-Roy occlusion scale is applied to grade the result: Class 1 (complete occlusion with no contrast entry) is the ideal outcome, indicating full exclusion from circulation; Class 2 shows a residual neck remnant, and Class 3 denotes persistent aneurysm filling.^[25] If suboptimal, additional coils may be added, or the procedure adjusted; otherwise, the microcatheter and guide catheter are withdrawn, and hemostasis at the access site is secured with manual compression or closure devices.^[1] The entire process typically lasts 1-3 hours, with immediate post-procedure angiography ensuring no immediate complications.^[26]

Postprocedural Care

Following endovascular coiling, patients undergo immediate postprocedural monitoring to detect any early complications. For those with ruptured aneurysms, admission to the intensive care unit (ICU) for 24-48 hours is standard, involving frequent neurological assessments every 15-30 minutes initially, along with continuous monitoring of vital signs, such as blood pressure and heart rate, to ensure hemodynamic stability.^[28]^[29] In cases of unruptured aneurysms, patients are typically observed in a recovery room or step-down unit for 12-24 hours with similar but less intensive checks on neurological status and the femoral access site to prevent hematoma formation.^[29] Antiplatelet therapy is continued or initiated post-procedure to mitigate thromboembolic risks, particularly when stents or flow diverters are deployed. Dual antiplatelet regimen, commonly aspirin (81-325 mg daily) combined with clopidogrel (75 mg daily), is recommended for 3-6 months to prevent in-stent thrombosis, after which monotherapy may suffice if no events occur.^[30] For simple coiling without adjunctive devices, antiplatelet use is often limited or avoided unless periprocedural events necessitate it.^[31] Follow-up imaging is essential to evaluate coil stability and detect recanalization. Digital subtraction angiography (DSA) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)/angiography is typically performed at 6 months, 1 year, and then annually, with more frequent assessments for high-risk aneurysms such as wide-neck or large lesions.^[32]^[33] Discharge occurs once neurological status is stable, generally within 1-3 days for unruptured aneurysms and 10-21 days or longer for ruptured cases, depending on subarachnoid hemorrhage severity and recovery progress.^[29]^[34] Patients receive education on recognizing symptoms of rebleeding or complications, such as sudden headache, neurological deficits, or fever, and are advised to avoid strenuous activities for several weeks.^[29]

Mechanism of Action

Coil Deployment and Thrombosis

Endovascular coils are typically constructed from soft, biocompatible platinum wires that are radiopaque for fluoroscopic visualization during deployment. These coils have a secondary coil diameter ranging from 0.010 to 0.015 inches, allowing them to be delivered through microcatheters while maintaining flexibility to conform closely to the irregular contours of the aneurysm sac.^[35] The softness of the platinum alloy, achieved through precise wire sizing and coiling configurations, enables the device to pack densely without exerting excessive force on the fragile aneurysm wall.^[35] Upon deployment within the aneurysm, the coils serve as a foreign surface that disrupts normal blood flow and initiates thrombosis by providing an expansive scaffold for platelet adhesion and activation. This increased surface area promotes the accumulation of clotting factors, leading to rapid fibrin formation and the trapping of red blood cells, with initial thrombus development often observable within minutes of placement.^[10] The thrombogenic effect is enhanced by the coils' microirregularities, which mimic damaged endothelium and trigger the coagulation cascade, resulting in a stable clot that anchors subsequent coil additions during the procedure.^[10] As coiling progresses, the partial filling of the aneurysm evolves into more complete occlusion over several days, with blood stasis promoting further thrombus organization and fibrosis. This volumetric reduction in the patent lumen decreases intra-aneurysmal pressure and effectively lowers wall stress, as described by Laplace's law (\sigma = \frac{P \cdot r}{h}, where \sigma is wall stress, P is pressure, r is radius, and h is wall thickness), thereby stabilizing the aneurysm structure against rupture.^[36] The thrombus matures into a fibrotic mass, achieving near-complete stasis and reducing the risk of recanalization in densely packed aneurysms.^[37] To accelerate this thrombotic process, adjunctive bioactive coils such as the Matrix system, coated with a bioabsorbable polymer of polyglycolic acid and polylactide, elicit an enhanced inflammatory response that promotes faster organization of the thrombus. In experimental models, Matrix coils resulted in 87% organized thrombus coverage at 14 days post-embolization, compared to 75% with standard platinum coils, alongside thicker neointimal formation (0.29 mm vs. 0.13 mm).^[38] This accelerated healing reduces aneurysm volume by up to 18% within three months, supporting more durable occlusion without increasing procedural risks.^[38] However, subsequent clinical trials have shown no significant difference in long-term occlusion rates or recanalization compared to standard platinum coils.^[39]

Hemodynamic Effects

Endovascular coiling alters the hemodynamics within and around cerebral aneurysms by introducing coils that disrupt pathological blood flow patterns, primarily through flow diversion mechanisms that reduce intra-aneurysmal velocities and promote stasis conducive to thrombosis. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models demonstrate that dense coil packing, particularly at packing densities near 30%, can reduce maximum intra-aneurysmal velocities by approximately 65-70%, thereby minimizing oscillatory flow and enhancing laminar flow in the parent vessel.^[40] This velocity attenuation, observed in patient-specific simulations of middle cerebral artery aneurysms, limits blood circulation within the aneurysm sac, with sac-averaged velocities dropping to as low as 13% of pre-treatment levels when finishing coils are densely packed at the neck.^[41] The deployment of coils also significantly lowers wall shear stress (WSS) on the aneurysm dome, which is associated with decreased tensile forces and a reduced risk of rupture. In CFD analyses of internal carotid artery aneurysms, coiling reduces mean WSS by up to 20%, particularly in regions prone to high shear, while increasing areas of low WSS that favor endothelial remodeling and clot stabilization.^[42] For bifurcation aneurysms, larger coil diameters further expand low WSS regions to over 80% of the aneurysm surface, diminishing oscillatory shear index values and mitigating hemodynamic factors linked to aneurysm instability.^[43] Integration of flow-diverting stents, such as the Pipeline Embolization Device, with coiling enhances these effects by redirecting flow away from the aneurysm neck, providing 30-50% metallic coverage that stabilizes coil positioning and further attenuates inflow.^[44] In combined treatments, this adjunctive stenting reduces intra-aneurysmal flow velocities and WSS more effectively than coiling alone, promoting progressive aneurysm occlusion over 6-12 months through sustained flow diversion.^[45] Physiologically, coiling prevents high-velocity jet flow into the aneurysm sac, fostering blood stagnation and thrombosis while preserving overall parent artery patency; however, in cases involving adjacent branches, improper management can lead to branch vessel occlusion due to altered shear dynamics and potential thrombus propagation.^[44]

Risks and Complications

Intraoperative Risks

One of the primary intraoperative risks in endovascular coiling is thromboembolism, which arises from coil-induced clot formation or migration within the cerebral vasculature. This complication occurs in approximately 10.4% of procedures, with higher rates associated with factors such as female sex and middle cerebral artery aneurysm location.^[46] Symptomatic thromboembolic events, including ischemic strokes, are reported in 2-15% of cases within 24 hours post-procedure.^[47] Management typically involves prompt administration of intra-arterial tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) or glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors, such as abciximab or tirofiban, to dissolve clots and restore perfusion; mechanical thrombectomy may be employed in refractory cases.^[47] Vessel perforation represents another critical risk, often resulting from microcatheter tip rupture or guidewire advancement through delicate arterial walls. The incidence is low, at about 0.87-2%, but can lead to immediate contrast extravasation and potential hemorrhage.^[48] In such events, rapid intervention is essential, including inflation of a compliant balloon for proximal vessel occlusion to control bleeding and administration of protamine sulfate to reverse heparin anticoagulation.^[47] Additional coiling or liquid embolic agents may be deployed to seal the perforation site, with conservative monitoring for smaller extravasations.^[48] Aneurysm rupture during coil deployment, known as intraprocedural rupture (IPR), poses a severe risk, with an incidence of 1-5% overall and up to 5% in previously ruptured aneurysms.^[47] This can precipitate acute subarachnoid hemorrhage, characterized by sudden contrast extravasation on angiography. Protocols for mitigation include immediate heparin reversal with protamine, induction of controlled hypotension to reduce intraluminal pressure, and temporary balloon inflation across the aneurysm neck to achieve hemostasis.^[47] In severe cases, external ventricular drainage may be required to manage hydrocephalus, though outcomes depend on rapid recognition and the patient's baseline status.^[49] Radiation exposure from prolonged fluoroscopy is an inherent intraoperative concern, with average skin doses ranging from 2-4 Gy in coiling procedures. To minimize this risk, adherence to the ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable) principle is standard, incorporating techniques such as collimation to limit the beam field, pulsed fluoroscopy modes to reduce frame rates, and real-time dose monitoring to avoid deterministic effects like skin erythema.^[50] These measures are particularly vital in complex cases requiring extended procedural times.

Long-Term Complications

One of the primary long-term complications following endovascular coiling is aneurysm recanalization, often due to coil compaction or progressive thrombosis instability, which can lead to aneurysm regrowth. Studies indicate that recanalization occurs in approximately 10-20% of cases within the first year post-procedure, with retreatment required in 5-10% of patients to prevent rebleeding or further expansion.^[51] Risk factors include larger aneurysm size, incomplete initial occlusion, and ruptured aneurysms, necessitating serial angiographic follow-up to detect early changes.^[52] Delayed ischemic stroke is another concern, particularly in cases involving stent-assisted coiling, where in-stent stenosis can narrow the parent vessel and impair blood flow. The incidence of significant in-stent stenosis leading to ischemic events is estimated at 2-5%, often presenting months to years after the procedure.^[53] These events are typically monitored using diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (DWI-MRI) to identify subclinical infarcts, with antiplatelet therapy adjustments or angioplasty considered for symptomatic progression.^[54] In patients with ruptured aneurysms treated by coiling, hydrocephalus and cerebral vasospasm represent substantial delayed risks, arising from subarachnoid blood resorption issues or inflammatory responses. Hydrocephalus develops in up to 30% of cases, potentially requiring ventriculostomy for cerebrospinal fluid diversion to alleviate intracranial pressure.^[55] Vasospasm, occurring in 20-30% of ruptured cases, can cause delayed ischemia and is managed with calcium channel blockers like nimodipine to improve outcomes.^[56] Coil migration or protrusion into the parent artery is a rare but serious long-term issue, with an incidence of about 1%, potentially resulting in vessel occlusion or thromboembolism.^[57] Such events may manifest as sudden neurological deficits and are addressed through endovascular retrieval techniques to restore patency and prevent infarction.

Outcomes and Efficacy

Short-Term Results

Endovascular coiling achieves high rates of immediate aneurysm occlusion, with adequate occlusion (complete or neck remnant) reported in 90-95% of cases immediately post-procedure across multiple prospective studies.^[58]^[59] In the landmark International Subarachnoid Aneurysm Trial (ISAT), complete occlusion was observed in approximately 66% of coiled ruptured aneurysms, though adequate occlusion rates were higher when including neck remnants.^[60] Short-term morbidity and mortality rates following coiling are generally favorable compared to surgical clipping. For unruptured aneurysms, 30-day combined morbidity and mortality rates range from 2.8% to 5%, significantly lower than the approximately 10% associated with clipping in comparative studies.^[61]^[62]^[63] For ruptured aneurysms, these rates are higher at 10-15%, yet still outperform clipping's 20-30% 30-day dependency or death risk as demonstrated in ISAT's early follow-up data.^[61]^[64] Early recovery benchmarks show approximately 70% of patients with ruptured aneurysms treated by coiling achieving a modified Rankin Scale (mRS) score of ≤2 at 3 months post-procedure.^[65] This improvement is assessed via clinical scales like mRS, reflecting reduced disability from subarachnoid hemorrhage-related deficits. Factors influencing short-term success include operator experience and aneurysm morphology, with aneurysms smaller than 10 mm associated with better immediate occlusion and lower complication rates due to easier coil deployment and reduced procedural complexity.^[59]^[66] High-volume operators achieve superior outcomes, minimizing technical errors and optimizing hemodynamic stability during the procedure.

Long-Term Follow-Up

Long-term follow-up studies indicate that aneurysm recurrence after endovascular coiling occurs in approximately 20-30% of cases over 5 years, with meta-analyses reporting an overall rate of 20.8% across various cohorts.^[67] Recent 2024 meta-analyses report recurrence rates as low as 15% with modern bioactive coils and stents, improving long-term durability.^[68] The use of adjunctive stents significantly reduces this risk, with recurrence rates dropping to 10-15% compared to 25-30% for coiling alone, as evidenced by comparative analyses of stent-assisted versus standard coiling procedures.^[69] Factors such as aneurysm size, location, and initial occlusion completeness contribute to these rates, with larger or wide-necked aneurysms showing higher recurrence propensity.^[67] Survival rates following coiling of ruptured aneurysms remain favorable, with approximately 83% of patients alive at 10 years, outperforming clipping in long-term durability assessments from the International Subarachnoid Aneurysm Trial (ISAT).^[70] For incompletely occluded aneurysms, the annual rebleed risk is estimated at 1-2%, substantially higher than the 0.1-0.3% annual risk for completely occluded cases, underscoring the need for vigilant monitoring to mitigate late hemorrhage.^[71] Overall, the cumulative rebleed risk from the target aneurysm at 18 years in the ISAT coiling cohort was 2.16%, reflecting sustained but not absolute protection against recurrent subarachnoid hemorrhage.^[70] Quality-of-life outcomes favor endovascular coiling over surgical clipping in extended follow-up, with the ISAT data at 10 years (from the 18-year follow-up study) showing 82% of coiled patients achieving independence (modified Rankin Scale 0-2) compared to 78% in the clipping group, translating to an 18% dependency rate in coiling versus higher in clipping.^[70] This benefit includes improved cognitive function and reduced neurological deficits, contributing to higher quality-adjusted life years (6.68 versus 6.32 at 10 years).^[72] Patients report better overall functional status, with coiling associated with lower rates of severe disability over decades.^[70] Surveillance protocols for coiled aneurysms emphasize periodic imaging to detect recurrence early, typically starting with angiography or magnetic resonance angiography at 6 months post-procedure, followed by annual evaluations for high-risk cases such as those with residual filling or incomplete occlusion.^[13] If stability is confirmed over 1-2 years, imaging frequency tapers to every 3-5 years, balancing detection of late changes against radiation exposure and procedural risks.^[32] Guidelines recommend tailoring follow-up based on aneurysm characteristics, with lifelong monitoring advised for unstable or high-risk features to ensure long-term efficacy.^[73]

Historical Development

Early Techniques

The early development of endovascular techniques for treating intracranial aneurysms in the 1970s focused primarily on balloon occlusion methods, which preceded the advent of coiling. In 1974, Fedor A. Serbinenko reported the first systematic use of detachable latex balloons delivered via catheter to occlude aneurysm sacs while preserving parent artery patency, based on his treatment of over 300 patients.^[4] These permanent balloons were inflated within the aneurysm to induce thrombosis, achieving high rates of immediate occlusion in suitable cases. However, the technique carried substantial risks, including balloon deflation, migration, or rupture, which led to aneurysm recanalization and ischemic complications in up to 11% of cases.^[4] Preceding systematic balloon use, early experimental efforts included Luessenhop and Velasquez's 1964 report of temporary balloon occlusion of an aneurysm neck using a balloon-tipped catheter.^[74] Building on Serbinenko's work, Gerard M. Debrun advanced balloon technology in the mid-1970s by developing a coaxial microcatheter system with tied, detachable latex balloons, enabling more precise positioning and inflation for treating giant aneurysms and carotid-cavernous fistulas.^[75] Debrun's innovations allowed for selective aneurysm filling without routine parent vessel sacrifice, improving safety in select anatomies like the cavernous carotid. Despite these refinements, permanent balloon implantation often resulted in incomplete occlusion or delayed ischemia due to balloon degradation or inadequate aneurysm conformance, limiting widespread adoption.^[4] Initial attempts at coil embolization emerged in the late 1980s as an alternative to balloons, addressing their controllability issues. In 1988, S.K. Hilal reported the first use of nondetachable, pushable platinum coils for endosaccular packing in intracranial aneurysms, deployed via microcatheters like the POD system, aiming to promote thrombosis through dense metal packing, though their non-retrievable nature frequently caused incomplete occlusion or embolization into the parent vessel.^[76]^[4] During the 1980s, temporary balloon techniques were explored to facilitate safer embolization by temporarily protecting the aneurysm neck and parent vessel, as investigated in early reports by various researchers.^[74] However, these methods were largely abandoned due to high rates of perforation, stemming from balloon instability and vessel trauma during inflation.^[4] Early human applications of coil packing appeared in reports from the late 1980s, including Hilal's 1988 work, with case reports from 1989 to 1990 extending to peripheral aneurysms such as those in the cavernous carotid or vertebral systems, where nondetachable coils achieved partial thrombosis but were constrained by migration and packing density limitations.^[76] These pioneering efforts laid the groundwork for subsequent refinements, including the evolution toward detachable coil systems in the early 1990s.^[4]

Key Technological Advances

The development of detachable coils in the 1990s marked a pivotal advancement in endovascular coiling, enabling safer and more precise aneurysm treatment. The Guglielmi Detachable Coil (GDC) system, invented by Guido Guglielmi and first used clinically in 1990, introduced electrolytically detachable platinum coils that could be precisely positioned within the aneurysm sac and retrieved if necessary before deployment, significantly reducing procedural risks compared to earlier pushable coils.^[77] The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the GDC system in 1995 specifically for surgically high-risk intracranial aneurysms, facilitating its widespread adoption and transforming coiling from an experimental technique into a standard option.^[78] In the early 2000s, adjunctive techniques expanded the applicability of coiling to complex aneurysms with wide necks. Balloon-assisted coiling, first described by Jacques Moret and colleagues in 1997 as the "remodeling technique," involved temporary balloon inflation across the aneurysm neck to protect the parent artery and maintain coil stability during deployment, allowing treatment of geometries previously unsuitable for standard coiling.^[79] Similarly, stent-supported coiling emerged with the FDA's Humanitarian Device Exemption approval of the original Neuroform Microdelivery Stent System in 2002, which provided a scaffold to prevent coil herniation into the parent vessel and promote long-term aneurysm occlusion in wide-neck cases.^[80] Material innovations further enhanced coil performance and biological response. Three-dimensional (3D) coils, introduced with the 3D-GDC variant around 2000, featured a helical design that improved initial framework stability and packing density within irregular aneurysm shapes, achieving up to 20-30% higher volumetric filling compared to two-dimensional coils in select cases.^[81] Bioactive coatings advanced thrombosis promotion, as exemplified by the Matrix detachable coil system from Boston Scientific, launched in 2002 and featuring a polyglycolic/polylactic acid (PGLA) coating that biodegraded to stimulate faster endothelialization and tissue ingrowth, potentially reducing recanalization rates in animal models.^[82] These technological strides were validated by landmark clinical evidence, particularly the International Subarachnoid Aneurysm Trial (ISAT), a multicenter randomized controlled trial enrolling patients from 1996 to 2002 with results published in 2002 and extended follow-up through 2005. ISAT demonstrated that endovascular coiling reduced the relative risk of death or dependency at one year by 22.6% (absolute risk reduction 6.9%) compared to surgical clipping in ruptured anterior circulation aneurysms suitable for either approach, influencing global guidelines to favor coiling as first-line therapy for eligible cases.^[83]

Current Research and Future Directions

Ongoing Clinical Trials

Several clinical trials have evaluated the safety, efficacy, and long-term outcomes of endovascular coiling for intracranial aneurysms, with some follow-up continuing as of 2025.^[84] The ATLAS trial (NCT02340585), a prospective multicenter single-arm study initiated in 2015, evaluated stent-assisted coiling using the Neuroform Atlas stent for unruptured wide-neck intracranial aneurysms, including posterior circulation lesions. The trial, completed in 2019, reported 12-month complete occlusion rates of 76.7% and major ipsilateral stroke in 4.3% of cases.^[85]^[86] The LVIS™ Evo™ and HydroCoil® Embolic System trial (NCT04999423), initiated in 2021, assesses bioactive hydrogel-coated coils in stent-assisted procedures for ruptured and unruptured aneurysms, with primary endpoint of recanalization rates below 10% at 2 years. As of November 2025, the trial is active but not recruiting, with primary completion estimated for March 2025 and study completion in December 2026.^[87] A 2024 systematic review and meta-analysis of endovascular therapy for unruptured saccular intracranial aneurysms, including data from 21,331 patients across studies from 2000–2022, reported acceptable rates of complete occlusion, particularly with balloon-assisted coiling.^[68] The International Post-Market Surveillance Study of Intracranial Aneurysms Treated With an Endovascular Approach (IMPACT; NCT04572230), ongoing as of 2025, monitors long-term outcomes of coiling and other endovascular treatments in real-world settings.^[88]

Emerging Innovations

Recent advancements in endovascular coiling include bioabsorbable coils utilizing materials such as polyglycolic acid/polylactide (PGA/PLGA) polymers coated on platinum to provide temporary scaffolding within aneurysms. These coils degrade over time, potentially promoting tissue healing while minimizing long-term imaging artifacts. Reviews as of 2024 indicate feasibility and enhanced biological integration, though long-term recurrence rates are similar to non-degradable coils (15–37%).^[89]^[90] Computer-assisted and artificial intelligence (AI)-based tools for microcatheter shaping and navigation are under investigation to improve precision during coiling procedures. These systems analyze vascular anatomy from imaging to guide placement, with studies reporting procedure time reductions of 20–30% for microcatheter positioning and potential decreases in operator radiation exposure.^[91]^[92]^[93] Nanosurface coatings on neurovascular devices, such as heparin or hydrophilic layers on stents and retrievers, are under preclinical investigation to reduce thrombosis risks. These modifications improve hemocompatibility by inhibiting platelet adhesion, with 2024 studies showing reduced clot formation and embolic events in animal models compared to uncoated controls. Such coatings could expand applicability to coils and high-risk patients.^[94] Hybrid approaches integrating endovascular coiling with clip-assisted surgical techniques are reported for complex aneurysms, particularly those with wide necks. Reports from 2023–2024 describe combined procedures where temporary clipping stabilizes the aneurysm during coil deployment, achieving higher occlusion rates in challenging cases at select centers.^[95]^[96]

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The incidence of subarachnoid hemorrhage in the United States is between 10 to 14 out of 100,000 individuals per year. Although presentations may vary, the ...
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Embolic Agents: Coils - PMC - NIH
General Coil Technology. Coils offer permeant embolization when deployed by inducing thrombosis and complete occlusion of the target vessel. This is primarily ...
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Anterior Communicating Artery Aneurysms: Anatomical ... - NIH
Sep 8, 2020 · It usually originates from the posteroinferior region of the AcoA, has a diameter of 0.1–0.2 mm, and provides blood supply to the optic nerve ...Missing: suitability | Show results with:suitability
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Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Unruptured ...
Jun 18, 2015 · Evidence-based guidelines are presented for the care of patients presenting with unruptured intracranial aneurysms. The guidelines address ...
[13]
Difficult Aneurysms for Endovascular Treatment: Overwide or ... - NIH
Coiling with adjunctive techniques is favored for aneurysms with dome-to-neck ratios <1.2 as well as aspect ratios <1.2. For aneurysms with dome-to-neck ratios ...
[14]
Brain (Cerebral) Aneurysm Imaging - Medscape Reference
Nov 11, 2023 · Cerebral angiography remains the definitive preoperative diagnostic tool in patients with intracranial aneurysms (see the images below).
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Preoperative Assessment of Adult Patients for Intracranial Surgery
A neurological history is mandatory and should include the type and location of the lesion, symptoms, and medications related to the neurological problem, as ...
[17]
Basic Endovascular Technique for Aneurysm Coiling - SpringerLink
Sep 28, 2018 · The main important laboratory tests are coagulation state and renal function study. ... before starting coiling (50–70 units/Kg). Some ...
[18]
Safety and Efficacy of a 600-mg Loading Dose of Clopidogrel 24 ...
A 600-mg loading dose of clopidogrel should be safe and efficacious in those off the standard protocol or showing <30% platelet inhibition before treatment.
[19]
Loading doses of aspirin and clopidogrel prior to Enterprise stent ...
Methods: Consecutive patients underwent enterprise stent-assisted repair of aneurysm using loading doses of aspirin 324 mg and clopidogrel 300 mg prior to the ...
[20]
Aneurysm Coiling, Stenting & Flow Diversion - Mayfield Brain & Spine
Other aneurysms, described as wide-necked or fusiform in shape, do not have a defined neck. Placing coils into these aneurysms may be complicated and require ...What Is Aneurysm... · What Happens During The... · What Happens After The...
[21]
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It is more likely to be done if the aneurysm has a very wide 'neck' (where the aneurysm meets the artery) that could otherwise allow the coils to escape.
[22]
Multidisciplinary management of intracranial aneurysms
In recent years, the multidisciplinary approach has become an important concern for the management of intracranial aneurysms.
[23]
Intracranial Aneurysms: Review of Current Treatment Options and ...
Jul 8, 2011 · The following is an overview of the key steps of the coil embolization procedure. The procedure can be performed under general anesthesia or ...<|control11|><|separator|>
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Coil Embolization for Intracranial Aneurysms - PubMed Central - NIH
Endovascular coil embolization is a percutaneous approach to treat an intracranial aneurysm from within the blood vessel without the need of a craniotomy.
[25]
Endovascular Aneurysm Treatment Procedure - NYC
Endovascular aneurysm treatment is a method of blocking or repairing cerebral aneurysms; doctors perform this surgery from inside a patient's blood vessels.
[26]
Endovascular Treatment of Very Small (3 mm or Smaller ...
Nov 19, 2009 · Another step of the procedure when intraprocedural perforation/rupture can occur is the coiling itself. Because of the very small size, there is ...
[27]
Postoperative ICU management of patients after subarachnoid ... - NIH
After initial treatment with endovascular coiling or direct surgical clipping, patients are typically managed in the ICU. Cerebral vasospasm and delayed ...
[28]
Endovascular Coiling | Johns Hopkins Medicine
You will be asked to remove any clothing, jewelry, hairpins, dentures, or other objects that may interfere with the procedure. You will be given a hospital gown ...
[29]
Optimal duration of dual antiplatelet therapy for stent-assisted coiling ...
1 Antiplatelet therapy is necessary to prevent these complications, even with simple coiling.2 With recent advancements in neuroendovascular technology, the use ...Methods · Complications And Outcomes · Results
[30]
Effect of Antiplatelet Therapy for Endovascular Coiling in ...
Apr 23, 2009 · The results of this study do not support the assumption that antiplatelets during or after endovascular coiling improve outcome in patients with SAH.
[31]
Cerebral Aneurysm Follow-Up: How Standards Have Changed and ...
A perspective on the optimal follow-up frequency and imaging modality type for treated cerebral aneurysms.
[32]
Imaging Follow-Up of Intracranial Aneurysms Treated by ...
Mar 29, 2016 · Typically, the first follow-up after EVT is scheduled 3 to 6 months after the procedure with further follow-up tests in varying intervals ...
[33]
Ruptured Aneurysm Recovery Time After a Coiling Procedure
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[34]
Coils in a Nutshell: A Review of Coil Physical Properties - PMC
However, many manufacturers now produce coils with D2, at several steps between 0.010 and 0.015 inch, including 0.012-inch (Cordis, Miami Lakes, Fla) and 0.014 ...
[35]
Changes of Intra-Aneurysmal Pressure during Coiling - PMC - NIH
For elastic material Laplace's law defines the relationship between wall tension (eg, in a balloon), internal fluid pressure, and radius or volume. That is, ...
[36]
Modeling the Mechanical Microenvironment of Coiled Cerebral ...
The results of this study suggest that coil embolization triggers clot formation within the aneurysm dome via a low shear stress-mediated pathway. This ...
[37]
Matrix and Bioabsorbable Polymeric Coils Accelerate Healing of ...
At 14 days after embolization, the aneurysms treated with Matrix coils exhibited a more extensive area of organized thrombus when compared with the aneurysms ...
[38]
How Do Coil Configuration and Packing Density Influence Intra ...
Nov 1, 2011 · For high packing densities (near 30%), the coils induced a maximum velocity reduction of approximately 70% for case 1, 65% for case 2, and ...
[39]
Hemodynamic Effect of the Last Finishing Coils in Packing the ...
Conclusion: Finishing coils to densely pack the aneurysm neck can generate favorable hemodynamic modifications, which may decrease the recurrence. Introduction.<|control11|><|separator|>
[40]
Effects of coiling embolism on blood hemodynamic of the MCA ...
Dec 20, 2022 · Achieved results confirm that the coiling gel substantially decreases the blood circulation inside the aneurysm sac.
[41]
Reduction of rupture risk in ICA aneurysms by endovascular ...
May 3, 2023 · Obtained results specifies that the mean WSS is reduced up to 20% via coiling of the aneurysm while the deformation of the aneurysm (applying ...
[42]
Hemodynamic study on the therapeutic effects of varying diameter ...
Jan 28, 2024 · Larger coil diameters have improved hemodynamic performance for bifurcation aneurysms. However, coil diameter and embolization effectiveness ...
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Flow Diversion for Intracranial Aneurysm Management - NIH
Flow-diverting stents (FDS) have revolutionized the treatment of such aneurysms. FDS are implanted within the parent artery rather than the aneurysm sac.Mechanism Of Action And Flow... · Periprocedural And... · Delayed Aneurysmal Rupture
[44]
Hemodynamic Effect of Flow Diverter and Coils in Treatment of ...
On the basis of the CFD method, adjunctive coiling with the Tubridge FD placement may significantly reduce intra-aneurysmal flow velocity and WSS, promoting ...
[45]
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1878875016001674
[46]
Complications of endovascular treatment for intracranial aneurysms
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[47]
Vascular Perforation During Coil Embolization of an Intracranial ...
The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the incidence of vascular perforation during endovascular coil embolization of a cerebral aneurysm, and to ...
[48]
Risk factors and management of intraprocedural rupture during coil ...
Jan 16, 2024 · We evaluated the risk factors and management strategies for IPR, particularly the role of balloon guiding catheters (BGCs) in rapid hemostasis.
[49]
Radiation dose and fluoroscopy time of modern endovascular ...
Mar 19, 2020 · Radiation dose was not significantly different between the endovascular procedures. However, radiation dose was comparably low in simple coiling ...
[50]
The impact of regular aspirin use on aneurysm recanalization rates ...
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[51]
Recanalization Rates after Endovascular Coil Embolization in ... - NIH
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[52]
In-stent Stenosis After Stent-Assisted Coiling: Incidence, Predictors ...
The stenosis was mild (< 50%) in 8 patients (1.8%), moderate (50-75%) in 2 patients (0.5%), and severe (> 75%) in 1 patient (0.2%). No patients were symptomatic ...Missing: endovascular | Show results with:endovascular<|separator|>
[53]
Long-Term Risk Factors for Intracranial In-Stent Restenosis From a ...
... endovascular treatment has been shown to be feasible and safe in recent studies. However, in-stent restenosis (ISR) risks the recurrence of ischemic stroke.
[54]
Risk of Shunt Dependent Hydrocephalus after Treatment of ... - NIH
Overall rate of SDHC for all patients was 19.7% (145/736). Most factors, such as age, H-H grade, IVH, and FG were similar between the two groups. On the other ...
[55]
Outcomes of Ruptured Intracranial Aneurysms Treated by ...
Vasospasm rate was significantly higher in the clipping group (66% vs 52%). The immediate incomplete occlusion rate of aneurysms was higher (21.7% vs 7.6%) in ...
[56]
Coil migration during or after endovascular coiling of cerebral ...
Results: Eighteen cases of coil migration met our study criteria with an occurrence of 0.3% (18/6071 cases) (procedural migration: 55%, delayed migration: 45%).
[57]
results of the TRAIL multicenter observational study
The total aneurysm occlusion rate was 91.0% on immediate post-procedure angiograms, which remained unchanged at 6-month follow-up and was 92.4% at 18-month ...
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Immediate post-operative aneurysm occlusion after endovascular ...
Dec 21, 2020 · Conclusions: Immediately after aneurysm coiling, including BAC, adequate aneurysm occlusion was obtained in 92.2%. Age <70 years, aneurysm size ...
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A decade after International Subarachnoid Aneurysm Trial - NIH
The ISAT revealed a complete occlusion rate of 66% (584 of 988) in the coiled patients, whereas other case series of ruptured coiled aneurysms revealed ...
[60]
Periprocedural Morbidity and Mortality Associated with ... - NIH
Combined procedure-related morbidity and mortality rates for ruptured, unruptured, and re-treated aneurysms were 13.5%, 2.8%, and 10%, respectively.
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Immediate Clinical Outcome of Patients Harboring Unruptured ...
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https://www.ahajournals.org/doi/10.1161/strokeaha.107.512756
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Outcomes of Ruptured Intracranial Aneurysms Treated by ... - NIH
Conclusion. The results of treatment of aneurysmal SAH have improved compared with previous reports; 69% of patients recovered to mRS of 0 to 2 at 3 months. ...
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Small Number of Coils With Extended Length in the Endovascular ...
Aneurysm size, location, patient's medical history, and operator's experience are important factors to consider when performing endovascular treatment [1, 2].
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Review of 2 Decades of Aneurysm-Recurrence Literature, Part 2 - NIH
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Meta-analysis of stent-assisted coiling versus coiling-only ... - PubMed
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https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7964895/
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Late Adverse Events in Coiled Ruptured Aneurysms with Incomplete ...
On the other hand, patients with aneurysms that are incompletely occluded at 6 months are at risk for late rebleeding. ... coiling or an annual risk of 0.1%.
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Survival, Dependency, and Health-Related Quality of Life in Patients ...
HRQoL after treatment of a ruptured intracranial aneurysm was better after endovascular coiling compared to neurosurgical clipping.
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Imaging follow-up strategy after endovascular treatment of ... - NIH
The initial follow-up is recommended within 3–6 months after EVT. This initial follow-up is considered crucial because the first year post-EVT is associated ...
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A historical review of the work of Dr Gerard Debrun - PMC - NIH
In the 1970s, Dr Gerard Debrun of Hôpital Universitaire Henri-Mondor in Paris began the development of a detachable latex balloon catheter (DBC) technique for ...
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Mar 13, 2009 · At first, the detachable coils were named GEMs (Guglielmi Electrolytic Microcoils; Fig. 7), but they were eventually named GDCs (Boston ...
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Evolution of endovascular therapy for aneurysm treatment
5,32,38 The article on balloon catheteri- zation and occlusion published by Serbinenko42 in 1974 detailed an influential advancement that became a con-.
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Celebrating 25 years of the Guglielmi Detachable Coil - NeuroNews
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an alternative therapy for surgically high-risk aneurysms - PubMed
In September 1995, the Guglielmi Detachable Coil (GDC) system received approval from the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treatment of surgically high- ...Missing: history | Show results with:history
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The remodeling technique of balloon-assisted Guglielmi detachable ...
This technique was first described by Jacques Moret and called the remodeling technique. In 1997 Moret, et al., published the only large series of ...
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[PDF] Neuroform Microdelivery Stent System - H020002
Sep 11, 2002 · Date of Panel Recommendation: Not applicable. Date of Good Manufacturing Practices Inspection: August 12, 2002. Date of Notice to the Applicant:.
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Use of Three-dimensional Guglielmi Detachable Coils in the ...
A three-dimensional Guglielmi detachable coil (3D-GDC) has been developed that is designed specifically to bridge the neck of an aneurysm with coil loops.Missing: introduction | Show results with:introduction
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Update on Currently Available Bioactive Coils - Endovascular Today
Created with Sketch. The introduction of Guglielmi Detachable Coils (GDC ... Coils coated with several other materials have been tested in animal models ...
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https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/cdrh_docs/pdf2/h020002b.pdf
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Pivotal trial of the Neuroform Atlas stent for treatment of posterior ...
The ATLAS trial is a prospective, multicenter, single-arm, open-label study of unruptured, wide-necked, IAs treated with the Atlas stent and adjunctive coiling.
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NCT04999423 | LVIS™ Evo™ and HydroCoil® Embolic System for ...
This is a prospective multicenter international single-arm observational study to demonstrate that use of stent-assisted coiling with LVIS™ Evo™ and ...
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Study Details | MAPS Trial: Matrix And Platinum Science
Primary Objectives: To establish Target Aneurysm Recurrence (TAR) rates for Matrix 2® and GDC® Coils used for the treatment of intracranial saccular ...Missing: pediatric | Show results with:pediatric
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Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis of Endovascular Therapy ...
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Emerging and Current Biologics for the Treatment of Intracranial ...
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Single Component Polymers, Polymer Blends ... - Wiley Online Library
Nov 22, 2023 · The current article reviews polymeric materials including blends and composites employed for embolization of intracranial aneurysms.<|separator|>
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Artificial intelligence in the autonomous navigation of endovascular ...
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Artificial Intelligence-Assisted Microcatheter Shaping for Intracranial ...
The AI-assisted microcatheter shaping technology provides a new method to generate the optimal shape for the mandrel and microcatheter during endovascular ...Missing: navigation machine prediction time reduction
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Computer-Assisted Microcatheter Shaping for Intracranial Aneurysm ...
In our study, computer-assisted microcatheter shaping provided faster performance of the microcatheter position when performing aneurysm coiling embolization.
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Combined Microsurgical and Endovascular Intracranial Aneurysm ...
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The future of cerebrovascular neurosurgery: the European perspective
New generations of bypass techniques are being developed to address complex aneurysms requiring revascularization. These advancements include intracranial ...